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Published by the Vanuatu Women’s Centre (VWC), 2011 Post Office Box 1358, Port Vila, Vanuatu vwnc@vanuatu.com.vu Phone: (678) 25764, 24000 Fax: (678) 22478 The Vanuatu National Survey on Women’s Lives and Family Relationships was funded by the Australian Agency for International Development (AusAID).
AusAID funds VWC’s national programs in Vanuatu including VWC, the Branches in Tafea and Torba provinces, CAVAWs and male advocacy and all other core programs.

NZAID funds the VWC Branch in Sanma province and VWC safehouse services.

Page 1 of 249 Page 1 of 246 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS First, acknowledgement and thanks must be given to the women of Vanuatu, who willingly shared their experiences.

Without their valuable time and their trust, the survey and this report would not have been possible.
Many women spoke for the first time about their experiences of violence.

Many people contributed to the design and implementation of the survey, and to the analysis of the findings.
Thank you to all the members of the fieldwork team who carried out the survey, many of whom are members of the Vanuatu Women’s Centre’s network of rural committees against violence against women (CAVAWs); this report is the result of their commitment, sensitivity and hard work, often in very challenging circumstances (Annex 3 lists all fieldwork team members).

Thanks are also due to the male advocates and other men who did the household listing for the survey, thoroughly and in good time.
Several staff from the Vanuatu Women’s Centre (VWC), its Branches and CAVAWs contributed to the design and implementation of the survey.
Special acknowledgement and thanks go to Sonia Wasi (VWC Deputy Coordinator and Research Officer) who managed the research project from the outset: she organised the training of the household listers and fieldwork team; provided leadership, guidance and supervision to all field workers; managed all the logistical arrangements; organised and supervised the data entry; liaised with stakeholders; played a key role in analysing the data; and ensured that many other tasks, too numerous to mention, were done well and on time.
Her calm, professional and dedicated approach made this research possible.
This is VWC’s first research project and Merilyn Tahi (VWC Coordinator) provided leadership to all aspects of the research process; she ensured that the questionnaire was well-adapted to Vanuatu’s cultural context, selected the fieldwork team members, and brought her many years of experience and vast knowledge to the analysis of the survey findings; as a leading human rights defender and long-standing committed activist for women’s rights, she ensured that this research would be a milestone for Vanuatu.
Special thanks go to the Vanuatu National Statistics Office (VNSO) who were partners with VWC in implementing this research.

Guidance and support was provided throughout the process by Simil Johnson, the Vanuatu Government Statistician.

Special thanks are due to Benuel Lenge, who designed the sample, provided guidance on technical issues throughout the research process, trained the household listers, assisted with the transfer of data to SPSS software and contributed to the initial tabulation of data.
Rara Soro also deserves special thanks for his assistance with the data entry; he set up the data screen, trained the data entry processors, helped to supervise the data entry, merged and cleaned the data, and provided on-call advice and guidance over many months.

Kim Robertson assisted by commenting on the draft of this report.
The Fiji Women’s Crisis Centre has been a mentor to VWC over many years; special thanks go to Edwina Kotoisuva (Project Manager and FWCC Deputy Coordinator) who provided guidance, support and insight throughout the project.

VWC recognises and gives special acknowledgment to VWC’s Research Consultant, Dr. Juliet Hunt.
She undertook initial research to identify the most appropriate methodology for the survey, and guided all aspects of the research design, implementation, analysis, and report preparation, including the production of tables and charts.

She went out of her way to ensure that all aspects of the research design, implementation and analysis were based on sound research principles and that the findings would be comparable to other international studies.
VWC would not be able to achieve this research without her dedication.

Page 2 of 249 Page 2 of 246 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT Special acknowledgment is due to the World Health Organisation (WHO), which developed and trialled the methodology used in the Vanuatu survey, and shared all aspects of its methodology, including the questionnaire, ethical guidelines, training materials and quality control procedures and formats.

Dr. Henrica A.F.M.
Dr. Henrica A.F.M.

(Henriette) Jansen (WHO Consultant) and Dr. Claudia Garcia-Moreno (Department of Gender, Women and Health, WHO) were generous with their time and expertise, and provided assistance and answers to queries as VWC progressed through the research process.

Tabulation of data to Excel software and the analysis of statistical significance was done by Louise Helby and Dr. Peter Thomson from the Statistical Advisory and Training Service (STATS).
Dr. Mick O’Neill, STATS Director, provided assistance and advice on a voluntary basis to solve technical and software problems.

Special thanks are due to these consultants for working beyond the call of duty.

During the initial planning stages of the research, representatives from various organisations participated in VWC’s Research Consultative Committee and helped to guide the research, by sharing their experience.
These included Benuel Lenge from VNSO, Edwina Kotoisuva from FWCC, Anna Naupa from AusAID, and representatives from the Department of Women’s Affairs/Ministry of Justice and Social Welfare, the Ministry of Health, Wan Smolbag Theatre, and VWC CAVAWs.

The analysis of the findings and the recommendations in this report are based on a workshop held in January 2011 in Port Vila.
Participants were Merilyn Tahi (VWC Coordinator), Sonia Wasi (Deputy Coordinator and Research Officer), Kathy Bani (Sanma Counselling Centre Project Officer), Fridah Butu (Sanma Counselling Centre Counsellor), Kaloka Wilfred (Tafea Counselling Centre Project Officer), Bertha Misseve (VWC Community Educator), Anna Naupa (AusAID), Edwina Kotoisuva (FWCC Deputy Coordinator), Angelyn Singh (FWCC Research Officer) and Juliet Hunt (VWC Research Consultant and workshop facilitator).
This report was written by Dr. Juliet Hunt, based on the analysis discussed in the workshop.

Page 3 of 249 Page 3 of 246  36 N 1   37  3 2   4 39 Torba Branch  5 6   7 10   11 12   14 13  15 9  8  16 SCC 20   21 17 18    23   22 19 24 40  41 25  26    27  28 29 VWC 30  31   38  32  34 TCC 33  35 Page 4 of 249 Page 4 of 246 1.

Motalava 2.

Kerebeta, West Vanualava 3.

Sola, Vanualava 4.

Mota 5.

Gaua 6.

Bigbay Solwata (Matantas) 7.

Bigbay Bush 8.

South Santo 9.


Sanma Counselling Centre 10.

Nasawa 11.

Gaiovo, North Maewo 12.

Huritahi 13.

North Ambae 14.

East Ambae 15.

Duidui, West Ambae 16.

Walaha 17.

Loltong, North Pentecost 18.

Melsisi, Central Pentecost 19.

Pangi (South Pentecost) 20.

Wala Aelan 21.

Uripiv Aelan, 22.

Lolihor, North Ambrym 23.

Lonhali,North Ambrym 24.

Wawanfonhal 25.

Lamen Aelan, Epi 26.

Burumba, Epi 27.

Tongoa 28.

Emae 29.

Vanuatu Women’s Centre 30.

Dillion’s Bay, Erromango 31.


Port Narvin, Erromango 32.

Midmauk, Tanna 33.

Imaki, Tanna 34.

Tanna Counselling Centre 35.

Aneityum 36.

Torres 37.

Ureparapara 38.

Aniwa 39.

Torba Counselling Centre 40.

Aulua 41.
Lamap ACRONYMS CEDAW AusAID CAVAWs Australian Agency for International Development VWC’s network of rural Committees Against Violence Against Women, through all provinces of Vanuatu Convention to Eliminate All Forms of Discrimination Against Women / Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women Convention on the Rights of the Child CRC United Nations Declaration on Violence Against Women DEVAW Department of Women’s Affairs in the Ministry of Justice and Social Welfare DOWA Family Protection Act FPA Family Protection Order provided under the Vanuatu Family Protection Act FPO Family Protection Unit of the Vanuatu Police Force, based in Port Vila FPU Foundation of the People of the South Pacific FSP Household HH Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey MICS Ministry of Education MOE Ministry of Health MOH Number N Vanuatu National Statistics Office, Ministry of Finance and Economic Management NSO A measure of statistical significance (see Glossary in Annex 6) P value Pacific Children’s Program PCP Sanma Counselling Centre, a branch of VWC at Luganville on Santo island SCC Secretariat of the Pacific Community SPC Tafea Counselling Centre, a branch of VWC at Isangel on Tanna island TCC Torba Counselling Centre, a branch of VWC at Sola on Vanualava island ToCC United Nations UN United Nations Declaration on Human Rights UNDHR UNDEVAW United Nations Declaration on the Elimination of Violence Against Women UN WOMEN United Nations Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women VANWODS VNSO VWC Vanuatu Women Development Scheme Vanuatu National Statistics Office Vanuatu Women’s Centre and its network of branches, CAVAWs and male advocates through all provinces World Health Organisation WHO Page 5 of 246 Page 5 of 249 CONTENTS Acknowledgements Map Acronyms EXECUTIVE SUMMARY CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1.1 The Vanuatu Women’s Centre and its national network 1.2 Vanuatu Government commitments to gender equality and the elimination of violence against women 1.3 The status of women in Vanuatu CHAPTER 2: RESEARCH
 OBJECTIVES AND METHODOLOGY 2.1 Background to the research 2.2 Research objectives and questions 2.3 The survey questionnaire and its adaptation 2.4 Operational definitions used in the survey 2.5 Design of the survey sample 2.6 Fieldwork, data processing and quality control 2.7 Ethical and safety considerations 2.8 Strengths and limitations of the research design CHAPTER 3: SURVEY RESPONSE RATES AND CHARACTERISTICS OF RESPONDENTS CHAPTER 4: VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN BY HUSBANDS AND INTIMATE PARTNERS 4.1 Prevalence and types of violence against women 4.2 Women’s attitudes to gender power relations and violence 4.3 Discussion of findings CHAPTER 5: PREVALENCE OF VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND GIRLS BY PEOPLE OTHER THAN HUSBANDS OR INTIMATE PARTNERS 5.1 Prevalence of non-partner violence against women 5.2 Women’s first sexual experience 5.3 Discussion of findings CHAPTER 6: CONSEQUENCES OF VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN FOR GENERAL PHYSICAL AND MENTAL HEALTH 6.1 Impacts of partner violence on physical health 6.2 Impacts of partner violence on mental health 6.3 Discussion of findings CHAPTER 7: CONSEQUENCES OF VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN FOR REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH AND FOR CHILDREN 7.1 Women’s reproductive health and violence by husbands or partners 7.2 Impacts on children of violence against women 7.3 Discussion of findings Page Page 6 of 249 Page 6 of 246 CHAPTER 8: OTHER IMPACTS OF VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN 8.1 Impacts of partner violence on women’s work and financial autonomy 8.2 Other aspects of women’s rights 8.3 Discussion of findings CHAPTER 9: COPING STRATEGIES 9.1 Strategies women use for dealing with partner violence 9.2 Discussion of findings CHAPTER 10: TRIGGERS, RISKS, AND FACTORS THAT HELP TO PROTECT WOMEN FROM VIOLENCE BY HUSBANDS AND INITMATE PARTNERS 10.1 Situations that trigger violence by husbands and intimate partners 10.2 Method for statistical analysis of risk and
 protective factors 10.3 Findings from the uni-variable statistical analysis 10.4 Findings from the multi-variable statistical analysis of risk and protective factors 10.5 Discussion of findings CHAPTER 11: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 11.1 Conclusions 11.2 Recommendations 11.3 Follow-up by the Vanuatu Women’s Centre ANNEXES 1.
References 2.

Survey questionnaire 3.

Research team 4.

Guidelines for classifying socio-economic status 5.

Locations included in the survey sample 6.
Glossary of statistical terms TABLES 3.1: Household responses, whole of Vanuatu 3.2: Responses to the women’s questionnaire, whole of Vanuatu 3.3: Response rates by location 3.4: How respondents felt after the interview 3.5: Household characteristics, sex of household head by urban and rural area 3.6: Household characteristics, mean size of household and socio-economic status 3.7: Characteristics of respondents (age, education, literacy, income, relationship status) 3.8: Characteristics of all female respondents, by location 3.9: Source of income generation 3.10: Community concerns about other forms of violence 4.1: Prevalence of violence against women by husbands/partners 4.2: Lifetime prevalence of emotional, physical and sexual violence against women by husbands/partners, by location 4.3: Lifetime prevalence of physical and sexual violence by husbands/partners by woman’s age, education and socio-economic status Page Page 7 of 249 Page 7 of 246 TABLES 4.4: Lifetime experience of physical and/or sexual partner violence by religion 4.5: Types of physical violence by husbands/partners in a woman’s lifetime 4.6: Severity of physical violence experienced by ever-partnered women by their husbands/partners 4.7: Frequency of physical violence experienced by women 4.8: Types of sexual violence by husbands/partners in a woman’s lifetime 4.9: Frequency of sexual violence experienced by women 4.10: Links between physical violence and forced sex (rape) by husbands/partners 4.11: Types of emotional abuse of women by their husbands/partners, by location 4.12: Types of emotional abuse of women by their husbands/partners, by age, level of education and socio-economic status 4.13: Prevalence of ever-partnered women reporting controlling behaviours by husbands/partners, according to their experience of physical or sexual violence 4.14: Types of controlling behaviours by husbands/partners in women’s
 lifetime, by location 4.15: Women’s attitudes to gender roles and women’s rights 4.16: Women’s attitudes to gender roles and women’s rights, by location, age, education and socio-economic status 4.17: Payment of bride price and women's view of the impact of bride price on how she is treated by her husband and his family 4.18: Women’s attitudes to physical partner violence, according to their experience of physical or sexual violence from their husbands or partners 4.19: Women’s attitudes to physical partner violence, by location, age, level of education and socio-economic status 4.20: Women's attitudes on sexual autonomy 4.21: Women’s attitudes to sexual autonomy, by location, age, level of education and socio- economic status 5.1: Prevalence of non-partner physical and sexual violence against women over the age of 15 years, by location, age, education level and socio-economic status 5.2: Frequency of non-partner physical and sexual violence against women over the age of 15 years 5.3: Perpetrators of non-partner physical violence against women over the age of 15 years 5.4: Perpetrators of non-partner sexual violence against women over the age of 15 years 5.5: Prevalence of child sexual abuse of girls under the age of 15 years 5.6: Prevalence of child sexual abuse of girls under the age of 15 years, by location, age, education level and socio-economic status 5.7: Child sexual abuse of girls under the age of 15 years, by religion 5.8: Perpetrators of child sexual abuse against girls under the age of 15 years 5.9: Features of child sexual abuse under the age of 15 years 5.10: Age and consent of first sexual experience among sexually active respondents 6.1: Frequency of injuries as a result of violence by a husband/partner 6.2: Type of injuries as a result of violence by a husband or intimate partner 6.3: Severe health outcomes for women with and without physical and/or sexual violence 6.4: Use of medication and health services in the past 4 weeks for women with and without
 physical and/or sexual violence 6.5: Health status for women with and without physical and/or sexual violence 6.6: Physical health problems in the past four weeks for women with and without physical and/or sexual violence 6.7: Women's view of impact of intimate partner violence on her physical and emotional health and spiritual well-being Page 8 of 249 Page 8 of 246 TABLES 6.8: Symptoms of emotional distress reported by women with and without physical, sexual and emotional violence 6.9: Number of mental health symptoms for women with and without physical and/or sexual violence 6.10: Number of mental health symptoms for women with and without emotional violence 6.11: Suicidal thoughts and actions by women with and without physical and sexual violence 6.12: Association between suicidal thoughts and actions by women with and without physical and/or sexual violence 6.13: Association between suicidal thoughts and actions by women with and without emotional violence 6.14: Drinking and smoking habits of women and their association with violence 7.1: Physical violence during pregnancy, by location 7.2: Forms of violence during pregnancy 7.3: Changes in the pattern of violence during pregnancy 7.4: Women's reproductive history and its association with physical and/or sexual violence by a husband/partner 7.5: Use of contraceptives among all ever-partnered women 7.6: Use of contraceptives and its association with physical and/or sexual violence 7.7: How husbands/partners showed disapproval and refusal to use contraception 7.8: Number of children alive and its association with physical and/or sexual violence by a husband/partner 7.9: How often children were present during physical violence towards their mothers or heard the violence 7.10: How often children were also beaten during intimate partner violence 7.11: Effects of violence against women on children's
 well-being 8.1: Percentage of women owning assets by themselves or with others 8.2: Proportion of family income earned by women 8.3: Decision-making on spending of women's earning 8.4: Percentage of women who have enough money to leave a violent relationship if they choose 8.5: Women's view of impact of partner violence on her work and income generation activities 8.6: Types of financial control by husbands/partners, for women who have and have not experienced physical violence from their current husband or partner 8.7: Percentage of women earning an income, according to their experience of physical and/or sexual violence by a husband/partner 8.8: Women's freedom of association, mobility and access to education 8.9: Women's freedom of association, mobility and access to education and violence against women 8.10: Number and percentage of currently married women who chose their own husband 8.11: Reason why women’s husbands were chosen for them 8.12: Men's preference for a boy or girl child 9.1: People whom women told about the violence, and who helped women living with violence 9.2: Women's view of community safety and cooperation 9.3: Women's experience of violence and contact with her birth family 9.4: Support from agencies 9.5: Reasons given by women for seeking help from an agency 9.6: Reasons given by women for not seeking help from an agency 9.7: Who women would like to get more help from 9.8: Number and percentage of women who ever left for at least a night due to physical or Page 9 of 249 Page 9 of 246 TABLES sexual violence by husbands/partners 9.9: Reasons for leaving 9.10: Where respondents went the last time they left home 9.11: Number and percentage of women who took, or did not take, the children when they left home last time due to partner violence 9.12: Reasons women gave for returning after leaving
 home temporarily, among those who reported having left and returned at least once 9.13: Reasons for never leaving despite violence from their husband/partner 9.14: Self-defence by women 9.15: Women’s views of the impact of self-defence, among women who reported fighting back 9.16: Women's violence towards their husbands/partners when they were not being beaten 10.1: Women’s views of situations that tend to lead to physical violence 10.2: Topics discussed and quarrels with current or most recent husband/partner 10.3: Sample for risk and protective factor analysis 10.4: Uni-variable analysis of the association between ever-partnered women’s experience of physical and/or sexual violence by husbands/partners, and the characteristics and risk factors of the woman and her husband/partner (P values) 10.5: Husband’s use of alcohol or home brew, kava and gambling in the past 12 months 10.6: Problems due to husband’s/partner's use of alcohol or home brew, kava and gambling in the past 12 months (all ever-partnered respondents) 10.7: Problems due to husband’s/partner's use of alcohol or home brew, kava and gambling in the past 12 months (respondents who reported that their husbands/partners drink or gamble) 10.8: Characteristics of husbands/partners 10.9: Multivariable analysis of ever-partnered women’s likelihood of experiencing physical or sexual violence by their husband/partner in their lifetime, by background characteristics and risk factors (P values and adjusted odds ratios using logistic regression analysis) 10.10: Background characteristics relating to the woman CHARTS 3.1: Age of all women respondents, compared with ever-partnered respondents 3.2: Comparison of the VWC total sample of women, with all women aged 15-49 from the 2007 Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey 3.3: Education status of ever-partnered women 3.4: Income status of all female respondents, by location 3.5: Source of women’s income 3.6: Relationship status of all women respondents 3.7: Community
 concerns about other forms of violence 4.1: Percentage of women who reported violence by their husbands/partners in their lifetime, compared with the last 12 months, whole of Vanuatu 4.2: Overlap of physical and sexual violence among women who reported violence by their husbands/partners in their lifetime 4.3: Percentage of ever-partnered women who experienced emotional, physical or sexual violence by their husbands/partners in their lifetime, in urban and rural areas 4.4: Percentage of ever-partnered women who experienced physical or sexual violence by their husbands/partners in their lifetime, by location 4.5: Percentage of ever-partnered women who experienced emotional violence compared with physical or sexual violence by their husbands/partners in their lifetime, by location Page 10 of 249 Page 10 of 246 CHARTS 4.6: Percentage of ever-partnered women who experienced physical or sexual violence by their husbands/partners in their lifetime, by age 4.7: Percentage of ever-partnered women who experienced physical or sexual violence by their husbands/partners in their lifetime, by level of education 4.8: Percentage of ever-partnered women who experienced physical or sexual violence in their lifetime, by socio-economic status 4.9: Types of physical violence, among women who reported that they had experienced physical violence by their husbands/partners 4.10: Percentage of women who experienced moderate violence only, compared with those who experienced severe and moderate violence 4.11 Frequency of different types of physical violence against women by their husbands/partners 4.12: Types of sexual violence, among women who reported that they had experienced sexual violence by their husbands/partners 4.13: Frequency of different types of sexual violence against women by their husbands/partners 4.14: Frequency of forced sex (rape) following an incident of physical
 violence by a husband/partner 4.15: Types of emotional abuse of ever-partnered women by husbands/partners in urban and rural areas 4.16: Emotional abuse of women by husbands/partners, by age 4.17: Emotional abuse of women by husbands/partners, by education 4.18: Emotional abuse of women by husbands/partners, by socio-economic status 4.19: Controlling behaviours by husbands/partners, according to ever-partnered women's experience of physical and/or sexual partner violence 4.20: Control of ever-partnered women by husbands/partners in urban and rural areas 4.21: Controlling behaviour by husbands or partners, by age 4.22: Controlling behaviour by husbands or partners, by level of education 4.23: Controlling behaviour by husbands or partners, by socio-economic status 4.24: Women's attitudes to gender roles and women's rights 4.25: Payment of bride price and its impact among ever-married women 4.26: Women's attitudes to physical partner violence; all respondents 4.27: Women's attitudes to physical partner violence, by location 4.28: Women's attitudes to physical partner violence, by age 4.29: Women's attitudes to physical partner violence, by level of education 4.30: Women's attitudes to physical partner violence, by socio-economic status 4.31: Women's attitudes to sexual autonomy, by location 4.32: Women's attitudes to sexual autonomy, by province 4.33: Women's attitudes to sexual autonomy, by age 4.34: Women's attitudes to sexual autonomy, by education level 4.35: Women's attitudes to sexual autonomy, by socio-economic status 5.1: Percentage of women who experienced non-partner physical or sexual violence since the age of 15, by location 5.2: Percentage of women who experienced non-partner physical or sexual violence since the age of 15, by age 5.3: Percentage of women who experienced non-partner physical or sexual violence since the age of 15, by level of education 5.4: Percentage of women who experienced non-partner physical or sexual violence since the age of 15, by
 socio-economic status Page 11 of 249 Page 11 of 246 CHARTS 5.5: Frequency of non-partner physical and sexual violence against women over the age of 15 years 5.6: Percentage of women who reported child sexual abuse under the age of 15 years, by location 5.7: Percentage of women who reported child sexual abuse under the age of 15 years, by age 5.8: Percentage of women who reported child sexual abuse under the age of 15 years, by level of education 5.9: Percentage of women who reported child sexual abuse under the age of 15 years, by socio-economic status 5.10: Age when first sexually abused 5.11: Frequency of child sexual abuse 5.12: Consent to first experience of sex 5.13: Age of first experience of sex 6.1: Percentage of ever-partnered women injured due to physical or sexual violence 6.2: Frequency of injuries, among women ever injured by a husband or partner 6.3: Types of injuries due to violence by husbands/partners 6.4: Percentage of injuries that needed health care due to violence by husbands/partners 6.5: Severe health outcomes for ever-partnered women in the last 12 months, according to their experience of physical and/or sexual violence by husbands/partners 6.6: Use of medication by ever-partnered women in the last 4 weeks 6.7: Women's health status according to their experience of physical and/or sexual violence by their husband/partner 6.8: Women's view of the impact of physical and/or sexual violence on their health and spiritual well-being 6.9: Number of symptoms of emotional distress experienced by ever-partnered women in the past 4 weeks, according to their experience of physical and/or sexual violence 6.10: Number of symptoms of emotional distress experienced by ever-partnered women in the past 4 weeks, according to their experience of physical, sexual or emotional violence 6.11: Suicidal thoughts and actions by ever-partnered women, according to their
 experience of physical and sexual violence by husbands/partners 6.12: Suicidal thoughts and actions by ever-partnered women, according to their experience of emotional violence by their husbands or partners 6.13: Drinking problems by ever-partnered women, according to their experience of physical and/or sexual violence by husbands/partners 7.1: Percentage of ever-pregnant women who experienced physical violence during pregnancy, by location 7.2: Features of violence during pregnancy 7.3: Use of contraceptives by ever-partnered women, according to their experience of physical and/or sexual violence by husbands/partners 7.4: How often children were present during physical violence towards their mother, or overhead the violence 7.5: How often children were also beaten during physical violence towards their mother 7.6: Effects of violence against women on children aged 6 to 14 years 8.1: Women's earnings compared to those of her husband or partner 8.2: Women's decision making on spending of women's earnings 8.3: Percentage of women who could raise enough money by themselves to pay back the bride price, among currently partnered women where bride price was paid 8.4: Financial control of women who experienced physical violence, compared with women with no experience of physical violence by their husband/partner Page 12 of 249 Page 12 of 246 CHARTS 8.5: Who prevented women from enjoying their rights (among those women who were prevented) 8.6: Women's enjoyment of rights and its association with physical and/or sexual partner violence 8.7: Percentage of women who chose their own husband 9.1: Who was told and who helped women suffering from physical and sexual violence 9.2: Main reasons given by women for seeking help from an agency 9.3: Main reasons given by women for not seeking help from an agency 9.4: Who women would like to get more help from 9.5:
 Number of times that women left home due to violence 9.6: Main reasons given for leaving home by women living with physical or sexual partner violence 9.7: Whether children were taken when women left home the last time due to physical or sexual partner violence 9.8: Self-defence by women during physical violence by a husband/partner 9.9: Percentage of women who defended themselves by fighting back, by type of physical violence 9.10: Impact of self-defence by women during physical violence by a husband/partner 10.1: Women's views of situations that lead to physical violence by husbands/partners 10.2: Percentage of ever-partnered women who report problems due to their husband's/partner's drinking alcohol or home brew, kava or gambling 142 143 144 149 153 154 155 155 157 158 160 161 161 166 171 Page 13 of 249 Page 13 of 246 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY The aim of the Vanuatu National Survey on Women’s Lives and Family Relationships was to conduct a population-based study to provide a reliable benchmark of the prevalence and incidence of violence against women in Vanuatu, and on attitudes to violence including: health and other effects of violence on women and children; risk and protective factors in the family and the community; coping strategies of women; and the implications for prevention and support services.
This report presents findings from the survey, which was conducted by the Vanuatu Women’s Centre (VWC) in partnership with the Vanuatu National Statistics Office (VNSO) from March to May 2009.

This is the first nation-wide study that has been undertaken in Vanuatu on violence against women and attitudes to women’s human rights.

Methodology The survey used a household questionnaire and an individual women’s questionnaire (Annex 2).
These were adapted by VWC from the World Health Organisation (WHO) Multi-country Study on Women’s Health and Domestic Violence against Women.

This methodology has been used in many countries including 4 other Pacific nations to provide reliable and high quality data on the prevalence of violence against women.

VNSO technical expertise was used to design the survey sample to ensure that it was nationally representative.
The survey was undertaken throughout the country and several islands were included from each of Vanuatu’s 6 provinces.

Random sampling techniques were used by VNSO to select enumeration areas in each province (Annex 5), and to select households in each enumeration area.

In each household, one woman was randomly selected to be interviewed, among all the women living in the household aged between 15 and 49.
The total number of households included in the sample was 3,619; from these, 3141 household interviews were completed by both women and men; and 2337 questionnaire interviews were completed with individual women.

There were 8 teams who undertook the survey in Vanuatu’s 6 rural provinces and 2 urban municipalities.

Each team included a supervisor, a field editor and 4 or 5 interviewers.

All team members received 4 weeks training in Port Vila before the survey.
WHO ethical and safety guidelines were followed through the design and implementation of the survey.

Trained counsellors were included on all survey teams for women who requested immediate help or who were at risk of suicide.

Summary of survey findings This survey opens a door to women’s lives: it challenges Vanuatu’s view of itself as a happy nation that values and protects family and children.
It explodes myths about who suffers from violence, the severity of violence and its impacts, and where it occurs.

It reveals an intense web of intimidation, threats, humiliation, controlling behaviour and acts of physical and sexual violence imposed on the women who suffer from violence by their husbands and partners.
It shows pervasive patterns of gender inequality in Vanuatu society, including widespread beliefs and attitudes that directly undermine women’s human rights; and it shows that violence against women cannot be prevented unless these patterns of unequal power between women and men (gender power relations) are transformed.
The high rates of all forms of violence against women (including violence by husbands/partners and non-partner violence) show that the use of violence as a form of punishment and discipline is accepted Page 14 of 249 Page 14 of 246 and condoned as a “normal” part of behaviour within many families and communities.

Some women say that they have not sought help because the violence was “normal”.

The findings show clearly that women do not exaggerate the effects of violence.
On the contrary, many women minimise the impact of the violence on their health and well-being; for many, this is an important coping mechanism that helps them to deal with it, to continue in their relationships and to continue working and providing for their husbands/partners and their families.
The complex pattern of intimidation and multiple forms of violence experienced by so many women needs to be taken into account by all service providers, the law and justice sector, chiefs, faith-based organisations, civil society organisations and families who are asked to help women deal with violence.
Controlling behaviours by husbands and intimate partners prevent women from finding out about their legal and human rights, reporting the violence to authorities, and telling family, friends, or community and church leaders.

The impacts of violence against women are wide-ranging and severe.
They include serious short-term and long-term impacts on women’s physical, mental and reproductive health; and impacts on children’s emotional well-being and schooling, which reduce their opportunities for development and pre-dispose them to the risk of violence in their intimate relationships as adults.
There are enormous economic costs to families, communities and the nation to deal with these health and other impacts; and ongoing lost opportunities for social and economic development at community and national level.

When women do take the difficult step of asking for help or leaving home temporarily because their lives are in crisis, family members, chiefs, church leaders, friends and service-providers need to take their requests for help very seriously.
They need to respond appropriately to ensure that women’s rights are protected, and it is very important that they do not condone or excuse the violence.

Given the evidence that violence continues throughout a woman’s life, the serious burden of injury, and the substantial costs to the community, all stakeholders and service-providers need to take steps to stop the violence.
On the positive side, the survey shows that there are high levels of social cohesion in Vanuatu, with much respect and trust given to chiefs and church leaders.

Despite entrenched attitudes that oppose women’s rights, there is also considerable support within the community in favour of women’s rights and non-violent approaches to resolving conflict in families.
These factors all put Vanuatu in a good position to reduce and prevent all forms of violence against women, by building on the positive work that has already been done by VWC and its network of branches and island-based committees against violence against women (CAVAWs), other civil society organisations, government, chiefs and other community leaders.
Findings from the survey are summarised in the following areas:          the prevalence and types of violence against women by husbands/partners (chapter 4); attitudes to violence against women and women’s rights (chapter 4); violence against women and girls by people other than husbands/partners (chapter 5); consequences of violence against women for physical and mental health (chapter 6); consequences of violence against women for reproductive health and for children, including violence during pregnancy (chapter 7); other impacts of intimate partner violence against women, such as on women’s work, financial autonomy and other aspects of rights (chapter 8); coping strategies used by women to deal with violence (chapter 9); situations that trigger violence, and the statistical analysis of risk factors, and factors that help to protect women from violence (chapter 10); and recommendations to address the problem of violence against women and children (chapter 11).
Page 15 of 249 Prevalence and types of violence against women by husbands/intimate partners Vanuatu has alarmingly high rates of violence against women by husbands/partners.
Among women Page 15 of 246 who have ever been married, lived with a man, or had an intimate sexual relationship with a partner, 3 in 5 (60%) experienced physical and/or sexual violence in their lifetime; more than 2 in 3 (68%) experienced emotional violence; more than 1 in 4 (28%) was subjected to several forms of control by their husband or partner, more than 2 in 3 (69%) experienced at least one form of coercive control, and most of these were living with physical and sexual violence.
Most women who are subjected to violence by husbands/partners experience multiple forms of violence.

Violence by husbands/partners occurs in all provinces and islands, and among all age groups, education levels, socio-economic groups and religions.

Contrary to the expectations of some community leaders, rates of physical and sexual violence are higher in rural areas (63%) than in urban areas (50%).
For most women who experience physical or sexual violence, it occurs frequently, and it is often very severe, including being punched, dragged, kicked, beaten up, choked, burned, or hit with a weapon such as a piece of wood, iron bar, knife or axe.

For more than 2 in 5 women (42%) who experienced physical violence, the violent incident has been followed by rape.
Attitudes to violence against women and women’s rights Many women agree with a range of statements that seriously undermine women’s rights – such as the notion that a good wife must obey her husband even if she disagrees with him (50%); that the man should be the boss (40%); that she becomes his property after bride price is paid (53%); or that he should choose her friends (50%).
More than 1 in 3 women (36%) agree that it is all right for a woman or girl to be swapped or exchanged for marriage; and more than half (58%) believe that a woman should not touch food when she is menstruating.
Three in 5 women (60%) agree with at least 1 justification for a man to beat his wife: more than 1 in 3 (34%) believe that violence is justified if a wife is disobedient to her husband; more than 1 in 4 (28%) thinks it is all right for him to beat her to discipline her or teach her a lesson; and almost 1 in 3 (32%) believe that a man is justified in beating his wife if bride price has been paid.
While most women have a strong sense of their sexual autonomy, between 12% and 23% do not think they have the right to refuse sex in some situations, and 40% of women are unclear if they have the right to refuse sex if bride price has been paid.

These attitudes demonstrate extraordinary control and power over women by men; they both reflect and perpetuate grossly unequal gender power relations.
Most women believe that bride price has a positive impact on how they are treated by their husband and his family.

Nevertheless, the findings demonstrate clearly that bride price does not protect women from domestic violence.

On the contrary, in relation to physical and sexual abuse by husbands and partners, the findings show that many women are confused about whether bride price protects their rights or undermines them.
On the other hand, more than 1 in 3 women do not agree with any justifications for a man to beat his wife.

About half of respondents disagreed with each of the statements that undermine women’s rights; this varied from 40% to 60% depending on the statement.

In addition, although 4 in 5 women (82%) believe that family problems should only be discussed in the family, almost 3 in 4 (74%) believe that people outside the family should intervene if a man mistreats his wife.
These findings indicate that there is a strong foundation of support in the community in favour of women’s rights.

Page 16 of 249  recommendations to address the problem of violence against women and children (chapter 11).

Prevalence and types of violence against women by husbands/intimate partners Vanuatu has alarmingly high rates of violence against women by husbands/partners.
Among women who have ever been married, lived with a man, or had an intimate sexual relationship with a partner, 3 in 5 (60%) experienced physical and/or sexual violence in their lifetime; more than 2 in 3 (68%) experienced emotional violence; more than 1 in 4 (28%) was subjected to several forms of control by their husband or partner, more than 2 in 3 (69%) experienced at least one form of coercive control, and most of these were living with physical and sexual violence.
Most women who are subjected to violence by husbands/partners experience multiple forms of violence.

Violence by husbands/partners occurs in all provinces and islands, and among all age groups, education levels, socio-economic groups and religions.

Contrary to the expectations of some community leaders, rates of physical and sexual violence are higher in rural areas (63%) than in urban areas (50%).
For most women who experience physical or sexual violence, it occurs frequently, and it is often very severe, including being punched, dragged, kicked, beaten up, choked, burned, or hit with a weapon such as a piece of wood, iron bar, knife or axe.

For more than 2 in 5 women (42%) who experienced physical violence, the violent incident has been followed by rape.
Attitudes to violence against women and women’s rights Many women agree with a range of statements that seriously undermine women’s rights – such as the notion that a good wife must obey her husband even if she disagrees with him (50%); that the man should be the boss (40%); that she becomes his property after bride price is paid (53%); or that he should choose her friends (50%).
More than 1 in 3 women (36%) agree that it is all right for a woman or girl to be swapped or exchanged for marriage; and more than half (58%) believe that a woman should not touch food when she is menstruating.
Three in 5 women (60%) agree with at least 1 justification for a man to beat his wife: more than 1 in 3 (34%) believe that violence is justified if a wife is disobedient to her husband; more than 1 in 4 (28%) thinks it is all right for him to beat her to discipline her or teach her a lesson; and almost 1 in 3 (32%) believe that a man is justified in beating his wife if bride price has been paid.
While most women have a strong sense of their sexual autonomy, between 12% and 23% do not think they have the right to refuse sex in some situations, and 40% of women are unclear if they have the right to refuse sex if bride price has been paid.

These attitudes demonstrate extraordinary control and power over women by men; they both reflect and perpetuate grossly unequal gender power relations.
Most women believe that bride price has a positive impact on how they are treated by their husband and his family.

Nevertheless, the findings demonstrate clearly that bride price does not protect women from domestic violence.

On the contrary, in relation to physical and sexual abuse by husbands and partners, the findings show that many women are confused about whether bride price protects their rights or undermines them.
On the other hand, more than 1 in 3 women do not agree with any justifications for a man to beat his wife.

About half of respondents disagreed with each of the statements that undermine women’s rights; this varied from 40% to 60% depending on the statement.

In addition, although 4 in 5 women (82%) believe that family problems should only be discussed in the family, almost 3 in 4 (74%) believe that people outside the family should intervene if a man mistreats his wife.
These findings indicate that there is a strong foundation of support in the community in favour of women’s rights.

Page 16 of 249 Page 16 of 246 Violence against women and girls by people other than husbands/partners There are also high rates of physical and sexual violence against women committed by people who are not their husbands or intimate partners.

Almost half of the women interviewed (48%) had experienced non-partner physical or sexual violence or both since they turned 15.
Most non-partner physical abuse (experienced by more than 1 in 4 women, 28%) was by male family members.

Most of the non-partner sexual abuse (affecting 1 in 3 women, 33%) was by boyfriends or male family members.

The prevalence of sexual abuse against girls under the age of 15 is also one of the very highest in the world.

Almost 1 in 3 women (30%) were sexually abused before the age of 15 years, and the majority of perpetrators were male family members and boyfriends.
For more than 1 in 4 women (28%), their first sexual experience was forced.

These findings are disturbing because the survey has also shown that non-partner physical violence and child sexual abuse are both significant risk factors which increase the likelihood that women will be subjected to violence by their husbands and partners later in life.
Consequences of violence against women for physical and mental health The rates of injury from domestic physical and sexual violence are alarming and impose substantial social and economic costs, in addition to the pain and suffering of individual women.

One in 4 ever- partnered women (24%) has been injured in her lifetime due to violence from her husband or partner, and 1 in 10 (11%) was injured in the previous 12 months before the survey.
When we consider only those women who have experienced physical or sexual violence in their life (rather than all ever- partnered women), almost 2 in 5 (39%) have been injured, and almost half (45%) were injured in the last 12 months.

These findings show that the violence is frequently very severe indeed; of those injured, more than 2 in 5 (41%) were injured more than 3 times; more than 1 in 5 (21%) now has a permanent disability; and almost half (48%) have lost consciousness at least once.
The data show that more than 2 women in Vanuatu are hurt badly enough every week to need health care, more than 2 are admitted to hospital every week, and between 1 and 2 women are knocked unconscious every week due to violence by intimate partners.

Yet less than half of those injured (42%) have ever told a health worker the reason for their injury, and many did not receive the health care that they needed.
Women living with physical and/or sexual violence also have much poorer overall health, are hospitalised more often, are more likely to need medication for pain, anxiety or depression, and are more likely to have an operation than women who are not experiencing violence.

The impacts of physical, sexual and emotional violence on women’s mental health have been seriously under- estimated.
Women living with violence have significantly more symptoms of emotional distress, and are between 3 and 4 times more likely to attempt suicide than women who are not experiencing violence.

Consequences of violence against women for reproductive health and for children Pregnancy is a time of relative safety for some women living with violence.
Nevertheless 15% of all women who have ever been pregnant have been hit during the pregnancy, and 1 in 10 ever-pregnant women (9%) have been hit or kicked in the stomach.

Among the women who were hit during pregnancy, most (91%) had also been physically abused before the pregnancy, and for 1 in 3 (32%) the violence either stayed much the same or got worse during the pregnancy.

For 9% the violence actually began during the pregnancy.
Women who have experienced physical or sexual violence have a significantly higher rate of miscarriage (9% compared with 6% of those who have not experienced violence), and not surprisingly this is even higher for those physically abused during pregnancy (13%).
Page 17 of 249 Page 17 of 246 Children living in families where their mothers are subjected to physical and/or sexual abuse are significantly more likely to have a range of emotional and behavioural problems including aggressive Children living in families where their mothers are subjected to physical and/or sexual abuse are behaviour towards their mothers and other children.
They are also twice as likely as other children to significantly more likely to have a range of emotional and behavioural problems including aggressive repeat years of schooling, and to drop out of school.

These long-term consequences for children are behaviour towards their mothers and other children.

They are also twice as likely as other children to part of the overall economic costs of violence against women.

In addition, 57% of children whose repeat years of schooling, and to drop out of school.
These long-term consequences for children are mothers experienced physical violence either saw or heard their mother being assaulted, and 17% of part of the overall economic costs of violence against women.

In addition, 57% of children whose children were also beaten during a violent incident.
These findings are even more disturbing when we mothers experienced physical violence either saw or heard their mother being assaulted, and 17% of consider that the survey also shows that girls who witness their mother’s physical violence, or who children were also beaten during a violent incident.
These findings are even more disturbing when we experience it themselves, are more likely to experience violence in their own adult intimate consider that the survey also shows that girls who witness their mother’s physical violence, or who relationships; and boys who witness or experience family violence are more likely to perpetrate violence experience it themselves, are more likely to experience violence in their own adult intimate against their wives or partners.
relationships; and boys who witness or experience family violence are more likely to perpetrate violence against their wives or partners.

Other impacts of intimate partner violence against women Other impacts of intimate partner violence against women The survey shows that women make a substantial contribution to family income.
Overall, 80% of the women surveyed work to earn money; this rate is even higher for ever-partnered women, and for those The survey shows that women make a substantial contribution to family income.

Overall, 80% of the living with violence (83%), although women in urban areas are much less likely to earn their own money women surveyed work to earn money; this rate is even higher for ever-partnered women, and for those (58% in Port Vila and 57% in Luganville, chapter 1).
Among those who were currently earning an living with violence (83%), although women in urban areas are much less likely to earn their own money income and living with a man (either married or de facto), over half (53%) earned about the same or (58% in Port Vila and 57% in Luganville, chapter 1).

Among those who were currently earning an more than their husband/partner.
Yet less than 1 in 5 (18%) has savings in the bank, 1 in 3 (31%) has income and living with a man (either married or de facto), over half (53%) earned about the same or other savings and few women own any major assets on their own.

more than their husband/partner.

Yet less than 1 in 5 (18%) has savings in the bank, 1 in 3 (31%) has other savings and few women own any major assets on their own.
The findings show that women living in violent relationships have a greater need to earn an income, and also that their attempts to do so and provide for their families are more likely to be disrupted or The findings show that women living in violent relationships have a greater need to earn an income, undermined.
Among those who experienced physical and/or sexual violence by husbands/partners and and also that their attempts to do so and provide for their families are more likely to be disrupted or were also earning an income, about 1 in 3 (30%) had their work disrupted due to the violence, and in undermined.
Among those who experienced physical and/or sexual violence by husbands/partners and most of these cases (94%) the husband directly interrupted the women’s work; 16% had given up or were also earning an income, about 1 in 3 (30%) had their work disrupted due to the violence, and in refused a job because their husband/partner did not want them to work; more than 1 in 5 (22%) had most of these cases (94%) the husband directly interrupted the women’s work; 16% had given up or their savings or earnings taken by their husband/partner; and more than 2 in 5 (41%) had their refused a job because their husband/partner did not want them to work; more than 1 in 5 (22%) had husband/partner refuse to give them money for household expenses.
More than half of married women their savings or earnings taken by their husband/partner; and more than 2 in 5 (41%) had their (56%) could not raise enough money to feed or house themselves and their children for 4 weeks if they husband/partner refuse to give them money for household expenses.
More than half of married women need to leave temporarily due to violence; and about 4 in 5 (78%) could not raise enough money by (56%) could not raise enough money to feed or house themselves and their children for 4 weeks if they herself to pay back the bride price.
These findings need to be considered in the context of the fact that need to leave temporarily due to violence; and about 4 in 5 (78%) could not raise enough money by about 1 in 3 currently married women (32%) did not choose their husband, and more than 1 in 10 (11%) herself to pay back the bride price.

These findings need to be considered in the context of the fact that were forced to marry their husband.
about 1 in 3 currently married women (32%) did not choose their husband, and more than 1 in 10 (11%) were forced to marry their husband.

Women living with physical and/or sexual violence are significantly more likely to have restrictions placed on their mobility (15%) and their participation in organisations (14%), and they are more likely to Women living with physical and/or sexual violence are significantly more likely to have restrictions be prevented from continuing their education (27%).
Among all ever-partnered women, more than 2 in placed on their mobility (15%) and their participation in organisations (14%), and they are more likely to 5 (41%) need permission from their husband/partner before getting health care and almost half (48%) be prevented from continuing their education (27%).

Among all ever-partnered women, more than 2 in before they undertake any activities.
For those experiencing violence, control by husbands/partners 5 (41%) need permission from their husband/partner before getting health care and almost half (48%) over these basic activities is even higher, with half (50%) needing permission before she gets health before they undertake any activities.
For those experiencing violence, control by husbands/partners care and 3 in 5 (61%) before she does anything.1 This type of control is bad for women’s and children’s over these basic activities is even higher, with half (50%) needing permission before she gets health health; it prevents women from taking opportunities and seriously undermines their capacity to care and 3 in 5 (61%) before she does anything.1 This type of control is bad for women’s and children’s participate in social and economic development.
All these impacts also have a negative effect on health; it prevents women from taking opportunities and seriously undermines their capacity to national economic and social development.

participate in social and economic development.

All these impacts also have a negative effect on national economic and social development.

Coping strategies used by women to deal with violence Coping strategies used by women to deal with violence 1 These findings are presented in chapter 4 and chapter 8.


Page 18 of 249 Page 18 of 249 Page 18 of 246 Children living in families where their mothers are subjected to physical and/or sexual abuse are significantly more likely to have a range of emotional and behavioural problems including aggressive behaviour towards their mothers and other children.

They are also twice as likely as other children to repeat years of schooling, and to drop out of school.
These long-term consequences for children are part of the overall economic costs of violence against women.

In addition, 57% of children whose mothers experienced physical violence either saw or heard their mother being assaulted, and 17% of children were also beaten during a violent incident.
These findings are even more disturbing when we consider that the survey also shows that girls who witness their mother’s physical violence, or who experience it themselves, are more likely to experience violence in their own adult intimate relationships; and boys who witness or experience family violence are more likely to perpetrate violence against their wives or partners.
Other impacts of intimate partner violence against women The survey shows that women make a substantial contribution to family income.

Overall, 80% of the women surveyed work to earn money; this rate is even higher for ever-partnered women, and for those living with violence (83%), although women in urban areas are much less likely to earn their own money (58% in Port Vila and 57% in Luganville, chapter 1).
Among those who were currently earning an income and living with a man (either married or de facto), over half (53%) earned about the same or more than their husband/partner.

Yet less than 1 in 5 (18%) has savings in the bank, 1 in 3 (31%) has other savings and few women own any major assets on their own.
The findings show that women living in violent relationships have a greater need to earn an income, and also that their attempts to do so and provide for their families are more likely to be disrupted or undermined.
Among those who experienced physical and/or sexual violence by husbands/partners and were also earning an income, about 1 in 3 (30%) had their work disrupted due to the violence, and in most of these cases (94%) the husband directly interrupted the women’s work; 16% had given up or refused a job because their husband/partner did not want them to work; more than 1 in 5 (22%) had their savings or earnings taken by their husband/partner; and more than 2 in 5 (41%) had their husband/partner refuse to give them money for household expenses.
More than half of married women (56%) could not raise enough money to feed or house themselves and their children for 4 weeks if they need to leave temporarily due to violence; and about 4 in 5 (78%) could not raise enough money by herself to pay back the bride price.

These findings need to be considered in the context of the fact that about 1 in 3 currently married women (32%) did not choose their husband, and more than 1 in 10 (11%) were forced to marry their husband.
Women living with physical and/or sexual violence are significantly more likely to have restrictions placed on their mobility (15%) and their participation in organisations (14%), and they are more likely to be prevented from continuing their education (27%).

Among all ever-partnered women, more than 2 in 5 (41%) need permission from their husband/partner before getting health care and almost half (48%) before they undertake any activities.
For those experiencing violence, control by husbands/partners over these basic activities is even higher, with half (50%) needing permission before she gets health care and 3 in 5 (61%) before she does anything.1 This type of control is bad for women’s and children’s health; it prevents women from taking opportunities and seriously undermines their capacity to participate in social and economic development.

All these impacts also have a negative effect on national economic and social development.
Coping strategies used by women to deal with violence More than 2 in 5 women (43%) living with partner violence have never told anyone about the violence 1 These findings are presented in chapter 4 and chapter 8. and almost 3 in 5 (57%) have never sought help from any agency to deal with it.

Family members are usually the first people whom women tell about the violence, and the first ones they ask for help; they Page 18 of 249 are also the people that many women would like more help from.
The most common reasons for not getting help (mentioned by 33% of women) were fear of further violence, and the fact that their husbands/partners prevented them from asking for help.

When women do ask for help outside the family or leave home temporarily, they do so because the violence and its consequences are severe and their lives are in crisis – either they cannot take any more, they are seriously injured, or they fear for their lives.
About half (49%) of the women living with violence have been forced to leave home temporarily several times in their life; less than 1% left permanently.

In these circumstances women usually seek help from chiefs (24%), church leaders (23%), health agencies (15%) and police (10%).
The most common reasons women gave for returning home, or for never leaving at all, were that she forgave her husband/partner, didn’t want to leave her children, and several other reasons linked to the payment of bride price and belief in the sanctity of marriage (including advice from family members that she should stay with her husband/partner regardless of the violence).
Living with relatives from her birth family does not protect women from violence; women who live with her parents or relatives experience violence at the same rates as those who do not.

However, women living with the husband’s/partner’s parents or relatives are about 1½ more likely to experience intimate partner violence than those who do not.

It is interesting to compare the findings above with women’s views about community support and cooperation in general.
Overall, 91% of women said they could ask their birth family for support if they have a problem; 80% said that people in their neighbourhood would help in case of illness or accident; and 88% said that neighbours would stop a street fight.

Nevertheless, only 56% of women living with violence ever told anyone about it, and only 53% have ever been helped by anyone to deal with it.
On the positive side, 1 in 4 women said that they sought help because they knew their rights (24%) and had information about where to go (25%), 17% because their family or friends encouraged them to do so, and 15% were encouraged by his family.

Also, more than 1 in 10 left home temporarily for similar reasons: 16% because they had information, 13% because they knew their rights, 11% because they were encouraged to do so by her family or friends, but only 7% were encouraged to do so by his family.
Situations that trigger violence, risk factors, and factors that protect women from violence The situations most commonly mentioned by women as triggers for violence are directly related to unequal gender power relations.

Women most commonly report that their husbands/partners hit them for no reason (30%); because they were disobedient or to discipline them (23%); or because he was jealous of her (27%).
These triggers underline the fact that many men believe they have a right to treat women in this inhuman and degrading way.

Other common triggers are directly linked to women stepping outside traditional roles or expectations (refusing sex was mentioned by 15% of women), or not fulfilling men’s expectations of what a woman should do (no food at home was mentioned by 20%).
It is important to acknowledge that many of the risk factors that increase women’s likelihood of experiencing intimate partner violence are beyond women’s control: most relate either to her experience as a child and her treatment by others in positions of power over her, or to characteristics in the background of her husband.

The majority of risk factors are also related directly or indirectly to gender inequality in Vanuatu society.
For example: Page 19 of 249 Page 19 of 246     seeing or hearing their mother beaten significantly increases the likelihood that men will perpetrate violence against their wives/partners in adult life; seeing or hearing their mother beaten significantly increases the likelihood that women will be subjected to intimate partner violence in adult life; agreeing that it is justified for a man to beat his wife increases women’s risk of violence; being physically abused by people who are not their husbands/partners increases women’s risk of intimate partner violence, and being sexually abused as a child;  women who are subjected to controlling behaviours by their husbands/partners have a greater likelihood of being physically or sexually abused by them; and  men who have affairs with other women are more likely to physically or sexually abuse their wives/partners.
Behaviours and situations that challenge traditional gender roles are also significant risk factors:    a woman who earns her own income is more likely to be physically or sexually abused by her husband/partner; a woman who agrees with one or more reason for refusing sex is more likely to be physically or sexually abused by her husband/partner; and a man who is unemployed is significantly more likely to physically or sexually abuse his wife/partner.
In addition, men who are violent towards other men are also more likely to abuse their wives/partners.

The acceptance of violence as a legitimate way of resolving conflict and of punishing people, and the normalisation of these attitudes in the community, are a huge challenge for all stakeholders who aim to address the problem of violence against women.
The survey shows that there are serious impacts from alcohol, home brew and kava drinking by men, with many families experiencing money or family problems or both as a result.

For example, 31% of ever-partnered women said that their families have money problems due to kava and 22% due to alcohol or home brew.

For these reasons alone, frequent drinking of alcohol and kava need to be addressed, since these problems clearly bring considerable costs to families, communities and the nation as a whole.
Drinking alcohol and home brew also emerged as a risk factor both for the men who perpetrate violence, and for the women who are subjected to violence, although very few women drink alcohol frequently compared with men (63% of husbands/partners drink kava more than once a week and 12% drink alcohol or home brew, compared with 22% and 7% of women respectively).

Several protective factors emerged from the statistical analysis of findings.
Education has enormous potential to help protect women from violence in their intimate relationships.

However, the association between educational achievement and the experience of violence was complex: it was a significant factor for the uni-variable analysis but not for the multi-variable analysis.
Although the level of education was not a clear predictor of women’s attitudes, all forms of violence tended to decline as the level of women’s education increased, but as a protective factor it most strongly applied to women with tertiary education.

The findings indicate that primary and secondary schools could do much more to educate both boys and girls about human rights, and to reinforce the view that violence is never justified in any circumstances.
Women with high socio-economic status were less likely to experience intimate partner violence than other women.

However, socio-economic status is very closely associated with higher education, and women with higher socio-economic status nevertheless experience all forms of violence at high levels.

Places where VWC has been most active have significantly lower rates of physical and sexual violence by husbands/partners than places where VWC has been less active.
These findings strongly suggest Page 20 of 249 Page 20 of 246 that the influence of VWC’s counselling and community education work over the past 19 years has contributed to reducing women’s risk of violence.

Awareness-raising about women’s human and legal rights has been the foundation stone of VWC’s approach since its establishment, in addition to providing information about services.
Recommendations for all stakeholders With so many risk factors linked to gender inequality, it is clear that strategies to reduce violence against women must focus on changing attitudes about women’s rights and gender equality.
Initiatives to address the problem of violence against women and children by government agencies, donor agencies, civil society organisations, chiefs, church and other community leaders need to be based on the following fundamental principles: violence under any circumstances is a crime; violence can never be justified or condoned on the basis of any tradition, culture or custom (including bride price); women have a right to live without violence; women and men are equal under Vanuatu’s Constitution; and women and children can never be “owned” by men.
A human rights and gender equality approach means that all training and awareness programs must be clear about the causes of violence against women: violence against women is caused by gender inequality in Vanuatu society; and violence reinforces the unequal power and control that many men have over their wives and partners.

Prevention 1.
Prevention 1.

All community awareness, education and training programs to address violence against women by all stakeholders must be explicitly based on a human rights and gender equality approach.

2.

Faith-based organisations should include human rights, gender equality, accurate information about violence against women, and non-violent methods of conflict resolution in their training and programs.

3.
3.

All training and other programs with men, particularly young men, must not perpetuate myths about violence against women nor condone men’s control over women.

In order for men to become effective advocates for women’s human rights, programs with men must be based on accurate data and challenge attitudes that perpetuate gender inequality.

4.
4.

Programs with male perpetrators of violence against women must be based on sound evidence of effective strategies and carefully monitored to assess their outcomes.

Such programs should not be supported by donors or local stakeholders unless they are firmly and explicitly based on a human rights approach which advances gender equality and women’s rights.

5.

All media organisations need to take care not to perpetuate or reinforce damaging myths about violence against women.

6.
6.

All stakeholders, agencies and programs that work with children need to have child protection policies, protocols and adequate monitoring and reporting on their implementation.

This applies to government agencies at all levels, schools, health agencies, civil society organisations, sporting bodies and faith-based organisations.

7.
7.

Child protection, human rights, gender equality and non-violent methods of conflict resolution should be included in primary and secondary school curricula; these topics should also be included in primary and secondary teacher training curricula.

8.

All training and other programs with young women should include a focus on women’s human rights, gender equality and violence against women.

Page 21 of 249 Page 21 of 246 Support services 9.


Service providers need to ensure that all staff are aware of the evidence in this report regarding the multiple forms of violence experienced by women: physical, sexual and emotional violence, physical abuse during pregnancy, threats and controlling behaviours by husbands/partners including control over women’s earnings, and refusal to provide money for household expenses.
All service providers also need to be aware of the serious impacts of all these forms of violence, including physical injury, reproductive health problems, emotional distress, suicide risk, permanent disability, the impact on women’s work and the impact on children.

intimidation, 10.

All health staff need to be trained on the issue of violence against women.

Assessment skills are needed for early detection of physical and sexual violence against women and children.
Basic counselling skills are needed for dealing with victims in a non-judgemental, confidential, sensitive and respectful manner.

These topics and the findings of this report need to be included in the nursing curriculum and refresher training for urban and rural health staff.

11.
11.

Protocols are needed in the health sector for the referral of victims of intimate partner violence and child abuse to other service providers (such as the VWC network and/or the police) and for ensuring that support and treatment is provided to women and children in a supportive and timely manner.

12.
12.

Training and services on mental health need to address the strong link found between physical, sexual and emotional violence against women, mental health problems, and significantly increased suicide risk.

Specialist mental health staff such as a professional psychologist should be appointed to Port Vila hospital and specialist services should be available in rural areas to assist women who are traumatised by intimate partner violence.

13.
13.

Primary and secondary schools and other educational institutions need to have trained counsellors available to counsel girls and boys experiencing physical and sexual abuse, and to help address the emotional and other impacts experienced by children whose mothers are living in violent relationships.

14.
14.

A Victim Support Unit urgently needs to be established within the Vanuatu Police Force with staff trained and experienced in responding to crimes of violence against women and sexual and physical abuse of children.

15.

The Police Family Protection Unit must be adequately resourced to respond effectively to cases of violence against women and child abuse throughout the country.
At provincial level, police stations should have officers trained and dedicated to family protection cases, with adequate resources for transport and accommodation costs for cases to be followed up in remote areas.

16.

The findings of this report should be included in police training curricula including refresher training for officers at all levels.
Mandatory and refresher training should also be provided for all judicial officers and others in the law and justice sector on violence against women, human rights, gender equality and the findings of this survey.

Strengthening the legal and policy framework 17.

Urgent action is needed to recruit and train authorised persons and registered counsellors to facilitate implementation of the Family Protection Act (FPA) throughout the country.
Implementation of the FPA needs to be expedited in rural areas and its implementation needs to be carefully monitored, including provisions related to the criminalisation of offences of violence against women.

18.

The FPA needs to be reviewed to strengthen its focus on the protection of pregnant women and women with disabilities.
Violence against pregnant women and violence against women with disabilities should be highlighted as aggravating factors for conviction, and these cases must be prioritised when Family Protection Orders are issued.

Page 22 of 249 Page 22 of 246 19.

A no-drop policy should be introduced by the Vanuatu Police Force for all cases of physical and sexual violence against women by husbands or intimate partners; implementation of the policy should be closely monitored.

20.
20.

The Marriage Act should be amended to raise the minimum of age of marriage for women from 16 to 18 years.

21.

The Vanuatu Government should urgently develop comprehensive family law legislation, which takes into account the prevalence, severity and impacts of violence against women and children.

22.

The Vanuatu Government should establish a Social Welfare Department within the Ministry of Justice and Community Services to strengthen child protection measures.

23.
23.

Recruitment criteria for all government staff appointed to gender-related adviser and child protection positions should include knowledge and experience in the area of violence against women and child protection.

24.
24.

The Correctional Services Act should be reviewed to ensure that women’s and children’s safety is given the highest priority when restorative or alternative justice approaches are implemented, including the use of community service for offenders convicted of physical and sexual crimes of violence against women and children.

General recommendations for all stakeholders and development programs 25.
The findings from this study need to be considered and incorporated into policy development, training, programs and service provision across government agencies, development agencies and civil society organisations.

This is particularly important for the law and justice, education and health sectors, including for mental health policy and programs.
It is also critical for stakeholders and programs aimed at promoting economic development including income-generation programs and the economic empowerment of women.

VWC’s expertise should be used in all these areas.

26.

All donor agencies should mainstream attention to gender equality, human rights and violence against women into all sector strategies, programs and projects.

27.
27.

All government agencies and service providers, particularly those in the law and justice sector and health agencies, need to systematically collect and report sex-disaggregated data on the problem of violence against women and children, to inform future policy development and programs and assist with monitoring prevention activities.

28.

The Vanuatu Government should introduce legislation and policy to provide special leave entitlements for women living with violence.

29.
29.

Bilateral and multilateral donors must urgently prioritise funding for the implementation of the Family Protection Act throughout the country.

30.

Bilateral and multilateral donors should provide funding for permanent premises for VWC and its Branches.

Page 23 of 249 Page 23 of 246 CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION This report presents the methodology and findings from the Vanuatu National Survey on Women’s Lives and Family Relationships.
The survey was conducted by the Vanuatu Women’s Centre (VWC) in partnership with the Vanuatu National Statistics Office (VNSO) from March to May 2009.

This is the first nation-wide quantitative study on violence against women and attitudes to women’s human rights.

1.1 THE VANUATU WOMEN’S CENTRE AND ITS NATIONAL NETWORK VWC is an independent civil society organisation that was established in 1992.

VWC’s goal is to work towards the elimination of violence against women and children in Vanuatu.
To achieve this, VWC’s work aims to increase community awareness and acceptance that violence against women and children is a crime and a violation of human rights.

VWC’s program is nation-wide and includes the provision of counselling services for women living with violence, community awareness and campaigns to increase community understanding of the scale of the problem of violence against women and children and its damaging impacts, and legal and human rights advocacy.
In addition to the national centre in Port Vila, VWC has 3 branches: the Sanma Counselling Centre (SCC) in Luganville, the Tafea Counselling Centre (TCC) at Isangel on Tanna, and the newly established Torba Counselling Centre (ToCC) at Sola on Vanualava.

VWC’s national network includes 37 active island-based Committees Against Violence Against Women (CAVAWs) throughout each of Vanuatu’s 6 provinces.
CAVAWs undertake local community awareness activities and assist women and children living with violence in remote communities.

VWC’s network also includes trained male advocates who work with VWC, the Branches and CAVAWs to advance women’s human rights and eliminate violence against women.

Male advocates include chiefs, police, health workers, and church, youth and other community leaders.
VWC receives core funding from the Australian Agency for International Development (AusAID) for its national program, and for the work of TCC and ToCC.

The New Zealand Aid Programme (NZAID) provides funding for SCC and assists VWC’s national program by providing funding for safehouse services for women in crisis, and some community education activities and materials.

VWC is a founding member of the Pacific Women’s Network Against Violence Against Women.
The Fiji Women’s Crisis Centre – the Secretariat for the Pacific Network – has been a mentor for VWC over many years.

1.2 VANUATU GOVERNMENT COMMITMENTS TO GENDER EQUALITY AND THE ELIMINATION OF VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN Policy context Vanuatu’s Constitution guarantees men and women equal treatment under the law.
Vanuatu has ratified the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW), the Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC), and the CEDAW Optional Protocol which allows the CEDAW committee to consider complaints from individuals or groups.
Commitments to gender equality have featured in Vanuatu Government plans over the years, including the Comprehensive Reform Program, and the Priorities and Action Agenda for 2006-2015, which includes the objective of promoting gender equality and empowering women, in line the Millennium Development Goals (Republic of Vanuatu 2006: 35-36).
The Department of Women’s Affairs (DOWA) in the Ministry of Justice and Social Welfare has a policy on violence against women which shares VWC’s goal of eliminating the problem.

The policy aims to meet Vanuatu’s obligations under the Constitution, the Comprehensive Reform Program and CEDAW Page 24 of 249 (DOWA 2002).
The policy also aims to ensure that perpetrators of violence are held accountable and refers extensively to the United Nations Declaration on the Elimination of Violence Against Women (DEVAW, Box 1.1).
Page 24 of 246 Box 1.1: United Nations Declaration on Violence Against Women (DEVAW)2 Violence against women is defined as any act of gender-based violence that results in, or is likely to result in, physical, sexual or psychological harm or suffering to women, including the threat of violence, coercion, or arbitrary deprivations of liberty.
Violence against women includes: (a) physical, sexual and psychological violence occurring in the family, including battering, sexual abuse of female children in the household, dowry-related violence, and violence related to exploitation; (b) physical, sexual and psychological violence occurring within the general community, including rape, sexual abuse, sexual harassment and intimidation at work, in educational institutions and elsewhere, trafficking in women and forced prostitution; and (c) physical, sexual and psychological violence perpetrated or condoned by the state, wherever it occurs.
The Declaration says that violence against women: violates women’s human rights and fundamental freedoms (including the rights to life, equality, liberty and security, equal protection under the law, physical and mental health, just and favourable conditions of work, and the right not to be subjected to torture or other cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment; results from historically unequal power relations between men and women; is a social mechanism that forces women into a subordinate position compared to men; is pervasive in the family and society, and cuts across lines of income, class and culture; and limits women’s opportunities to achieve legal, social, political and economic equality.
The Declaration says that Governments should: condemn violence against women; not refer to any custom, tradition, religion or any other consideration to avoid eliminating violence against women; their rights; adopt without delay appropriate policies and measures to eliminate violence against women; prevent, investigate and punish acts of violence against women; promote the protection of women through legal, political, administrative and cultural measures and inform women of ensure that women are not victimised through gender-insensitive laws and enforcement practices; and recognise the important role of the women’s movement and non-government organisations in raising awareness, and in speaking out and acting on the problem of violence against women.
            Following a national women’s forum in August 2006, DOWA developed the National Plan of Action for Women.

The Plan recommends actions in a number of areas which are critical for eliminating violence under the headings of violence against women, women and armed conflict, the human rights of women and the girl child.
Specifically, the plan pledges support for VWC and its network and makes recommendations to Government in the following areas (DOWA 2007: 30-35):   The establishment of an annual grant to VWC from the government’s budget.

 Provincial governments to provide space for CAVAWs to undertake their work.

 Re-establishment of the national Task Force on Violence Against Women.

The integration of CEDAW, CRC and DEVAW principles in all government policies.
 An increase in the budget for the Vanuatu Police Force (VPF) to increase women’s access to justice and security of survivors.

2 The text in this box is drawn from UN General Assembly 1993 and from a poster prepared for “Beneath Paradise: Documentation by Women in Pacific NGOs” prepared by Juliet Hunt for International Women’s Development Agency, 1994.
Page 25 of 249 The Department of Women’s Affairs (DOWA) in the Ministry of Justice and Social Welfare has a policy on violence against women which shares VWC’s goal of eliminating the problem.

The policy aims to meet Vanuatu’s obligations under the Constitution, the Comprehensive Reform Program and CEDAW (DOWA 2002).
The policy also aims to ensure that perpetrators of violence are held accountable and refers extensively to the United Nations Declaration on the Elimination of Violence Against Women The Department of Women’s Affairs (DOWA) in the Ministry of Justice and Social Welfare has a policy (DEVAW, Box 1.1).

on violence against women which shares VWC’s goal of eliminating the problem.
The policy aims to meet Vanuatu’s obligations under the Constitution, the Comprehensive Reform Program and CEDAW Box 1.1: United Nations Declaration on Violence Against Women (DEVAW)2 (DOWA 2002).
The policy also aims to ensure that perpetrators of violence are held accountable and Violence against women is defined as any act of gender-based violence that results in, or is likely to result in, physical, refers extensively to the United Nations Declaration on the Elimination of Violence Against Women sexual or psychological harm or suffering to women, including the threat of violence, coercion, or arbitrary deprivations of (DEVAW, Box 1.1).

liberty.
Violence against women includes: (a) physical, sexual and psychological violence occurring in the family, including battering, sexual abuse of female Box 1.1: United Nations Declaration on Violence Against Women (DEVAW)2 (b) physical, sexual and psychological violence occurring within the general community, including rape, sexual abuse, Violence against women is defined as any act of gender-based violence that results in, or is likely to result in, physical, sexual harassment and intimidation at work, in educational institutions and elsewhere, trafficking in women and forced sexual or psychological harm or suffering to women, including the threat of violence, coercion, or arbitrary deprivations of prostitution; and liberty.
Violence against women includes: (c) physical, sexual and psychological violence perpetrated or condoned by the state, wherever it occurs.
(a) physical, sexual and psychological violence occurring in the family, including battering, sexual abuse of female children in the household, dowry-related violence, and violence related to exploitation; children in the household, dowry-related violence, and violence related to exploitation; (c) physical, sexual and psychological violence perpetrated or condoned by the state, wherever it occurs.
  The Declaration says that violence against women:    The Declaration says that violence against women: (b) physical, sexual and psychological violence occurring within the general community, including rape, sexual abuse,  violates women’s human rights and fundamental freedoms (including the rights to life, equality, liberty and security, sexual harassment and intimidation at work, in educational institutions and elsewhere, trafficking in women and forced equal protection under the law, physical and mental health, just and favourable conditions of work, and the right not to prostitution; and be subjected to torture or other cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment; results from historically unequal power relations between men and women; is a social mechanism that forces women into a subordinate position compared to men; is pervasive in the family and society, and cuts across lines of income, class and culture; and violates women’s human rights and fundamental freedoms (including the rights to life, equality, liberty and security, limits women’s opportunities to achieve legal, social, political and economic equality.
equal protection under the law, physical and mental health, just and favourable conditions of work, and the right not to be subjected to torture or other cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment; The Declaration says that Governments should:  results from historically unequal power relations between men and women;  condemn violence against women;  is a social mechanism that forces women into a subordinate position compared to men;  not refer to any custom, tradition, religion or any other consideration to avoid eliminating violence against  is pervasive in the family and society, and cuts across lines of income, class and culture; and women;  limits women’s opportunities to achieve legal, social, political and economic equality.
 adopt without delay appropriate policies and measures to eliminate violence against women;  prevent, investigate and punish acts of violence against women; The Declaration says that Governments should:  promote the protection of women through legal, political, administrative and cultural measures and inform women of  condemn violence against women; their rights;  not refer to any custom, tradition, religion or any other consideration to avoid eliminating violence against  ensure that women are not victimised through gender-insensitive laws and enforcement practices; and women;  recognise the important role of the women’s movement and non-government organisations in raising awareness, and  adopt without delay appropriate policies and measures to eliminate violence against women; in speaking out and acting on the problem of violence against women.
 prevent, investigate and punish acts of violence against women;  promote the protection of women through legal, political, administrative and cultural measures and inform women of Following a national women’s forum in August 2006, DOWA developed the National Plan of Action for their rights;  ensure that women are not victimised through gender-insensitive laws and enforcement practices; and Women.
The Plan recommends actions in a number of areas which are critical for eliminating violence  recognise the important role of the women’s movement and non-government organisations in raising awareness, and under the headings of violence against women, women and armed conflict, the human rights of women in speaking out and acting on the problem of violence against women.

and the girl child.
and the girl child.

Specifically, the plan pledges support for VWC and its network and makes recommendations to Government in the following areas (DOWA 2007: 30-35): Following a national women’s forum in August 2006, DOWA developed the National Plan of Action for  The establishment of an annual grant to VWC from the government’s budget.

Women.
Women.

The Plan recommends actions in a number of areas which are critical for eliminating violence  Provincial governments to provide space for CAVAWs to undertake their work.

under the headings of violence against women, women and armed conflict, the human rights of women  Re-establishment of the national Task Force on Violence Against Women.

and the girl child.
and the girl child.

Specifically, the plan pledges support for VWC and its network and makes  The integration of CEDAW, CRC and DEVAW principles in all government policies.

recommendations to Government in the following areas (DOWA 2007: 30-35):  An increase in the budget for the Vanuatu Police Force (VPF) to increase women’s access to  The establishment of an annual grant to VWC from the government’s budget.

justice and security of survivors.


 Provincial governments to provide space for CAVAWs to undertake their work.

 Initiatives to improve police services to rural areas including the strengthening of the Family  Re-establishment of the national Task Force on Violence Against Women.

Protection Unit (FPU), the establishment of FPUs in the islands and the introduction and  The integration of CEDAW, CRC and DEVAW principles in all government policies.
enforcement of a “no drop” policy for the Police in relation to family violence cases.

 An increase in the budget for the Vanuatu Police Force (VPF) to increase women’s access to  A review of bride price systems to protect women against violence against women and justice and security of survivors.

2 The text in this box is drawn from UN General Assembly 1993 and from a poster prepared for “Beneath Paradise: promote harmonious family relationships.
Documentation by Women in Pacific NGOs” prepared by Juliet Hunt for International Women’s Development Agency, 1994.

 Abolishment of the custom of using women as compensation for rape and murder.
Page 25 of 249 Other recommendations focused on the need to improve the way that chiefs and custom courts deal 2 The text in this box is drawn from UN General Assembly 1993 and from a poster prepared for “Beneath Paradise: with cases of violence by: requiring women chiefs to sit on custom courts when cases of violence Documentation by Women in Pacific NGOs” prepared by Juliet Hunt for International Women’s Development Agency, 1994. against women are heard; requiring chiefs to refer cases of violence against to the courts; and providing training on violence against women and gender awareness to chiefs (DOWA 2007: 33-35).
Page 25 of 249 Page 25 of 246 Progress has been made in some areas since the Plan was launched.

For example, 2 provincial governments have provided space for CAVAWs to undertake their work: Duidui CAVAW by the West Ambae Area Council, and Loltong CAVAW by the Area Council on North Pentecost.

The National Family Protection Task Force was established in November 2009.

VWC has undertaken training with Chiefs from most provinces during male advocacy and CAVAW training activities.
In many other areas, much still remains to be done to ensure that women can claim their human and legal rights and live without violence or the threat of violence.

One of the recommendations of the Vanuatu National Plan of Action for Women was that research on violence against women should be undertaken “to provide a clear understanding of the situation, causes and consequences” (DOWA 2007: 35).
The collection of data to measure trends on violence against women was recommended in the DOWA policy on violence against women (DOWA 2002), the Revised Pacific Platform on Advancement of Women and Gender Equality (SPC 2005), and the United Nations (UN) Millennium Project Task Force on Education and Gender Equality (2005).
Investments in research and its dissemination through non-formal and formal channels including to churches and chiefs were also recommended by AusAID’s study on violence against women in Melanesia and East Timor (AusAID 2008: xi, 185).

The Vanuatu National Survey on Women’s Lives and Family Relationships has implemented these recommendations.
Legal framework to address violence against women Following more than a decade of persistent community awareness, lobbying and advocacy by VWC, and much community debate, the Family Protection Act (FPA) was passed by the Vanuatu Parliament on 19th June 2008 (Republic of Vanuatu 2008).

This was immediately followed by a Supreme Court Challenge by the Head of State, acting at the request of the Vanuatu Council of Churches, who argued that sections of the Act were unconstitutional.
The President signed the FPA on 22nd December 2008 and the Act was gazetted on 2nd March 2009.

This was a major achievement for VWC and other stakeholders working to advance women’s rights.

The FPA provides for family protection orders for up to 2 years to protect victims from family violence.

Temporary protection orders for 14 days may also be granted by authorised persons where there are no Courts, and extended for a further 14 days.
Authorised persons may be male or female community leaders and government officials who have undertaken training approved by the Minister responsible for Women’s Affairs.

The FPA makes it an offence to breach a family protection order.

It makes domestic violence a criminal offence with a maximum punishment of 5 years in jail or a fine of Vt 100,000 or both.

It provides powers to Police to act in cases of domestic violence, and to bring these cases to court.
The FPA also protects children from family violence.

The FPA makes it clear that courts and authorised persons are not to take into account any custom payments for marriage (bride price) Page 26 of 249  Initiatives to improve police services to rural areas including the strengthening of the Family Protection Unit (FPU), the establishment of FPUs in the islands and the introduction and enforcement of a “no drop” policy for the Police in relation to family violence cases.
 A review of bride price systems to protect women against violence against women and promote harmonious family relationships.

 Abolishment of the custom of using women as compensation for rape and murder.
Other recommendations focused on the need to improve the way that chiefs and custom courts deal when deciding whether a family protection order will be granted.3 It does not require women to go with cases of violence by: requiring women chiefs to sit on custom courts when cases of violence through a custom court process before the granting of family protection orders.
against women are heard; requiring chiefs to refer cases of violence against to the courts; and providing training on violence against women and gender awareness to chiefs (DOWA 2007: 33-35).

Debate on the FPA over the last 10 years, including debate in Parliament and in the media following the passage of the legislation through Parliament, provides an insight into the obstacles faced by all Progress has been made in some areas since the Plan was launched.
For example, 2 provincial stakeholders when trying to bring about attitudinal change on violence against women and children.

governments have provided space for CAVAWs to undertake their work: Duidui CAVAW by the West Parliamentarians who argued against the FPA focused on the “holy matrimony of marriage”, and the Ambae Area Council, and Loltong CAVAW by the Area Council on North Pentecost.

The National “traditional social control systems administered by the chiefs”.
They argued that domestic violence is Family Protection Task Force was established in November 2009.

VWC has undertaken training with mainly an urban problem, and that the FPA would undermine parental discipline.

Some commentators Chiefs from most provinces during male advocacy and CAVAW training activities.
In many other areas, were fearful of widespread and detrimental changes to Vanuatu’s political, economic and social much still remains to be done to ensure that women can claim their human and legal rights and live systems if the FPA was passed.

Many argued for a greater focus on reconciliation, which in most cases without violence or the threat of violence.

seriously undermines women’s rights and access to justice.
One of the recommendations of the Vanuatu National Plan of Action for Women was that research on Authorised persons with the legal authority to issue temporary family protection orders in rural areas violence against women should be undertaken “to provide a clear understanding of the situation, have not been identified.4 Consequently, women from rural areas are not yet benefiting as intended causes and consequences” (DOWA 2007: 35).
The collection of data to measure trends on violence from the new legislation.

The process of identifying and training registered counsellors to assist with against women was recommended in the DOWA policy on violence against women (DOWA 2002), the implementation of the FPA has not yet begun.
However, Family Protection Taskforces have been Revised Pacific Platform on Advancement of Women and Gender Equality (SPC 2005), and the United established at provincial level of Sanma, Tafea, Malampa and Shefa provinces.

In addition, family Nations (UN) Millennium Project Task Force on Education and Gender Equality (2005).
Investments in protection orders are being issued in areas where magistrates are available, particularly in the urban research and its dissemination through non-formal and formal channels including to churches and areas of Port Vila and Luganville and in Tanna where VWC and its Branches are active.5 chiefs were also recommended by AusAID’s study on violence against women in Melanesia and East Timor (AusAID 2008: xi, 185).
The Vanuatu National Survey on Women’s Lives and Family Other aspects of the legislative framework also need strengthening to promote and protect women’s Relationships has implemented these recommendations.

rights.
rights.

For example, the Vanuatu Government’s Law and Justice Strategy Sector Plan includes several important objectives, such as the establishment of a Law Reform Commission and a Human Rights Legal framework to address violence against women Commission, an assessment of compliance of Vanuatu legislation with CEDAW, and the development of a comprehensive family law (Republic of Vanuatu 2009).
Positive steps have been taken by DOWA Following more than a decade of persistent community awareness, lobbying and advocacy by VWC, and the National CEDAW Committee, with support from the UN WOMEN Pacific Regional Office, to and much community debate, the Family Protection Act (FPA) was passed by the Vanuatu Parliament review legislative compliance with CEDAW.

A report is expected to be published on this in 2011. on 19th June 2008 (Republic of Vanuatu 2008).
This was immediately followed by a Supreme Court Legislative review and reform to ensure compliance in Vanuatu with CEDAW was recommended by the Challenge by the Head of State, acting at the request of the Vanuatu Council of Churches, who argued UN Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW 2007: 3-4).

that sections of the Act were unconstitutional.

The President signed the FPA on 22nd December 2008 and the Act was gazetted on 2nd March 2009.
This was a major achievement for VWC and other The Law Reform Commission was established in March 2010.

A review of all existing legislation stakeholders working to advance women’s rights.

relating to family law is the first reference of the new Law Reform Commission.

Family-related matters are currently covered under several different laws including those relating to property, family The FPA provides for family protection orders for up to 2 years to protect victims from family violence.
maintenance, custody of and access to children, the Marriage Act and the Matrimonial Causes Act.

Temporary protection orders for 14 days may also be granted by authorised persons where there are This review is a first step towards developing a comprehensive family law that respects the human no Courts, and extended for a further 14 days.

Authorised persons may be male or female community rights of women and children.
leaders and government officials who have undertaken training approved by the Minister responsible for Women’s Affairs.

The FPA makes it an offence to breach a family protection order.

It makes Implementation of law domestic violence a criminal offence with a maximum punishment of 5 years in jail or a fine of Vt 100,000 or both.
It provides powers to Police to act in cases of domestic violence, and to bring these The work of the Police Family Protection Unit (FPU) is a positive initiative to address crimes of violence cases to court.

The FPA also protects children from family violence.

The FPA makes it clear that courts against women and children.
Following the signing of a Memorandum of Understanding between VWC and authorised persons are not to take into account any custom payments for marriage (bride price) and the FPU, procedures for the service of summons under the FPA are now clearer.
Through VWC’s when deciding whether a family protection order will be granted.3 It does not require women to go male advocacy training program, many police have been trained on women’s rights and violence through a custom court process before the granting of family protection orders.
Page 26 of 249 against women in recent years; this has had a significant impact on increasing women’s access to justice in urban and rural areas, with many police willing to work with VWC and the Branches, and with Debate on the FPA over the last 10 years, including debate in Parliament and in the media following the CAVAWs in remote areas.
passage of the legislation through Parliament, provides an insight into the obstacles faced by all stakeholders when trying to bring about attitudinal change on violence against women and children.

Parliamentarians who argued against the FPA focused on the “holy matrimony of marriage”, and the 3 See section 11(4) and section 21 (2) of the FPA (Republic of Vanuatu 2008).

4 At the time of writing, May 2011.

“traditional social control systems administered by the chiefs”.
They argued that domestic violence is 5 The Torba Branch of VWC was set up in January 2011. mainly an urban problem, and that the FPA would undermine parental discipline.

Some commentators Page 26 of 246 were fearful of widespread and detrimental changes to Vanuatu’s political, economic and social Page 27 of 249 systems if the FPA was passed.

Many argued for a greater focus on reconciliation, which in most cases seriously undermines women’s rights and access to justice.
Authorised persons with the legal authority to issue temporary family protection orders in rural areas have not been identified.4 Consequently, women from rural areas are not yet benefiting as intended from the new legislation.

The process of identifying and training registered counsellors to assist with implementation of the FPA has not yet begun.

However, Family Protection Taskforces have been established at provincial level of Sanma, Tafea, Malampa and Shefa provinces.
In addition, family protection orders are being issued in areas where magistrates are available, particularly in the urban areas of Port Vila and Luganville and in Tanna where VWC and its Branches are active.5 Other aspects of the legislative framework also need strengthening to promote and protect women’s rights.
For example, the Vanuatu Government’s Law and Justice Strategy Sector Plan includes several important objectives, such as the establishment of a Law Reform Commission and a Human Rights Commission, an assessment of compliance of Vanuatu legislation with CEDAW, and the development of a comprehensive family law (Republic of Vanuatu 2009).
Positive steps have been taken by DOWA and the National CEDAW Committee, with support from the UN WOMEN Pacific Regional Office, to review legislative compliance with CEDAW.

A report is expected to be published on this in 2011.

Legislative review and reform to ensure compliance in Vanuatu with CEDAW was recommended by the UN Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW 2007: 3-4).

The Law Reform Commission was established in March 2010.
A review of all existing legislation relating to family law is the first reference of the new Law Reform Commission.

Family-related matters are currently covered under several different laws including those relating to property, family maintenance, custody of and access to children, the Marriage Act and the Matrimonial Causes Act.

This review is a first step towards developing a comprehensive family law that respects the human rights of women and children.
Implementation of law The work of the Police Family Protection Unit (FPU) is a positive initiative to address crimes of violence against women and children.

Following the signing of a Memorandum of Understanding between VWC and the FPU, procedures for the service of summons under the FPA are now clearer.
Through VWC’s male advocacy training program, many police have been trained on women’s rights and violence against women in recent years; this has had a significant impact on increasing women’s access to justice in urban and rural areas, with many police willing to work with VWC and the Branches, and with CAVAWs in remote areas.

3 See section 11(4) and section 21 (2) of the FPA (Republic of Vanuatu 2008).

4 At the time of writing, May 2011.

5 The Torba Branch of VWC was set up in January 2011.
Page 27 of 249 when deciding whether a family protection order will be granted.3 It does not require women to go through a custom court process before the granting of family protection orders.

Debate on the FPA over the last 10 years, including debate in Parliament and in the media following the passage of the legislation through Parliament, provides an insight into the obstacles faced by all stakeholders when trying to bring about attitudinal change on violence against women and children.
when deciding whether a family protection order will be granted.3 It does not require women to go Parliamentarians who argued against the FPA focused on the “holy matrimony of marriage”, and the through a custom court process before the granting of family protection orders.

when deciding whether a family protection order will be granted.3 It does not require women to go “traditional social control systems administered by the chiefs”.
They argued that domestic violence is through a custom court process before the granting of family protection orders.

mainly an urban problem, and that the FPA would undermine parental discipline.
Some commentators Debate on the FPA over the last 10 years, including debate in Parliament and in the media following the were fearful of widespread and detrimental changes to Vanuatu’s political, economic and social passage of the legislation through Parliament, provides an insight into the obstacles faced by all Debate on the FPA over the last 10 years, including debate in Parliament and in the media following the systems if the FPA was passed.
Many argued for a greater focus on reconciliation, which in most cases stakeholders when trying to bring about attitudinal change on violence against women and children.

passage of the legislation through Parliament, provides an insight into the obstacles faced by all seriously undermines women’s rights and access to justice.
Parliamentarians who argued against the FPA focused on the “holy matrimony of marriage”, and the stakeholders when trying to bring about attitudinal change on violence against women and children.

“traditional social control systems administered by the chiefs”.
They argued that domestic violence is Parliamentarians who argued against the FPA focused on the “holy matrimony of marriage”, and the Authorised persons with the legal authority to issue temporary family protection orders in rural areas mainly an urban problem, and that the FPA would undermine parental discipline.

Some commentators “traditional social control systems administered by the chiefs”.
They argued that domestic violence is have not been identified.4 Consequently, women from rural areas are not yet benefiting as intended were fearful of widespread and detrimental changes to Vanuatu’s political, economic and social mainly an urban problem, and that the FPA would undermine parental discipline.

Some commentators from the new legislation.

The process of identifying and training registered counsellors to assist with systems if the FPA was passed.
Many argued for a greater focus on reconciliation, which in most cases were fearful of widespread and detrimental changes to Vanuatu’s political, economic and social implementation of the FPA has not yet begun.

However, Family Protection Taskforces have been seriously undermines women’s rights and access to justice.

systems if the FPA was passed.

Many argued for a greater focus on reconciliation, which in most cases established at provincial level of Sanma, Tafea, Malampa and Shefa provinces.
In addition, family seriously undermines women’s rights and access to justice.
protection orders are being issued in areas where magistrates are available, particularly in the urban Authorised persons with the legal authority to issue temporary family protection orders in rural areas areas of Port Vila and Luganville and in Tanna where VWC and its Branches are active.5 have not been identified.4 Consequently, women from rural areas are not yet benefiting as intended Authorised persons with the legal authority to issue temporary family protection orders in rural areas from the new legislation.
The process of identifying and training registered counsellors to assist with have not been identified.4 Consequently, women from rural areas are not yet benefiting as intended Other aspects of the legislative framework also need strengthening to promote and protect women’s implementation of the FPA has not yet begun.

However, Family Protection Taskforces have been from the new legislation.

The process of identifying and training registered counsellors to assist with rights.
For example, the Vanuatu Government’s Law and Justice Strategy Sector Plan includes several established at provincial level of Sanma, Tafea, Malampa and Shefa provinces.

In addition, family implementation of the FPA has not yet begun.
However, Family Protection Taskforces have been important objectives, such as the establishment of a Law Reform Commission and a Human Rights protection orders are being issued in areas where magistrates are available, particularly in the urban established at provincial level of Sanma, Tafea, Malampa and Shefa provinces.
In addition, family Commission, an assessment of compliance of Vanuatu legislation with CEDAW, and the development areas of Port Vila and Luganville and in Tanna where VWC and its Branches are active.5 protection orders are being issued in areas where magistrates are available, particularly in the urban of a comprehensive family law (Republic of Vanuatu 2009).
Positive steps have been taken by DOWA areas of Port Vila and Luganville and in Tanna where VWC and its Branches are active.5 and the National CEDAW Committee, with support from the UN WOMEN Pacific Regional Office, to Other aspects of the legislative framework also need strengthening to promote and protect women’s review legislative compliance with CEDAW.

A report is expected to be published on this in 2011. rights.
For example, the Vanuatu Government’s Law and Justice Strategy Sector Plan includes several Other aspects of the legislative framework also need strengthening to promote and protect women’s Legislative review and reform to ensure compliance in Vanuatu with CEDAW was recommended by the important objectives, such as the establishment of a Law Reform Commission and a Human Rights rights.
For example, the Vanuatu Government’s Law and Justice Strategy Sector Plan includes several UN Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW 2007: 3-4).

Commission, an assessment of compliance of Vanuatu legislation with CEDAW, and the development important objectives, such as the establishment of a Law Reform Commission and a Human Rights of a comprehensive family law (Republic of Vanuatu 2009).
Positive steps have been taken by DOWA Commission, an assessment of compliance of Vanuatu legislation with CEDAW, and the development The Law Reform Commission was established in March 2010.

A review of all existing legislation and the National CEDAW Committee, with support from the UN WOMEN Pacific Regional Office, to of a comprehensive family law (Republic of Vanuatu 2009).

Positive steps have been taken by DOWA relating to family law is the first reference of the new Law Reform Commission.
Family-related matters review legislative compliance with CEDAW.

A report is expected to be published on this in 2011. and the National CEDAW Committee, with support from the UN WOMEN Pacific Regional Office, to are currently covered under several different laws including those relating to property, family Legislative review and reform to ensure compliance in Vanuatu with CEDAW was recommended by the review legislative compliance with CEDAW.
A report is expected to be published on this in 2011. maintenance, custody of and access to children, the Marriage Act and the Matrimonial Causes Act.

UN Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW 2007: 3-4).

Legislative review and reform to ensure compliance in Vanuatu with CEDAW was recommended by the This review is a first step towards developing a comprehensive family law that respects the human UN Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW 2007: 3-4).
rights of women and children.

The Law Reform Commission was established in March 2010.

A review of all existing legislation relating to family law is the first reference of the new Law Reform Commission.

Family-related matters The Law Reform Commission was established in March 2010.
A review of all existing legislation Implementation of law are currently covered under several different laws including those relating to property, family relating to family law is the first reference of the new Law Reform Commission.

Family-related matters maintenance, custody of and access to children, the Marriage Act and the Matrimonial Causes Act.
are currently covered under several different laws including those relating to property, family The work of the Police Family Protection Unit (FPU) is a positive initiative to address crimes of violence This review is a first step towards developing a comprehensive family law that respects the human maintenance, custody of and access to children, the Marriage Act and the Matrimonial Causes Act.

against women and children.


Following the signing of a Memorandum of Understanding between VWC rights of women and children.

This review is a first step towards developing a comprehensive family law that respects the human and the FPU, procedures for the service of summons under the FPA are now clearer.

Through VWC’s rights of women and children.


male advocacy training program, many police have been trained on women’s rights and violence Implementation of law against women in recent years; this has had a significant impact on increasing women’s access to Implementation of law justice in urban and rural areas, with many police willing to work with VWC and the Branches, and with The work of the Police Family Protection Unit (FPU) is a positive initiative to address crimes of violence CAVAWs in remote areas.
against women and children.

Following the signing of a Memorandum of Understanding between VWC The work of the Police Family Protection Unit (FPU) is a positive initiative to address crimes of violence and the FPU, procedures for the service of summons under the FPA are now clearer.

Through VWC’s against women and children.


Following the signing of a Memorandum of Understanding between VWC Despite these positive steps, women’s access to justice is limited by the fact that the FPU has only 3 See section 11(4) and section 21 (2) of the FPA (Republic of Vanuatu 2008).

male advocacy training program, many police have been trained on women’s rights and violence and the FPU, procedures for the service of summons under the FPA are now clearer.
Through VWC’s been established in Port Vila; implementation of the intentions of the FPA has also been hampered by 4 At the time of writing, May 2011. against women in recent years; this has had a significant impact on increasing women’s access to male advocacy training program, many police have been trained on women’s rights and violence 5 The Torba Branch of VWC was set up in January 2011. the lack of knowledge of the law by the police outside the FPU.
There are many cases where untrained justice in urban and rural areas, with many police willing to work with VWC and the Branches, and with against women in recent years; this has had a significant impact on increasing women’s access to police are unclear about their obligations under the law.

Unfortunately there are examples where Police CAVAWs in remote areas.
justice in urban and rural areas, with many police willing to work with VWC and the Branches, and with Page 27 of 249 sympathise with offenders, where family protection orders have not been issued as directed by the CAVAWs in remote areas.

Court, and where women have been denied their rights or mis-informed by police.

Lack of resources is 3 See section 11(4) and section 21 (2) of the FPA (Republic of Vanuatu 2008).
a barrier, particularly in rural and remote areas; police often have inadequate funds for transport costs 4 At the time of writing, May 2011.

3 See section 11(4) and section 21 (2) of the FPA (Republic of Vanuatu 2008).

to serve a family protection order, to investigate very serious crimes of physical and sexual violence 5 The Torba Branch of VWC was set up in January 2011.

4 At the time of writing, May 2011. against women, and to apprehend offenders.
Even where police are taking steps to issue family 5 The Torba Branch of VWC was set up in January 2011. protection orders, perpetrators are not being charged with a criminal offence as provided for in the FPA.

Page 27 of 249 Although VWC, the Branches and CAVAWs always take statements that can be used for conviction of Page 27 of 249 Page 27 of 246 perpetrators of violence against women, no arrests have been made since the FPA was gazetted.
This is partly because many police remain unaware that violence against women is a criminal offence.

One issue raised during discussion of Vanuatu’s 2009 Universal Periodic Report to the United Nations Human Rights Council was that customary law is used to deny women equality, despite Constitutional guarantees against such discrimination.
The report noted that women were not allowed until recently to speak in nakamals (traditional meeting houses) when important issues affecting the community were discussed.

While this has changed in some areas, there are still parts of Vanuatu where women are banned from speaking in nakamals.
In addition, the island courts (the lowest in the hierarchy of courts), which are community-based and serve the majority of the population, adopt decisions based on customary laws and practices, which are often discriminatory against women (UN General Assembly 2009b: 3).

1.3 THE STATUS OF WOMEN IN VANUATU The UN Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women highlighted its concern regarding several aspects of women’s unequal status in Vanuatu.
One area that the Committee focused on was “the persistence of adverse cultural norms, practices and traditions, as well as patriarchal attitudes and deep-rooted stereotypes, regarding the roles, responsibilities and identities of men and women in all spheres of life”.
The Committee concluded that the Vanuatu Government has yet to undertake sustained and systematic action to eliminate stereotypes and negative cultural values, which perpetuate women’s unequal status in public life, decision making, marriage and family relations, and which are linked to violence against women (CEDAW 2007: 4).
Attitudes and beliefs about women and their roles – perpetuated through institutions “such as churches, chiefs, and political parties through their doctrines, principles, and structures that discriminate against women” – were also identified as major obstacles for advancing women’s development in a recent review of Vanuatu’s national machinery for women, supported by AusAID and UN WOMEN.
Lack of political will and leadership to advance gender equality and women’s empowerment were also identified as challenges (DOWA 2011: 11).
Specific aspects of women’s low status that were highlighted by the UN Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women were: the use of custom fines in cases of rape which either substitute for or lesson the punishment of offenders; the under-representation of women at all levels in public and political life (including Parliament, the judiciary, and appointed decision making bodies, particularly in the education sector); citizenship rights; unequal access to higher levels of education; wage gaps and occupational segregation by sex (including low numbers of female teachers in secondary and higher education); lack of access to affordable health care for women; high rates of teenage pregnancy; unequal access to property, land and inheritance by women; the lower legal age of marriage for women Page 28 of 249 Despite these positive steps, women’s access to justice is limited by the fact that the FPU has only been established in Port Vila; implementation of the intentions of the FPA has also been hampered by the lack of knowledge of the law by the police outside the FPU.
There are many cases where untrained police are unclear about their obligations under the law.

Unfortunately there are examples where Police sympathise with offenders, where family protection orders have not been issued as directed by the Court, and where women have been denied their rights or mis-informed by police.
Lack of resources is a barrier, particularly in rural and remote areas; police often have inadequate funds for transport costs to serve a family protection order, to investigate very serious crimes of physical and sexual violence against women, and to apprehend offenders.

Even where police are taking steps to issue family protection orders, perpetrators are not being charged with a criminal offence as provided for in the FPA.
Although VWC, the Branches and CAVAWs always take statements that can be used for conviction of perpetrators of violence against women, no arrests have been made since the FPA was gazetted.

This is partly because many police remain unaware that violence against women is a criminal offence.
One issue raised during discussion of Vanuatu’s 2009 Universal Periodic Report to the United Nations Human Rights Council was that customary law is used to deny women equality, despite Constitutional guarantees against such discrimination.

The report noted that women were not allowed until recently to speak in nakamals (traditional meeting houses) when important issues affecting the community were discussed.
While this has changed in some areas, there are still parts of Vanuatu where women are banned from speaking in nakamals.

In addition, the island courts (the lowest in the hierarchy of courts), which are community-based and serve the majority of the population, adopt decisions based on customary laws and practices, which are often discriminatory against women (UN General Assembly 2009b: 3).
1.3 THE STATUS OF WOMEN IN VANUATU The UN Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women highlighted its concern regarding several aspects of women’s unequal status in Vanuatu.

One area that the Committee focused on was “the persistence of adverse cultural norms, practices and traditions, as well as patriarchal attitudes and deep-rooted stereotypes, regarding the roles, responsibilities and identities of men and women in all spheres of life”.
The Committee concluded that the Vanuatu Government has yet to undertake sustained and systematic action to eliminate stereotypes and negative cultural values, which perpetuate women’s unequal status in public life, decision making, marriage and family relations, and which are linked to violence against women (CEDAW 2007: 4).
Attitudes and beliefs about women and their roles – perpetuated through institutions “such as churches, chiefs, and political parties through their doctrines, principles, and structures that discriminate against women” – were also identified as major obstacles for advancing women’s development in a recent review of Vanuatu’s national machinery for women, supported by AusAID and UN WOMEN.
Lack of political will and leadership to advance gender equality and women’s empowerment were also identified as challenges (DOWA 2011: 11).
Specific aspects of women’s low status that were highlighted by the UN Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women were: the use of custom fines in cases of rape which either substitute for or lesson the punishment of offenders; the under-representation of women at all levels in public and political life (including Parliament, the judiciary, and appointed decision making bodies, particularly in the education sector); citizenship rights; unequal access to higher levels of education; wage gaps and occupational segregation by sex (including low numbers of female teachers in secondary and higher education); lack of access to affordable health care for women; high rates of teenage pregnancy; unequal access to property, land and inheritance by women; the lower legal age of marriage for women (16 years) compared to men (18 years); lack of access to justice, particularly in rural and remote areas; the portrayal of women in the media; and the persistence of violence against women (CEDAW 2007: 4).
Page 28 of 249 Another issue that has been raised at international forums (such as the UN Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women), as well as in several Vanuatu reports, is the impact of bride price on women’s status (for example, CEDAW 2007; Tor and Toka 2004; and DOWA 2007).

These reports point out that bride price to a woman’s family has often been used to justify violence against women and poor treatment by husbands and in-laws.
In the words of a UN Human Rights Council report, “this practice effectively puts a commercial value on women, leading to an often heard Page 28 of 246 excuse that ‘because I have paid for her, I can do whatever I want with her’ ...

Despite the revocation of 80,000 Vatu minimum bride price by the Malvatumauri (Council of Chiefs) in 2006, the practice of bride price is still widespread” (UN General Assembly 2009b: 5).
The Vanuatu Government has made several commitments to eliminating gender disparities in education through various Ministry of Education planning and policy documents, including the “Gender Equity in Education Policy, 2005–2015” (Ministry of Education 2005; and Ministry of Education 2010).
A recent review of gender equity in education found that some gains had been made in reducing gender disparities in access to formal education, particularly at the primary and secondary school levels where enrolments of boys and girls are now about equal and in proportion to the age-related population (Ministry of Education 2010).
Overall, literacy rates are the same for young men and women aged 15 to 24 (94%); this shows that the gender gap is reducing, with overall adult literacy rates estimated by the World Bank at 84% for men and 80% for women (World Bank 2011).

However, progress has been slow in some areas.


Although girls’ secondary school enrolments increased at a faster rate than boys over the last 10 years, the review concluded that girls are still under-represented in tertiary education (47% female) and vocational and technical education (44% female), particularly in rural training centres (25% female).
Women are under-represented as teachers in secondary schools (38% female) and as principals (29% and 11% respectively in primary and secondary schools), although women make up 55% of primary school teachers and more than 90% of pre-school teachers.
While there is an incomplete picture regarding curriculum and subject choice by sex, the data that is available shows that males and females tend to study gender stereotyped subjects, and that a gender perspective has not yet been systematically included throughout the formal school curriculum (Ministry of Education 2010).
Women were also under-represented as recipients of scholarships to study overseas at tertiary level: from 1999 to 2009 about 40% of applicants and awardees were female (Ministry of Education 2010: 7).

In addition, following their overseas education women are not employed at the same rate as men: a recent tracer study found that only 26% of women were employed compared with 74% of men who received overseas tertiary education (Ministry of Education 2010: 7, 58).
A similar picture emerges in formal sector employment, where about one-third of employees are women and the remainder are men; women are mainly employed in occupations such as waitressing, nursing and accounting (VNSO 2006).

In 2009, women were 38% of government sector employees but only 17% of were senior officials or managers (Ministry of Education 2010: 62).
Similarly, the 2007 agricultural census found that 31% of paid workers in the agricultural sector were female, compared with 69% of men, but women only received 22% of the total remuneration.

Only 17% of women employed in the agricultural sector are managers or executives, compared with 35% of men (VNSO 2008: 87, 89).
The agricultural census provided no breakdown on the gender division of labour for subsistence agriculture or fishing, although 65% of household income comes from these activities, and anecdotal evidence indicates that women play a key role in subsistence production (VNSO 2008).

Page 29 of 249 (16 years) compared to men (18 years); lack of access to justice, particularly in rural and remote areas; the portrayal of women in the media; and the persistence of violence against women (CEDAW 2007: 4).
Another issue that has been raised at international forums (such as the UN Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women), as well as in several Vanuatu reports, is the impact of bride price on women’s status (for example, CEDAW 2007; Tor and Toka 2004; and DOWA 2007).

These reports point out that bride price to a woman’s family has often been used to justify violence against women and poor treatment by husbands and in-laws.
In the words of a UN Human Rights Council report, “this practice effectively puts a commercial value on women, leading to an often heard excuse that ‘because I have paid for her, I can do whatever I want with her’ ...

Despite the revocation of 80,000 Vatu minimum bride price by the Malvatumauri (Council of Chiefs) in 2006, the practice of bride price is still widespread” (UN General Assembly 2009b: 5).
The Vanuatu Government has made several commitments to eliminating gender disparities in education through various Ministry of Education planning and policy documents, including the “Gender Equity in Education Policy, 2005–2015” (Ministry of Education 2005; and Ministry of Education 2010).
A recent review of gender equity in education found that some gains had been made in reducing gender disparities in access to formal education, particularly at the primary and secondary school levels where enrolments of boys and girls are now about equal and in proportion to the age-related population (Ministry of Education 2010).
Overall, literacy rates are the same for young men and women aged 15 to 24 (94%); this shows that the gender gap is reducing, with overall adult literacy rates estimated by the World Bank at 84% for men and 80% for women (World Bank 2011).

However, progress has been slow in some areas.


Although girls’ secondary school enrolments increased at a faster rate than boys over the last 10 years, the review concluded that girls are still under-represented in tertiary education (47% female) and vocational and technical education (44% female), particularly in rural training centres (25% female).
Women are under-represented as teachers in secondary schools (38% female) and as principals (29% and 11% respectively in primary and secondary schools), although women make up 55% of primary school teachers and more than 90% of pre-school teachers.
While there is an incomplete picture regarding curriculum and subject choice by sex, the data that is available shows that males and females tend to study gender stereotyped subjects, and that a gender perspective has not yet been systematically included throughout the formal school curriculum (Ministry of Education 2010).
Women were also under-represented as recipients of scholarships to study overseas at tertiary level: from 1999 to 2009 about 40% of applicants and awardees were female (Ministry of Education 2010: 7).

In addition, following their overseas education women are not employed at the same rate as men: a recent tracer study found that only 26% of women were employed compared with 74% of men who received overseas tertiary education (Ministry of Education 2010: 7, 58).
A similar picture emerges in formal sector employment, where about one-third of employees are women and the remainder are men; women are mainly employed in occupations such as waitressing, nursing and accounting (VNSO 2006).

In 2009, women were 38% of government sector employees but only 17% of were senior officials or managers (Ministry of Education 2010: 62).
Similarly, the 2007 agricultural census found that 31% of paid workers in the agricultural sector were female, compared with 69% of men, but women only received 22% of the total remuneration.

Only 17% of women employed in the agricultural sector are managers or executives, compared with 35% of men (VNSO 2008: 87, 89).
The agricultural census provided no breakdown on the gender division of labour for subsistence agriculture or fishing, although 65% of household income comes from these activities, and anecdotal evidence indicates that women play a key role in subsistence production (VNSO 2008).

Vanuatu has made commitments to advancing the status of women in political governance (Republic of Page 29 of 249 Vanuatu 2006).
However, progress has been very slow: only 5 women have ever been elected to national parliament (which amounts to 1.4% of all Members of Parliament) and currently there is only 1 woman among the 52 Members.

Women have made up 4.3% of all municipal councillors in urban areas, but less than 1% of all provincial government councillors (DOWA 2010: 13-15).
Improving maternal health and reducing child mortality is identified as one of the major challenges facing Vanuatu in the Government’s 2009 Universal Periodic Report to the United Nations Human Page 29 of 246 Rights Council (UN General Assembly 2009a: 16).
Vanuatu is one of the few countries in the world that has more men than women: the 2009 national census found that 49% of the population of Vanuatu is female, with a sex ratio of 104 males to every 100 females; this compares with a sex ratio of 106 from the previous census (VNSO 2009: 8; Republic of Vanuatu 2004:11).

Although the sex ratio is improving, such differences are usually seen as an indicator of very low status of women.
Contraceptive use is low by regional standards (estimates range from 24% to 38%).

Birth rates have reduced from 4.5 births per women in 2000 to 3.9 in 2009; and births by adolescent women 19 years or under have reduced from 58 to 44 per thousand over the same period.
In 2000, about 88% of women had a skilled birth attendant on hand during delivery, but this had reduced to 74% in 2007.6 The Ministry of Health Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey found that 24% of women were married before the age of 18, and 13% of young women currently aged 15 to 19 are already married or living in a de facto union; for 32% of these young women, their husbands are older than them by 10 years or more (Ministry of Health 2008: vi).
While some data show progress in health indicators, it is clear that serious gender inequalities remain, including overwork, poor nutrition and poor access to health services.

6 Health data used in this paragraph is taken from the World Bank (Genderstats website accessed May 2011) and the Ministry of Health 2008 Vanuatu Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey.

Page 30 of 249 Vanuatu has made commitments to advancing the status of women in political governance (Republic of Vanuatu 2006).
However, progress has been very slow: only 5 women have ever been elected to national parliament (which amounts to 1.4% of all Members of Parliament) and currently there is only 1 woman among the 52 Members.

Women have made up 4.3% of all municipal councillors in urban areas, but less than 1% of all provincial government councillors (DOWA 2010: 13-15).
Vanuatu has made commitments to advancing the status of women in political governance (Republic of Improving maternal health and reducing child mortality is identified as one of the major challenges Vanuatu 2006).
However, progress has been very slow: only 5 women have ever been elected to facing Vanuatu in the Government’s 2009 Universal Periodic Report to the United Nations Human national parliament (which amounts to 1.4% of all Members of Parliament) and currently there is only 1 Rights Council (UN General Assembly 2009a: 16).

Vanuatu is one of the few countries in the world that woman among the 52 Members.
Women have made up 4.3% of all municipal councillors in urban has more men than women: the 2009 national census found that 49% of the population of Vanuatu is areas, but less than 1% of all provincial government councillors (DOWA 2010: 13-15).

female, with a sex ratio of 104 males to every 100 females; this compares with a sex ratio of 106 from the previous census (VNSO 2009: 8; Republic of Vanuatu 2004:11).
Although the sex ratio is Improving maternal health and reducing child mortality is identified as one of the major challenges improving, such differences are usually seen as an indicator of very low status of women.

Contraceptive facing Vanuatu in the Government’s 2009 Universal Periodic Report to the United Nations Human use is low by regional standards (estimates range from 24% to 38%).

Birth rates have reduced from 4.5 Rights Council (UN General Assembly 2009a: 16).
Vanuatu is one of the few countries in the world that births per women in 2000 to 3.9 in 2009; and births by adolescent women 19 years or under have has more men than women: the 2009 national census found that 49% of the population of Vanuatu is reduced from 58 to 44 per thousand over the same period.
In 2000, about 88% of women had a skilled female, with a sex ratio of 104 males to every 100 females; this compares with a sex ratio of 106 from birth attendant on hand during delivery, but this had reduced to 74% in 2007.6 The Ministry of Health the previous census (VNSO 2009: 8; Republic of Vanuatu 2004:11).
Although the sex ratio is Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey found that 24% of women were married before the age of 18, and improving, such differences are usually seen as an indicator of very low status of women.

Contraceptive 13% of young women currently aged 15 to 19 are already married or living in a de facto union; for 32% use is low by regional standards (estimates range from 24% to 38%).
Birth rates have reduced from 4.5 of these young women, their husbands are older than them by 10 years or more (Ministry of Health births per women in 2000 to 3.9 in 2009; and births by adolescent women 19 years or under have 2008: vi).

While some data show progress in health indicators, it is clear that serious gender reduced from 58 to 44 per thousand over the same period.
In 2000, about 88% of women had a skilled inequalities remain, including overwork, poor nutrition and poor access to health services.
birth attendant on hand during delivery, but this had reduced to 74% in 2007.6 The Ministry of Health Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey found that 24% of women were married before the age of 18, and 13% of young women currently aged 15 to 19 are already married or living in a de facto union; for 32% of these young women, their husbands are older than them by 10 years or more (Ministry of Health 2008: vi).
While some data show progress in health indicators, it is clear that serious gender inequalities remain, including overwork, poor nutrition and poor access to health services.

6 Health data used in this paragraph is taken from the World Bank (Genderstats website accessed May 2011) and the Ministry of Health 2008 Vanuatu Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey.
Page 30 of 249 6 Health data used in this paragraph is taken from the World Bank (Genderstats website accessed May 2011) and the Ministry of Health 2008 Vanuatu Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey.
Page 30 of 249 Page 30 of 246 CHAPTER 2: RESEARCH OBJECTIVES AND METHODOLOGY 2.1 BACKGROUND TO THE RESEARCH CHAPTER 2: RESEARCH OBJECTIVES AND METHODOLOGY The purpose of VWC’s research program is to strengthen VWC’s service delivery and work in all areas – counselling, community awareness and education, training, and legal advocacy.

This survey is VWC’s 2.1 BACKGROUND TO THE RESEARCH first major research activity.
Accordingly, VWC’s first step in developing the research design was to undertake a comprehensive scan of other research that had been done on violence against women and The purpose of VWC’s research program is to strengthen VWC’s service delivery and work in all areas children in Vanuatu, the Pacific region and internationally, to ensure that the best methodology was – counselling, community awareness and education, training, and legal advocacy.
This survey is VWC’s chosen to collect high quality and reliable data.

This was documented in a background paper (VWC first major research activity.
Accordingly, VWC’s first step in developing the research design was to 2007) that included a review of the methodologies used by other agencies; a summary of the lessons undertake a comprehensive scan of other research that had been done on violence against women and learned in the region and internationally on conducting population-based research into violence against children in Vanuatu, the Pacific region and internationally, to ensure that the best methodology was women; and key ethical and sampling considerations.
VWC established a Research Consultative chosen to collect high quality and reliable data.
This was documented in a background paper (VWC Committee which included the Vanuatu National Statistics Office (VNSO), the Department of Women’s 2007) that included a review of the methodologies used by other agencies; a summary of the lessons Affair’s (DOWA)/the Ministry of Justice and Social Welfare, the Ministry of Health (MOH) and key civil learned in the region and internationally on conducting population-based research into violence against society organisations.
women; and key ethical and sampling considerations.

VWC established a Research Consultative Committee which included the Vanuatu National Statistics Office (VNSO), the Department of Women’s VWC chose the World Health Organisation (WHO) methodology for the research because it is Affair’s (DOWA)/the Ministry of Justice and Social Welfare, the Ministry of Health (MOH) and key civil scientifically sound, well-tested and based on extensive experience and learning about research on society organisations.
violence against women.

WHO undertook a definitive multi-country study on women’s health and domestic violence against women in 10 countries, including Samoa (WHO 2005).
Since then, many VWC chose the World Health Organisation (WHO) methodology for the research because it is other countries have used or adapted the WHO methodology including Pacific island countries, such as scientifically sound, well-tested and based on extensive experience and learning about research on Solomon Islands (SPC 2009), Kiribati (SPC 2010), and Fiji (forthcoming).7 Extensive technical support violence against women.
WHO undertook a definitive multi-country study on women’s health and was provided by WHO throughout the process, including the provision of training and data processing domestic violence against women in 10 countries, including Samoa (WHO 2005).

Since then, many manuals that were adapted by VWC, and advice on sampling and other matters.
other countries have used or adapted the WHO methodology including Pacific island countries, such as Solomon Islands (SPC 2009), Kiribati (SPC 2010), and Fiji (forthcoming).7 Extensive technical support Studies in other countries included qualitative research to assist with adaptation of the WHO was provided by WHO throughout the process, including the provision of training and data processing questionnaire to local conditions.

This was not necessary in the Vanuatu context.


Sufficient qualitative manuals that were adapted by VWC, and advice on sampling and other matters.
documentation was available to adapt the WHO survey instrument – from research undertaken by other agencies8, and from the rich information that VWC has gathered through its work over many years, Studies in other countries included qualitative research to assist with adaptation of the WHO including through annual program design, monitoring and evaluation workshops and annual trainings questionnaire to local conditions.

This was not necessary in the Vanuatu context.


Sufficient qualitative and meetings with VWC’s network of branches and rural committees against violence against women documentation was available to adapt the WHO survey instrument – from research undertaken by other (CAVAWs).
agencies8, and from the rich information that VWC has gathered through its work over many years, including through annual program design, monitoring and evaluation workshops and annual trainings Samoa was the only country in the WHO multi-country study that surveyed men as well as women and meetings with VWC’s network of branches and rural committees against violence against women (SPC 2003).

This was rejected by the WHO for other study sites due to the substantial additional (CAVAWs).
resources required (WHO 2007: 22).

For ethical and safety reasons, it is essential to have a different location and different sampling framework to interview men; it is also necessary to have an additional Samoa was the only country in the WHO multi-country study that surveyed men as well as women survey instrument.

Although it was intended that either men or women could answer the household (SPC 2003).
This was rejected by the WHO for other study sites due to the substantial additional questionnaire, the major research tool was the individual women’s questionnaire.

Including a separate resources required (WHO 2007: 22).
For ethical and safety reasons, it is essential to have a different questionnaire and separate sampling framework to interview men about their experiences would have location and different sampling framework to interview men; it is also necessary to have an additional significantly increased the cost of the research and VWC opted not to include men in this survey.

survey instrument.
survey instrument.

Although it was intended that either men or women could answer the household questionnaire, the major research tool was the individual women’s questionnaire.

Including a separate VWC took a participatory approach to the adaptation of the WHO methodology, which ensured its questionnaire and separate sampling framework to interview men about their experiences would have relevance to the Vanuatu context.
All aspects of the research design were workshopped with selected significantly increased the cost of the research and VWC opted not to include men in this survey.
VWC staff, Project Officers from the VWC Branches (Sanma Counselling Centre and Tafea Counselling 7 Other countries in the WHO multi-country study were: Bangladesh, Brazil, Peru, Thailand, Tanzania, Ethiopia, Japan, Centre), and with representatives from rural CAVAWs, some of whom were also involved in the Ministry Namibia, and Serbia and Montenegro (WHO 2005: 19).

Since the multi-country study, the WHO methodology has been of Health (MOH) Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey.
used in Chile, China, Indonesia, New Zealand, the Maldives and Turkey (WHO 2007; Fulu 2007; and Jansen et al 2009).

8 For example, Tor and Toka 2004; Pacific Children’s Program 2004; and Foundation of the Peoples of the South Pacific Vanuatu 2005.

2.2 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES AND QUESTIONS 7 Other countries in the WHO multi-country study were: Bangladesh, Brazil, Peru, Thailand, Tanzania, Ethiopia, Japan, Namibia, and Serbia and Montenegro (WHO 2005: 19).
Since the multi-country study, the WHO methodology has been used in Chile, China, Indonesia, New Zealand, the Maldives and Turkey (WHO 2007; Fulu 2007; and Jansen et al 2009).
Page 31 of 249 The aim of the survey was to conduct a population-based study to provide a reliable benchmark of the 8 For example, Tor and Toka 2004; Pacific Children’s Program 2004; and Foundation of the Peoples of the South Pacific prevalence and incidence of violence against women in Vanuatu, and on attitudes to violence including: Vanuatu 2005. health and other effects of violence on women and children; risk and protective factors in the family and the community; coping strategies of women; and the implications for prevention and support services.
Page 31 of 249 Research questions are listed below.9 Page 31 of 246 Prevalence and incidence 1.

What is the prevalence of physical abuse of women since the age of 15 years, and what is the frequency of such abuse as reported by these women?

2.

What is the prevalence and frequency that women report being forced to have sex against their will?

At what age(s) did this occur, and who are the main perpetrators?

3.
3.

What is the prevalence and frequency that women are physically or sexually abused by a current or former intimate partner?

4.

To what extent does violence occur during pregnancy?

Effects of violence against women on women victims/survivors 5.

How does domestic violence impact on women’s lives, including their access to education, ability to work and provide for their families, mobility and interaction with their communities?

6.
6.

How does intimate partner violence impact on women’s physical, mental and reproductive health and women’s use of health services?

Effects of violence against women on children 7.

To what extent is partner violence against women witnessed by children within the household?

8.

What are the consequences of domestic violence against women for their children?

Does it appear to affect factors such as school enrolment, or whether children have run away from home?

Attitudes, risks and protective factors 9.


What community factors are associated with the occurrence of intimate partner violence against women?

Is there an association with factors such as customary factors, levels of crime, male-to- male violence, land disputes, female membership of groups, economic inequality, or the extent to which neighbours, friends and family members intervene when violence occurs?

10.
10.

What factors in a woman’s family and individual life are associated with intimate partner violence against women – such as women’s access to and control of resources, whether a woman’s family members, friends or community leaders have intervened, or her access to different kinds of support?

To what extent are other family members aware of the abuse?

11.
11.

What individual factors are associated with men being violent towards their wives/partners – such as men having witnessed violence between their parents during their childhood; male loss of status; 9 All questions relating to men’s behaviour and experiences – such as male-to-male violence, men’s witnessing of violence during childhood and other aspects of men’s characteristics – were asked of women respondents.
Page 32 of 249 VWC took a participatory approach to the adaptation of the WHO methodology, which ensured its relevance to the Vanuatu context.

All aspects of the research design were workshopped with selected VWC staff, Project Officers from the VWC Branches (Sanma Counselling Centre and Tafea Counselling Centre), and with representatives from rural CAVAWs, some of whom were also involved in the Ministry of Health (MOH) Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey.
VWC took a participatory approach to the adaptation of the WHO methodology, which ensured its relevance to the Vanuatu context.
All aspects of the research design were workshopped with selected 2.2 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES AND QUESTIONS VWC staff, Project Officers from the VWC Branches (Sanma Counselling Centre and Tafea Counselling Centre), and with representatives from rural CAVAWs, some of whom were also involved in the Ministry The aim of the survey was to conduct a population-based study to provide a reliable benchmark of the of Health (MOH) Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey.
prevalence and incidence of violence against women in Vanuatu, and on attitudes to violence including: health and other effects of violence on women and children; risk and protective factors in the family and 2.2 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES AND QUESTIONS the community; coping strategies of women; and the implications for prevention and support services.
Research questions are listed below.9 The aim of the survey was to conduct a population-based study to provide a reliable benchmark of the prevalence and incidence of violence against women in Vanuatu, and on attitudes to violence including: Prevalence and incidence health and other effects of violence on women and children; risk and protective factors in the family and 1.
What is the prevalence of physical abuse of women since the age of 15 years, and what is the the community; coping strategies of women; and the implications for prevention and support services.

Research questions are listed below.9 2.

What is the prevalence and frequency that women report being forced to have sex against their Prevalence and incidence 1.

What is the prevalence of physical abuse of women since the age of 15 years, and what is the 3.
What is the prevalence and frequency that women are physically or sexually abused by a current or will?

At what age(s) did this occur, and who are the main perpetrators?

frequency of such abuse as reported by these women?

frequency of such abuse as reported by these women?

former intimate partner?

2.

What is the prevalence and frequency that women report being forced to have sex against their 4.

To what extent does violence occur during pregnancy?

will?
will?

At what age(s) did this occur, and who are the main perpetrators?

and women’s use of health services?

former intimate partner?

work and provide for their families, mobility and interaction with their communities?

Effects of violence against women on women victims/survivors 3.

What is the prevalence and frequency that women are physically or sexually abused by a current or 5.

How does domestic violence impact on women’s lives, including their access to education, ability to 4.
To what extent does violence occur during pregnancy?

6.

How does intimate partner violence impact on women’s physical, mental and reproductive health Effects of violence against women on women victims/survivors 5.

How does domestic violence impact on women’s lives, including their access to education, ability to Effects of violence against women on children 7.

To what extent is partner violence against women witnessed by children within the household?

6.
6.

How does intimate partner violence impact on women’s physical, mental and reproductive health 8.

What are the consequences of domestic violence against women for their children?

Does it appear and women’s use of health services?

to affect factors such as school enrolment, or whether children have run away from home?

work and provide for their families, mobility and interaction with their communities?

Effects of violence against women on children Attitudes, risks and protective factors 7.
To what extent is partner violence against women witnessed by children within the household?

9.

What community factors are associated with the occurrence of intimate partner violence against 8.

What are the consequences of domestic violence against women for their children?

Does it appear women?

Is there an association with factors such as customary factors, levels of crime, male-to- to affect factors such as school enrolment, or whether children have run away from home?
male violence, land disputes, female membership of groups, economic inequality, or the extent to which neighbours, friends and family members intervene when violence occurs?

Attitudes, risks and protective factors 10.

What factors in a woman’s family and individual life are associated with intimate partner violence 9.
What community factors are associated with the occurrence of intimate partner violence against against women – such as women’s access to and control of resources, whether a woman’s family women?

Is there an association with factors such as customary factors, levels of crime, male-to- members, friends or community leaders have intervened, or her access to different kinds of male violence, land disputes, female membership of groups, economic inequality, or the extent to support?
To what extent are other family members aware of the abuse?

which neighbours, friends and family members intervene when violence occurs?

11.

What individual factors are associated with men being violent towards their wives/partners – such 10.
What factors in a woman’s family and individual life are associated with intimate partner violence as men having witnessed violence between their parents during their childhood; male loss of status; against women – such as women’s access to and control of resources, whether a woman’s family male violence towards other men; kava, alcohol and drug use; gambling; customary practices, or members, friends or community leaders have intervened, or her access to different kinds of bride price?

support?
support?

To what extent are other family members aware of the abuse?

9 All questions relating to men’s behaviour and experiences – such as male-to-male violence, men’s witnessing of violence 11.

What individual factors are associated with men being violent towards their wives/partners – such during childhood and other aspects of men’s characteristics – were asked of women respondents.
Coping strategies of women as men having witnessed violence between their parents during their childhood; male loss of status; Page 32 of 249 12.

What strategies do women use to minimize or end violence?

Specifically, to what extent do victims/survivors retaliate against the perpetrator, leave the relationship, and seek help from family members, friends, or different support agencies?
9 All questions relating to men’s behaviour and experiences – such as male-to-male violence, men’s witnessing of violence during childhood and other aspects of men’s characteristics – were asked of women respondents.

Implications for prevention and support services Page 32 of 249 13.
Are there groups (formal and informal) from whom women victims/survivors would like to receive Page 32 of 246 more help – such as chiefs, church leaders and groups, VWC’s network, provincial government, police, courts, health centres, and non government organisations (NGOs)?

14.

Comparing the data between provinces, how do women’s responses to intimate partner violence differ?

What are the implications for prevention and support services?

15.
15.

Comparing the data between provinces, what does this tell us about individual, family and community factors contributing to intimate partner violence?

What are the implications for prevention?

2.3 THE SURVEY QUESTIONNAIRE AND ITS ADAPTATION VWC adapted the WHO multi-country study questionnaire (version 10) which was the outcome of an extensive process of international discussion, consultation and trialling (WHO 2007: 25-26).
The English version is attached at Annex 2 and includes: an administration form; a household selection form; a household questionnaire; and an individual women’s questionnaire.

The household selection form was used to randomly select one individual woman aged 15 to 49 from each household, who was interviewed using the women’s questionnaire.
The household questionnaire included questions to assess the socio-economic status of the household, and respondents’ general concerns about levels of crime, land disputes and sorcery.

The head of the household (or any responsible adult if the household head was not present) was interviewed for the household questionnaire.

Adaptation of the WHO instrument for the Vanuatu context was done through several participatory workshops.
The questionnaire was translated into Bislama by experienced VWC staff, and back- translated by bi-lingual staff and the research consultant.

Final adaptations to the Bislama and English versions of the questionnaire were completed during the training of fieldwork teams in February 2009.10 Adaptation of the questionnaire to the local context is encouraged by WHO, but within strict limits to preserve the validity, credibility and comparability the research (WHO 2007: 35-36).
Experience and research indicates that the wording, placement/context and order of questions can have an impact on the validity and reliability of data collected; thus the order of questions and the overall structure of the WHO instrument were closely adhered to, while still allowing for changes to fully reflect the Vanuatu context.

Adaptations were made to the household questionnaire to assess socio-economic status; and questions were added on community concerns about land disputes and sorcery.
The women’s questionnaire had the following sections; adaptations by VWC are noted for each section.

Individual consent form: introduces the survey and its focus on women’s lives and family relationships, assures the respondent that her answers will be confidential, and requires the interviewer to certify that the woman consents to be interviewed.

10 The final questionnaire was translated into French by a professional translator, but this was not used during the survey.
Page 33 of 249 male violence towards other men; kava, alcohol and drug use; gambling; customary practices, or bride price?

Coping strategies of women 12.

What strategies do women use to minimize or end violence?

Specifically, to what extent do victims/survivors retaliate against the perpetrator, leave the relationship, and seek help from family male violence towards other men; kava, alcohol and drug use; gambling; customary practices, or members, friends, or different support agencies?

bride price?
bride price?

Implications for prevention and support services Coping strategies of women 13.

Are there groups (formal and informal) from whom women victims/survivors would like to receive 12.

What strategies do women use to minimize or end violence?
Specifically, to what extent do more help – such as chiefs, church leaders and groups, VWC’s network, provincial government, victims/survivors retaliate against the perpetrator, leave the relationship, and seek help from family police, courts, health centres, and non government organisations (NGOs)?

members, friends, or different support agencies?

differ?

What are the implications for prevention and support services?

14.
14.

Comparing the data between provinces, how do women’s responses to intimate partner violence Implications for prevention and support services 13.

Are there groups (formal and informal) from whom women victims/survivors would like to receive 15.

Comparing the data between provinces, what does this tell us about individual, family and more help – such as chiefs, church leaders and groups, VWC’s network, provincial government, community factors contributing to intimate partner violence?
What are the implications for police, courts, health centres, and non government organisations (NGOs)?

prevention?

differ?

What are the implications for prevention and support services?

14.

Comparing the data between provinces, how do women’s responses to intimate partner violence 2.3 THE SURVEY QUESTIONNAIRE AND ITS ADAPTATION 15.
Comparing the data between provinces, what does this tell us about individual, family and VWC adapted the WHO multi-country study questionnaire (version 10) which was the outcome of an community factors contributing to intimate partner violence?

What are the implications for extensive process of international discussion, consultation and trialling (WHO 2007: 25-26).

The prevention?
The prevention?

English version is attached at Annex 2 and includes: an administration form; a household selection form; a household questionnaire; and an individual women’s questionnaire.

The household selection 2.3 THE SURVEY QUESTIONNAIRE AND ITS ADAPTATION form was used to randomly select one individual woman aged 15 to 49 from each household, who was interviewed using the women’s questionnaire.
The household questionnaire included questions to VWC adapted the WHO multi-country study questionnaire (version 10) which was the outcome of an assess the socio-economic status of the household, and respondents’ general concerns about levels of extensive process of international discussion, consultation and trialling (WHO 2007: 25-26).

The crime, land disputes and sorcery.


The head of the household (or any responsible adult if the household English version is attached at Annex 2 and includes: an administration form; a household selection head was not present) was interviewed for the household questionnaire.

form; a household questionnaire; and an individual women’s questionnaire.
The household selection form was used to randomly select one individual woman aged 15 to 49 from each household, who was Adaptation of the WHO instrument for the Vanuatu context was done through several participatory interviewed using the women’s questionnaire.

The household questionnaire included questions to workshops.
The questionnaire was translated into Bislama by experienced VWC staff, and back- assess the socio-economic status of the household, and respondents’ general concerns about levels of translated by bi-lingual staff and the research consultant.

Final adaptations to the Bislama and English crime, land disputes and sorcery.
The head of the household (or any responsible adult if the household versions of the questionnaire were completed during the training of fieldwork teams in February 2009.10 head was not present) was interviewed for the household questionnaire.
Adaptation of the questionnaire to the local context is encouraged by WHO, but within strict limits to Adaptation of the WHO instrument for the Vanuatu context was done through several participatory preserve the validity, credibility and comparability the research (WHO 2007: 35-36).

Experience and workshops.


The questionnaire was translated into Bislama by experienced VWC staff, and back- research indicates that the wording, placement/context and order of questions can have an impact on translated by bi-lingual staff and the research consultant.
Final adaptations to the Bislama and English the validity and reliability of data collected; thus the order of questions and the overall structure of the versions of the questionnaire were completed during the training of fieldwork teams in February 2009.10 WHO instrument were closely adhered to, while still allowing for changes to fully reflect the Vanuatu context.
Adaptations were made to the household questionnaire to assess socio-economic status; and Adaptation of the questionnaire to the local context is encouraged by WHO, but within strict limits to questions were added on community concerns about land disputes and sorcery.

The women’s preserve the validity, credibility and comparability the research (WHO 2007: 35-36).

Experience and questionnaire had the following sections; adaptations by VWC are noted for each section.
research indicates that the wording, placement/context and order of questions can have an impact on the validity and reliability of data collected; thus the order of questions and the overall structure of the Individual consent form: introduces the survey and its focus on women’s lives and family WHO instrument were closely adhered to, while still allowing for changes to fully reflect the Vanuatu relationships, assures the respondent that her answers will be confidential, and requires the interviewer context.
Adaptations were made to the household questionnaire to assess socio-economic status; and to certify that the woman consents to be interviewed.

questions were added on community concerns about land disputes and sorcery.

The women’s questionnaire had the following sections; adaptations by VWC are noted for each section.

10 The final questionnaire was translated into French by a professional translator, but this was not used during the survey.
Individual consent form: introduces the survey and its focus on women’s lives and family relationships, assures the respondent that her answers will be confidential, and requires the interviewer Page 33 of 249 to certify that the woman consents to be interviewed.

10 The final questionnaire was translated into French by a professional translator, but this was not used during the survey.
Page 33 of 249 Page 33 of 246 Section 1, respondent and her community: includes questions on social cohesion, the respondent’s networks with family and local organisations, and characteristics of the respondent including relationship status.

Additions by VWC focused on women’s choice of their current husband/partner.
Section 2, general health: includes questions on physical and mental health problems during the previous month including suicidal thoughts and actions, use of medication and health services, and frequency of smoking and drinking.

Adaptations by VWC included home brew and kava.

Section 3, reproductive health: includes questions on the respondent’s history of pregnancy, miscarriage, contraceptive use, and husband’s/partner’s responses to family planning.
Adaptations by VWC focused on the husband’s/partner’s responses to family planning.

Section 4, children: includes questions on the number of live children, the most recent pregnancy and the behaviour of children and their schooling.
Section 5, current or most recent husband/partner: includes questions on his characteristics, employment, frequency of drinking and drug use, involvement in physical fights with other men, and whether he had relationships with other women or children with other women while he was in a relationship with the respondent.

Adaptations by VWC included home brew, kava and gambling.
Section 6, attitudes: includes questions on attitudes to gender roles and women’s human rights, situations where a man may have “good reason” for physical violence against his wife/partner, and attitudes to women’s sexual autonomy.
Adaptations by VWC focused on cultural practices (taboos on women touching food during menstruation, the custom of swapping or exchanging girls for marriage, bride price), expectations related to pregnancy, and additional questions on situations where a man may have “good reason” for hitting his wife (such as for discipline or educating her), and where a woman may be justified in refusing sex.
Section 7, respondent and her partner: includes a request for permission to continue the questionnaire; questions on the respondent’s communication patterns with her partner, and her experiences of controlling behaviours by the husband/partner, and emotional, physical and sexual violence, including violence during pregnancy.

Additions by VWC included specific forms of control and abuse known to occur due to anecdotal evidence.
Section 8, injuries: includes questions on the frequency, type and severity of injuries resulting from physical violence by a husband/partner, and the use of health services for these injuries.

Additions by VWC included specific types of injuries known to occur due to partner violence (removal of spleen), and permanent disability caused by intimate partner violence.
Section 9, impact and coping: includes questions on the situations that trigger violence by husbands/partners, whether children witnessed the violence, the association between physical violence and rape, whether women retaliated and the impact of this, her view of the impact of the violence on her physical and spiritual well-being and work, and any actions she took to tell anyone about the violence or seek help (including leaving home), and the reasons for doing so or not doing so.
Additions by VWC included whether children were also beaten, whether women took their children when they left home and the reasons why/why not; and contextual adaptations of responses relating to women’s reasons for seeking help or not doing so.
Section 10, other experiences: includes questions on women’s experiences of physical and sexual violence by people other than husbands/partners since the age of 15, child sexual assault, age and Page 34 of 249 Page 34 of 246 experience of the first sexual experience, and whether there was a history of violence towards mothers in her or her husband’s/partner’s family.
Section 11, financial autonomy: includes questions on ownership of assets, control over her own income, and capacity to support herself and her family in an emergency.

Additions by VWC were whether she could raise enough money to pay back bride price on her own.
Section 12, completion of interview: includes 2 scripted endings depending on whether women disclosed violence, a question on how they felt after the interview, and an opportunity for anonymous reporting of child sexual abuse using a face card (Box 2.2).
2.4 OPERATIONAL DEFINITIONS USED IN THE SURVEY Eligible and ever-partnered women Some sections of the women’s questionnaire were asked of all eligible women, some were asked of “ever-partnered” women, and others were asked only of those women who had disclosed violence by their husbands or partners.

Eligible women were those aged between 15 and 49 years who lived in the household.
This included visitors, friends and other relatives if they slept in the household for the past 4 weeks, or domestic workers (“house-girls”) if they slept 5 nights a week or more in the house.

Only 1 eligible woman was interviewed per household; in households with more than 1 eligible woman or girl, the respondent was selected randomly.

In households with no eligible women, only the household questionnaire was completed and no individual woman’s interview was done.
Ever-partnered women are those who could potentially be at risk of experiencing violence by a husband or partner.

This was broadly defined as women and girls who were ever in an intimate sexual relationship with a man.

This includes women who were ever legally married, those who ever lived with a male partner including in a de facto relationship, those who ever had a regular intimate male partner but never lived with him, and those who ever had an intimate relationship with a man they were dating.
Violence against women Violence against women and girls is defined in the UN Declaration on the Elimination of Violence against Women as occurring in three domains: the family, the community, and violence perpetrated or condoned by the State.
This includes any act of violence that results in, or is likely to result in, physical, sexual or psychological harm or suffering to women, including threats of such acts, coercion, arbitrary deprivation of liberty, battering, sexual abuse of female children, marital rape, and traditional practices harmful to women (UN General Assembly 1993).
This survey focused on physical, sexual and emotional violence by husbands or intimate partners, coercive and controlling behaviours by husbands/partners, physical and sexual violence perpetrated by people other than husbands/partners since the age of 15, and child sexual abuse before the age of 15.

The specific acts used to define each of these types of violence are summarised in Box 2.1.
For each act of physical, sexual or emotional abuse by a husband/partner, the respondent was asked whether it occurred in the previous 12 months, or before the previous 12 months.

Respondents were also asked how frequently the violent and abusive acts had occurred: once, a few times or many times.
Page 35 of 249 Page 35 of 246 Box 2.1: Operational definitions of violence against women and girls Physical violence by a husband/partner  Slapped or had something thrown at her that could hurt her Pushed or shoved, or had her hair pulled Hit with a fist or something else that could hurt her Kicked, dragged, or beaten up Choked or burnt on purpose Threatened to use a knife, piece of wood, iron, axe, gun or other weapon against her Actually used a knife, piece of wood, iron, axe, gun or other weapon against her Controlling behaviours by a husband/partner  Tries to keep her from seeing her friends  Tries to restrict contact with her family of birth  Insists on knowing where she is at all times  Ignores her or treats her indifferently  Gets angry if she speaks with another man  Is often suspicious that she is unfaithful  Expects her to ask his permission before seeking health care for herself Expects her anything to ask his permission before doing  Sexual violence by a husband/partner  Physically forced to have sexual intercourse when she did not want to Had sexual intercourse when she did not want to because she was afraid of what her husband/partner might do Forced to do something sexual that she found degrading or humiliating Physical violence during pregnancy  Slapped, hit, beaten, punched or kicked or hit/beaten with anything while pregnant Slapped, hit, beaten, punched or kicked in the stomach while pregnant, or hit with any other thing in the stomach, such as wood, iron or pipe Penetrated the vagina against her will with a hand or object while pregnant, in order to harm her or her baby           Emotional abuse by a husband/partner     Insulted or made to feel bad about herself Belittled or humiliated in front of her parents or family Belittled or humiliated in front of other people He did things to scare or intimidate her on purpose (e.g.
by yelling or smashing things) He threatened to hurt her or someone she cared about  Physical violence by non-partners (over 15 years)  Beaten or physically mistreated in any way Sexual violence by non-partners (over 15 years)  Forced to have sex or to perform a sexual act when she did not want to Sexual violence before the age of 15  Ever touched sexually or made to do something sexual when she did not want to Child sexual abuse This is a difficult topic to explore in a questionnaire because of the highly sensitive nature of childhood sexual abuse and the shame and trauma associated with it, which results in considerable under- reporting of the problem.
Three different ways of exploring this topic were used.

First, in section 10 (question 1003a), respondents were asked whether anyone ever touched them sexually, or made them do something sexual that they did not want to before the age of 15 years.

Then respondents were asked their age when they first had sex, and whether their first sexual experience was forced, coerced or by choice (questions 1004-1005).
Finally, at the end of each interview, each respondent was handed a card with 2 pictures of a sad and happy face (Box 2.2) which allowed them to report on this topic anonymously (question 1201).

The respondent was asked to mark the sad face if someone ever touched her sexually or made her do something sexual against her will before the age of 15 years; and to mark the happy face if this did not happen to her.
Respondents were asked to seal this card in an envelope before handing it back to the interviewer, enabling her to keep her response secret.

After the completion of the interview, the sealed envelope was stapled to the respondent’s questionnaire and the questionnaire code was written on the envelope to allow responses to be accurately recorded during data entry.
Page 36 of 249 Page 36 of 246 Box 2.2: Face card used for reporting of child sexual assault WHO found that that this combination of methods helps ensure that a more complete estimate of the prevalence of childhood sexual abuse is obtained.

In the multi-country study, anonymous reporting did not always encourage the most reporting: some women reported childhood sexual abuse during the interview but did not disclose it anonymously, and some did the opposite.
Because of this, the combined prevalence (obtained if a positive response was given to either the interview question or the face card) is used as the most accurate estimate (WHO 2005: 50; WHO 2007: 29-30).

2.5 DESIGN OF THE SURVEY SAMPLE From the outset, VWC took the decision to have 8 survey sites including each of Vanuatu’s 6 provinces and both urban areas: Torba, Sanma, Penama, Malampa, Shefa and Tafea provinces, and the urban areas of Port Vila and Luganville.
The aim was to get reliable rural provincial and urban estimates of the prevalence of violence against women.

Due to the inaccessibility of some islands and the high air, boat and ground travel costs involved, this approach was more resource-intensive than that used in the WHO multi-country study.
The rationale for this approach was that different language groups and provinces might not be convinced that violence against women is a problem in their community, due to variations in customary practices, unless there was a nationally representative sample.

There was also a strong belief among community leaders that violence only or mainly occurred in urban areas, or in some provinces or islands.
VNSO technical expertise was used to design the survey sample and ensure that it was nationally representative with reliable estimates from the 8 survey sites.

A target sample of 3,000 households was chosen.

This was inflated by 25% to allow for possible non-response, due to the highly sensitive nature of the survey content, giving a total sample of 3750.
The sample was designed to provide similar levels of accuracy and reliability in the data from each site and this determined the number of households selected from each site.

Page 37 of 249 Page 37 of 246 A 2-stage approach was used to generate the sample design.
The first stage involved the selection of enumeration areas, using “probability proportional to size” sampling technique.11 This was based on the number of households expected in each enumeration area, using the recently conducted Agriculture A 2-stage approach was used to generate the sample design.
The first stage involved the selection of Census household listing (VNSO 2008a; VNSO 2008).12 During this stage, 234 enumeration areas enumeration areas, using “probability proportional to size” sampling technique.11 This was based on the were selected from 55 area council areas across Vanuatu’s 6 provinces and 2 urban areas.
The number of households expected in each enumeration area, using the recently conducted Agriculture number of households included in this first stage of selection was estimated to be 24,000.13 Census household listing (VNSO 2008a; VNSO 2008).12 During this stage, 234 enumeration areas were selected from 55 area council areas across Vanuatu’s 6 provinces and 2 urban areas.
The Household listers were selected jointly by VWC and VNSO from VWC’s pool of trained male advocates number of households included in this first stage of selection was estimated to be 24,000.13 and VNSO’s pool of household listers from previous surveys.

Household listers were trained by VNSO staff for 1 week in February 2009.
Following the household listing, data was entered by data processors Household listers were selected jointly by VWC and VNSO from VWC’s pool of trained male advocates and VNSO used systematic random sampling techniques to select households from each of the and VNSO’s pool of household listers from previous surveys.

Household listers were trained by VNSO enumeration areas in the 8 survey sites to yield the total sample of 3750 households.

Table 3.3 in staff for 1 week in February 2009.


Following the household listing, data was entered by data processors Chapter 3 shows the breakdown of households from each of the 8 survey locations, and the response and VNSO used systematic random sampling techniques to select households from each of the rates for the household and women’s questionnaires.

Annex 5 is a list of islands included in the survey enumeration areas in the 8 survey sites to yield the total sample of 3750 households.
Table 3.3 in by province.

Chapter 3 shows the breakdown of households from each of the 8 survey locations, and the response rates for the household and women’s questionnaires.

Annex 5 is a list of islands included in the survey At this time of the sample design, the estimated number of households in the country was 45,317.

The by province.

2009 national census conducted later in 2009 found 47,373 households.
Using the national census data, the proportion of households sampled was 7.9%; using the data available at the time from the At this time of the sample design, the estimated number of households in the country was 45,317.

The agricultural census, the proportion sampled was 8.3% (VNSO 2008a; and VNSO 2009).

2009 national census conducted later in 2009 found 47,373 households.
Using the national census data, the proportion of households sampled was 7.9%; using the data available at the time from the 2.6 FIELDWORK, DATA PROCESSING AND QUALITY CONTROL agricultural census, the proportion sampled was 8.3% (VNSO 2008a; and VNSO 2009).
Interviewer selection and training 2.6 FIELDWORK, DATA PROCESSING AND QUALITY CONTROL Lessons learned on conducting population-based surveys on violence against women show that the Interviewer selection and training selection of interviewers can have an impact on whether respondents are comfortable to talk about their experiences of violence.
For example, women may be reluctant to disclose abuse to young women or Lessons learned on conducting population-based surveys on violence against women show that the women from their local area.

Marital status, non-judgemental attitudes and interpersonal skills can have selection of interviewers can have an impact on whether respondents are comfortable to talk about their a significant effect on whether women feel comfortable to disclose violence.

Training, supervision in the experiences of violence.
For example, women may be reluctant to disclose abuse to young women or field, monitoring and ongoing support are essential to achieve valid findings (Ellsberg and Heise 2005; women from their local area.

Marital status, non-judgemental attitudes and interpersonal skills can have VWC 2007: 4).

WHO guidelines also highlighted the following important skills for interviewers: ability to a significant effect on whether women feel comfortable to disclose violence.
Training, supervision in the interact with all types of people; maturity; skill at building rapport; and experience in dealing with field, monitoring and ongoing support are essential to achieve valid findings (Ellsberg and Heise 2005; sensitive issues (WHO 2007: 38).

Given the complexity of the questionnaire, VWC selection criteria VWC 2007: 4).

WHO guidelines also highlighted the following important skills for interviewers: ability to also required interviewers to have been educated above primary level.
interact with all types of people; maturity; skill at building rapport; and experience in dealing with sensitive issues (WHO 2007: 38).

Given the complexity of the questionnaire, VWC selection criteria VWC’s network of island-based CAVAWs provided an excellent resource from which to select also required interviewers to have been educated above primary level.
interviewers, field editors and supervisors for the fieldwork.14 CAVAW members had already received training on violence against women from VWC and many had also been trained in Suva by the Fiji VWC’s network of island-based CAVAWs provided an excellent resource from which to select Women’s Crisis Centre at their month-long regional training program on basic counselling and interviewers, field editors and supervisors for the fieldwork.14 CAVAW members had already received community education skills.
Many CAVAW members have been working to address the problems of training on violence against women from VWC and many had also been trained in Suva by the Fiji violence in their local areas for many years.

The vast majority of the 65 interviewers were CAVAW Women’s Crisis Centre at their month-long regional training program on basic counselling and members; in Port Vila and Luganville, women who were not CAVAW members were also chosen who community education skills.
Many CAVAW members have been working to address the problems of met the criteria listed above.

violence in their local areas for many years.

The vast majority of the 65 interviewers were CAVAW members; in Port Vila and Luganville, women who were not CAVAW members were also chosen who met the criteria listed above.

11 This sampling technique ensures that households in larger provinces have the same probability of getting into the sample as those from smaller households.
It is commonly used to generate a representative and random sample when different sampling units (in this case the 6 provinces and 2 urban sites) vary considerably in size (McGinn 2004: 1).

11 This sampling technique ensures that households in larger provinces have the same probability of getting into the sample 12 The November 2009 national census for Vanuatu was done after VWC’s survey.

as those from smaller households.


It is commonly used to generate a representative and random sample when different 13 Information taken from “Selected areas” (Excel worksheet developed by Benuel Lenge), VNSO, February 2009. sampling units (in this case the 6 provinces and 2 urban sites) vary considerably in size (McGinn 2004: 1).

14 The roles of field editors and supervisors are explained below in the section below on quality control procedures.
12 The November 2009 national census for Vanuatu was done after VWC’s survey.

13 Information taken from “Selected areas” (Excel worksheet developed by Benuel Lenge), VNSO, February 2009.

14 The roles of field editors and supervisors are explained below in the section below on quality control procedures.

Page 38 of 249 Page 38 of 249 Page 38 of 246 In total, 65 women were trained and 51 were selected to participate as field team members in the study.
Each team included a field supervisor, field editor and either 4 or 5 interviewers, depending on the province and the number of households to be interviewed (Annex 3 lists the research team members).

In total, 65 women were trained and 51 were selected to participate as field team members in the study.
Training of the fieldwork team was held over 4 weeks in February/March 2009, while the data entry for Each team included a field supervisor, field editor and either 4 or 5 interviewers, depending on the the household listing and generation of the random sample was done.

WHO’s standard 3-week training province and the number of households to be interviewed (Annex 3 lists the research team members).

program was adapted for Vanuatu’s circumstances.

The training was conducted by VWC’s research consultant.
WHO provided course materials for the training which were adapted and translated by Training of the fieldwork team was held over 4 weeks in February/March 2009, while the data entry for VWC.

These included: a detailed question-by-question manual explaining the questionnaire; a the household listing and generation of the random sample was done.

WHO’s standard 3-week training procedural manual for interviewers; and a manual for use by field supervisors and editors.
The bulk of program was adapted for Vanuatu’s circumstances.

The training was conducted by VWC’s research the training was done in Bislama, as well as English and French (to a much lesser extent).

consultant.

WHO provided course materials for the training which were adapted and translated by VWC.
These included: a detailed question-by-question manual explaining the questionnaire; a The training content covered the following: a refresher on gender and violence and women; procedural manual for interviewers; and a manual for use by field supervisors and editors.

The bulk of interviewing techniques; ethical and safety considerations; a detailed question-by-question review of the training was done in Bislama, as well as English and French (to a much lesser extent).
the questionnaire; and extensive practice administering the questionnaire during 3-way roleplays.15 The in-depth review of each question during plenary and roleplay sessions assisted team members to The training content covered the following: a refresher on gender and violence and women; understand each question and its purpose, and contributed to the final adaptation of the Bislama interviewing techniques; ethical and safety considerations; a detailed question-by-question review of questionnaire.
the questionnaire; and extensive practice administering the questionnaire during 3-way roleplays.15 The in-depth review of each question during plenary and roleplay sessions assisted team members to Supervisors and editors were selected from the pool of trainees in the middle of the third week of understand each question and its purpose, and contributed to the final adaptation of the Bislama training, and were provided with specialised training for 5 days while interviewers continued their questionnaire.
roleplay practice of administering the questionnaire.
Training for the supervisors and editors focused on: their responsibilities for preparing and organising the fieldwork, including financial management; the Supervisors and editors were selected from the pool of trainees in the middle of the third week of management and monitoring of the fieldwork teams; quality control procedures; practice with editing the training, and were provided with specialised training for 5 days while interviewers continued their questionnaires in the field; protocols for ensuring the safety of all team members; and protocols for roleplay practice of administering the questionnaire.
Training for the supervisors and editors focused responding to requests for assistance from women interviewed, the provision of follow-up counselling on: their responsibilities for preparing and organising the fieldwork, including financial management; the and for responding where a risk of suicide was identified.
VNSO provided a briefing at the end of the management and monitoring of the fieldwork teams; quality control procedures; practice with editing the training on the enumeration areas, maps and household lists.

questionnaires in the field; protocols for ensuring the safety of all team members; and protocols for responding to requests for assistance from women interviewed, the provision of follow-up counselling A pilot of the fieldwork had originally been planned for the third week of the training.
This was cancelled and for responding where a risk of suicide was identified.

VNSO provided a briefing at the end of the because the largest of the 3 villages on Efate identified for the pilot had a recent death and it was not training on the enumeration areas, maps and household lists.

appropriate to visit for this reason.


The size and layout of the remaining 2 villages raised ethical and safety concerns and to follow WHO ethical and safety guidelines, very few interviewers would have had A pilot of the fieldwork had originally been planned for the third week of the training.

This was cancelled an opportunity to practice their skills.

The pilot was originally planned to fulfil to 2 objectives.
The first because the largest of the 3 villages on Efate identified for the pilot had a recent death and it was not was to test the questionnaire.

However, the questionnaire had already been very well-tested appropriate to visit for this reason.

The size and layout of the remaining 2 villages raised ethical and internationally including in Melanesian countries.
The Bislama translation was thoroughly tested and safety concerns and to follow WHO ethical and safety guidelines, very few interviewers would have had discussed (question by question) during the training of fieldworkers, with a number of modifications an opportunity to practice their skills.

The pilot was originally planned to fulfil to 2 objectives.

The first made to clarify certain questions.

Given that most fieldworkers came from rural and remote areas from was to test the questionnaire.
However, the questionnaire had already been very well-tested all around the country, this was a very good test of the questionnaire.

internationally including in Melanesian countries.

The Bislama translation was thoroughly tested and discussed (question by question) during the training of fieldworkers, with a number of modifications The second objective of the pilot was to give the fieldworkers real-life experience at approaching made to clarify certain questions.
Given that most fieldworkers came from rural and remote areas from households and interviewing.

Other strategies were put in place to address this objective.

One was to all around the country, this was a very good test of the questionnaire.

simulate a pilot for several days, with participants interviewing women from outside their provinces.

These questionnaires were collected and edited/checked during the supervisor’s and editor’s training.
The second objective of the pilot was to give the fieldworkers real-life experience at approaching Other strategies were put in place for the first few weeks of the fieldwork, including interviewers working households and interviewing.

Other strategies were put in place to address this objective.

One was to in pairs, and supervisors and editors accompanying interviewers to increase their confidence and skill.
simulate a pilot for several days, with participants interviewing women from outside their provinces.

These questionnaires were collected and edited/checked during the supervisor’s and editor’s training.
Other strategies were put in place for the first few weeks of the fieldwork, including interviewers working 15 Three-way roleplays include participants playing the roles of interviewer, respondent and observer; following the roleplay, in pairs, and supervisors and editors accompanying interviewers to increase their confidence and skill.

constructive feedback is provided by the observer and respondent to improve the interviewer’s skills.
Page 39 of 249 15 Three-way roleplays include participants playing the roles of interviewer, respondent and observer; following the roleplay, constructive feedback is provided by the observer and respondent to improve the interviewer’s skills.

Page 39 of 249 Page 39 of 246 The fieldwork Letters were sent by VWC to the six Provincial Governments informing them in advance of the research and the fieldwork schedule.
After the household listing and the final selection of enumeration areas by VNSO, relevant Area Secretaries were also informed by letter.

All members of the fieldwork team carried letters of introduction at all times.

The survey started in the second week of March immediately following the training.

Five Teams (Torba, Shefa, Port Vila, Tafea and Luganville) completed their fieldwork in eight weeks.

The remaining teams completed interviews by May 2009.
Following the fieldwork, supervisors and editors met in Port Vila during VWC’s annual CAVAW training for a de-briefing.

All the teams faced logistical challenges, as well as difficulties related to the very sensitive nature of the survey and the fact that VWC is widely known for its work to address violence against women (these issues are discussed in chapter 3).
Logistical difficulties included inaccessible locations, bad weather and very rough road and sea conditions, all of which delayed the implementation of the survey in some areas.

In urban areas, some households could not even be approached because of pet dogs.

Most provinces found that some of the stickers used to identify houses during the household listing had been removed and this made it impossible to locate the selected households.
As a result of all these factors, 131 households were not able to be located and this reduced the total number of households sampled from 3750 to 3619.

There were also difficulties with language in some areas where respondents could not speak Bislama, particularly on Tanna, which meant that no data could be collected from 37 households.

There were 103 cases where household heads refused to participate (Wasi 2009).
In some areas there was suspicion about the survey, or a lack of understanding, and in some cases it was assumed that households were chosen because VWC knew that wives were being beaten, or that the women themselves had approached VWC.

The team in Torba province was out of contact during most of the fieldwork because all telephone communications were not functioning.

Nevertheless, these and other difficulties were successfully overcome.
The overall response rate was very high and a testament to the persistence and dedication of the fieldwork team.

Page 40 of 249 Page 40 of 246 Trained counsellors were included in all provincial rural survey teams in case women requested urgent Trained counsellors were included in all provincial rural survey teams in case women requested urgent or immediate help, or were at risk of suicide.

In Port Vila and Luganville, such cases were referred or immediate help, or were at risk of suicide.
In Port Vila and Luganville, such cases were referred immediately to VWC and the Sanma Counselling Centre (SCC), and this was also the case in Tanna immediately to VWC and the Sanma Counselling Centre (SCC), and this was also the case in Tanna where enumeration areas were close to the Tafea Counselling Centre (TCC).

In rural areas, women where enumeration areas were close to the Tafea Counselling Centre (TCC).

In rural areas, women were referred to the nearest CAVAW.
VWC prepared a brochure on the services available by the VWC were referred to the nearest CAVAW.

VWC prepared a brochure on the services available by the VWC network that was offered to all respondents at the end of the interview.

The vast majority of women network that was offered to all respondents at the end of the interview.
The vast majority of women accepted the brochure; there were only a handful of cases where women refused to take it, and in accepted the brochure; there were only a handful of cases where women refused to take it, and in these cases they said it was because they were scared if their husbands found out (Wasi 2009).

these cases they said it was because they were scared if their husbands found out (Wasi 2009).
Trained counsellors were included in all provincial rural survey teams in case women requested urgent or immediate help, or were at risk of suicide.

In Port Vila and Luganville, such cases were referred immediately to VWC and the Sanma Counselling Centre (SCC), and this was also the case in Tanna where enumeration areas were close to the Tafea Counselling Centre (TCC).

In rural areas, women were referred to the nearest CAVAW.
VWC prepared a brochure on the services available by the VWC network that was offered to all respondents at the end of the interview.

The vast majority of women accepted the brochure; there were only a handful of cases where women refused to take it, and in these cases they said it was because they were scared if their husbands found out (Wasi 2009).
Quality control procedures Quality control procedures Quality control procedures The WHO methodology included several standardised procedures and formats for quality control during The WHO methodology included several standardised procedures and formats for quality control during The WHO methodology included several standardised procedures and formats for quality control during fieldwork (WHO 2007: 40-41).

These included: fieldwork (WHO 2007: 40-41).

These included: fieldwork (WHO 2007: 40-41).


These included:  Close supervision of each interviewer during fieldwork.

For example, supervisors were  Close supervision of each interviewer during fieldwork.

For example, supervisors were instructed to observe the beginning of a proportion of the interviews.

In addition, the VWC instructed to observe the beginning of a proportion of the interviews.
In addition, the VWC teams were encouraged to work in pairs wherever this was needed, particularly in the first few teams were encouraged to work in pairs wherever this was needed, particularly in the first few weeks of the fieldwork.

Supervisors were encouraged to accompany some interviewers in the weeks of the fieldwork.

Supervisors were encouraged to accompany some interviewers in the first week to enable them to gain more confidence, and continue their learning.


 Close supervision of each interviewer during fieldwork.

For example, supervisors were instructed to observe the beginning of a proportion of the interviews.

In addition, the VWC teams were encouraged to work in pairs wherever this was needed, particularly in the first few weeks of the fieldwork.
Supervisors were encouraged to accompany some interviewers in the first week to enable them to gain more confidence, and continue their learning.
 Random checks of some households by the supervisor, without warning, during which  Random checks of some households by the supervisor, without warning, during which respondents were interviewed by the supervisor using a brief questionnaire to verify that the respondents were interviewed by the supervisor using a brief questionnaire to verify that the respondent had been selected in accordance with the established procedures and to assess respondent had been selected in accordance with the established procedures and to assess the respondent’s perceptions of the interview.


 Random checks of some households by the supervisor, without warning, during which respondents were interviewed by the supervisor using a brief questionnaire to verify that the respondent had been selected in accordance with the established procedures and to assess the respondent’s perceptions of the interview.
 Continuous monitoring of each interviewer by field supervisors using a standard format that  Continuous monitoring of each interviewer by field supervisors using a standard format that  Continuous monitoring of each interviewer by field supervisors using a standard format that included performance indicators such as response rate, number of completed interviews and included performance indicators such as response rate, number of completed interviews and included performance indicators such as response rate, number of completed interviews and rate of identification of physical violence.


rate of identification of physical violence.
 Review of all completed questionnaires by the field editor in each team to identify  Review of all completed questionnaires by the field editor in each team to identify  Review of all completed questionnaires by the field editor in each team to identify inconsistencies and skipped questions, thus enabling gaps or errors to be noted and corrected inconsistencies and skipped questions, thus enabling gaps or errors to be noted and corrected inconsistencies and skipped questions, thus enabling gaps or errors to be noted and corrected before the team moved on to another enumeration area.
VWC instructed field supervisors to before the team moved on to another enumeration area.

VWC instructed field supervisors to before the team moved on to another enumeration area.
VWC instructed field supervisors to hold daily meetings to de-brief; in these meetings, errors and gaps were to be discussed to hold daily meetings to de-brief; in these meetings, errors and gaps were to be discussed to hold daily meetings to de-brief; in these meetings, errors and gaps were to be discussed to enable ongoing learning within each team.

enable ongoing learning within each team.

enable ongoing learning within each team.

 Questionnaires were edited at the VWC office before data entry.


 Visits to most of the field teams by the VWC Research Officer to identify and resolve issues  Visits to most of the field teams by the VWC Research Officer to identify and resolve issues  Questionnaires were edited at the VWC office before data entry.

 Visits to most of the field teams by the VWC Research Officer to identify and resolve issues and provide support.

and provide support.

and provide support.


Page 41 of 249 Page 41 of 249 Page 41 of 249 Page 41 of 246 Data entry, tabulation and analysis Quality control mechanisms were also applied during data entry.

The data entry screen was set up by VNSO on CSPro software so that automatic consistency checks were incorporated into the data entry system.

VNSO trained data processors and provided ongoing technical assistance and support during the data entry.
All questionnaires were entered twice by the data processors to verify that data was entered correctly.

VNSO combined data entry files and cleaned the data files before tabulations of findings were done.

Table formats for this report were developed jointly by the VWC Research Officer and research consultant.

VNSO provided ongoing technical support through the tabulation phase including transferring the data from CSPro to SPSS data analysis software.
Technical support for the development of initial tables was provided by VNSO and 2 consultant statisticians, who also did the analysis of statistical associations including the uni-variable and multi-variable logistic regression analysis described in chapter 10.

To ensure quality and accuracy of the tabulated data, each table submitted by the consultant statisticians was checked by the VWC research consultant.
A workshop was held in Port Vila with VWC, Branch and Fiji Women’s Crisis Centre staff and the VWC research consultant in January 2011 to analyse all the data.

This was an additional opportunity for a quality control check of this report.

The analysis and tables and charts recommendations in the following chapters is based on the discussion at this workshop.
included the in Page 42 of 249 Page 42 of 246 2.7 ETHICAL AND SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS Research on violence against women is different in several ways from other quantitative research because of the ethical issues posed, and the potentially threatening and traumatic nature of the subject matter to both respondents and interviewers (Ellsberg and Heise: 35-45).
A scientifically unsound or invalid research design is unethical because any research on violence against women poses safety risks to the women interviewed and fieldworkers.

Privacy and confidentiality are needed when interviewing women about violence against women, to ensure the safety of women and researchers, and to ensure the validity of the findings by minimising the risk of under-reporting.
WHO’s guidelines on ethical and safety guided the development and implementation of the research (WHO 2007: 36-37).

VWC’s implementation of these guidelines is summarised below:   Safety of the research team and respondents was given the highest priority and stressed throughout the training of the fieldwork team.

It also guided the development of the research design.

For example, the title of the research was consistently referred to as the “National Survey on Women’s Lives and Family Relationships”.
Interviewers were instructed to read the questions exactly as they were written on the questionnaire.

The WHO questionnaire was designed to minimize the under-reporting of violence by not using any loaded terms such as “violence”, “abuse” or “rape”, and this guideline was closely adhered to in adapting and translating the questionnaire.
International lessons learned indicates that describing specific acts of violence and then asking women if they have experienced them yields the most valid and reliable data.

 Several strategies were used to ensure confidentiality to protect women’s safety and the quality of the data.

All fieldwork team members signed a confidentiality agreement as part of their contract.

A number code was used to identify individual questionnaires; no names or addresses were recorded on the questionnaire.
The training of interviewers stressed the importance of conducting interviews in private, and several strategies were used successfully in the field to ensure that privacy was maintained, including conducting interviews in pairs where necessary to avoid interruptions by children or relatives.

As recommended by WHO, a dummy questionnaire was distributed to interviewers, who were instructed to use this in case of interruptions, or to terminate the interview if necessary.
The research team was carefully selected from a pool of women who had previous training on the importance of confidentiality and on issues related to violence against women; and they received intensive training which included attention to ethical and safety issues.

  Protocols were in place to refer women who requested assistance to the VWC network for immediate or follow-up assistance as required.

 Steps were taken to minimise distress to respondents.
These included intensive training on interview techniques, and strict adherence to consent procedures and safety protocols.

2.8 STRENGTHS AND LIMITATIONS OF THE RESEARCH DESIGN Adapting the WHO methodology ensured that VWC used international best practice in the research design.

As a result, the findings are robust and reliable with the most accurate estimates possible of prevalence of violence against women.
However, with this type of research design, it is not possible to “prove” that violence causes the various health problems and other impacts described in the following chapters.

Nevertheless, it is certainly possible to identify statistically significant associations between violence and the various impacts described, and to do so with full confidence.

Any survey based on self-reporting has some possibility of bias associated with respondents’ memory of events and incidents.
However, lessons learned on research on violence against women indicate that any recall bias would tend to result in an under-estimate of the prevalence of violence, rather than Page 43 of 249 an over-estimate (WHO 2005: 23).

The findings presented in chapter 6 on health impacts support this international experience.

(Chapter 3 discusses other aspect that may impact on the likely accuracy of the survey findings.)
Page 43 of 246 The decision to select only 1 woman per household introduces bias because it means that women living in households with more than 1 woman are under-represented.
The WHO multi-country study tested the degree of this bias by weighting their main prevalence outcomes to compensate for differences in the number of eligible women per household; the results showed no significant differences in prevalence rates and the chapters below use the international standard for calculating rates of prevalence recommended by WHO (WHO 2005: 28).
Finally, one important strength of the research design was the nationally representative sample that provides reliable estimates of prevalence for each of Vanuatu’s 6 provinces and 2 urban areas, in addition to national prevalence rates.

Page 44 of 249 Any survey based on self-reporting has some possibility of bias associated with respondents’ memory of events and incidents.
However, lessons learned on research on violence against women indicate that any recall bias would tend to result in an under-estimate of the prevalence of violence, rather than an over-estimate (WHO 2005: 23).

The findings presented in chapter 6 on health impacts support this international experience.

(Chapter 3 discusses other aspect that may impact on the likely accuracy of the survey findings.)
The decision to select only 1 woman per household introduces bias because it means that women living in households with more than 1 woman are under-represented.
The WHO multi-country study tested the degree of this bias by weighting their main prevalence outcomes to compensate for differences in the number of eligible women per household; the results showed no significant differences in prevalence rates and the chapters below use the international standard for calculating rates of prevalence recommended by WHO (WHO 2005: 28).
Finally, one important strength of the research design was the nationally representative sample that provides reliable estimates of prevalence for each of Vanuatu’s 6 provinces and 2 urban areas, in addition to national prevalence rates.

Page 44 of 249 Page 44 of 246 CHAPTER 3: SURVEY RESPONSE RATES AND CHARACTERISTICS OF RESPONDENTS Response Rates Despite the sensitive nature of the questionnaire, there were high response rates.
A total of 3619 households were sampled; 3281 of these were occupied, and the remainder were either vacant for an extended period or destroyed.

Of these 3281 households, 3141 completed the household questionnaire which is a response rate of 96%; only 3% of households refused, and in 1% of households the residents spoke a different language and were unable to be interviewed for this reason (Table 3.1).
Table 3.1: Household responses, whole of Vanuatu Household results Household interview completed Household refused Household empty/destroyed/vacant for an extended period Household members speaking unknown language Total households included in the sample Household refused Household members speaking unknown language Household interview completed Household response rate: complete household interviews / households sampled – households destroyed or vacant Total households available in the sample Number 3141 103 338 37 3619 103 37 3141 3281 % 87% 3% 9% 1% 100% 3% 1% 96% 100% Overall, 2337 women completed the women’s questionnaire from a total of 2520 households with eligible women.
This is a response rate of 93%; only 1% of women refused to do the interview and in the remaining 6% the interview was postponed and unable to be rescheduled, or the woman selected to be interviewed was incapacitated (Table 3.2).
Table 3.2: Responses to the women’s questionnaire, whole of Vanuatu Results from the women’s questionnaire Individual response rate: complete individual interviews / households with eligible women Individual women’s interview completed Individual women’s interview refused Individual woman incapacitated or interview postponed No eligible woman in the household Total Individual women’s interview refused Individual women’s interview postponed or woman incapacitated Individual women’s interview completed Total women available to be interviewed Number 2337 29 154 621 3141 29 154 2337 2520 % 74% 1% 5% 20% 100% 1% 6% 93% 100% As discussed in chapter 2, the survey sample was designed to ensure a representative national sample including all 6 provinces and the 2 urban areas of Port Vila and Luganville.
The survey sample included several islands from each province.

There were no significant differences in response rates by households or individual women between provinces or urban areas.

In total, 12% of the women who completed the survey were from Port Vila, 11% from Luganville, 12% from Torba, 15% from Sanma, 13% from Penama, 14% from Malampa, 11% from Shefa and 11% from Tafea (Table 3.3).
Page 45 of 249 Page 45 of 246 % % 0 0 1 .

o N 9 1 6 3 % % 0 0 1 .

o N 9 8 4 % % 0 0 1 .

o N 6 5 4 % % 0 0 1 .

o N 4 0 5 % % 0 0 1 .

o N 3 9 4 % % 0 0 1 .

o N 6 7 4 % % 0 0 1 .

o N 3 8 3 % % 0 0 1 .

o N 3 9 3 a l i V t r o P % % 0 0 1 .
o N 5 2 4 % 9 % 1 % 3 8 3 3 % 1 1 7 3 3 0 1 % 7 % 1 2 5 4 3 6 % 3 1 % 0 % 5 7 5 0 1 2 % 8 % 0 % 0 9 3 0 1 % 8 % 0 % 2 8 3 % 0 1 9 4 0 9 % 0 % 2 0 8 % 4 % 0 % 4 7 1 0 6 1 % 3 1 % 1 % 7 0 5 2 6 2 % 8 % 0 % 4 6 3 1 6 1 % 7 8 1 4 1 3 % 1 8 7 9 3 % 3 8 8 7 3 % 2 9 4 6 4 % 0 9 6 4 4 % 8 8 9 1 4 % 1 9 0 5 3 % 0 8 5 1 3 % 8 8 2 7 3 s t l u s e R H H l d e p m a s H H / y t p m e H H t o n / d e y o r t s e d t o n / % 0 0 1 % 3 1 % 2 1 % 5 1 % 4 1 % 3 1 % 1 1 % 0 1 % 2 1 ) 1 4 1 3 = N ( s w e i v r e t n i H H d e t e l p m o c f o % n o i t a c o L ) 1 4 1 3 = N l , ( e r i a n n o i t s e u q s n e m o w ' : 3 .
3 e l b a T l e b g i i l e o n H H % 0 2 1 2 6 % 9 1 4 7 % 2 2 3 8 % 7 2 4 2 1 % 3 3 7 4 1 % 1 1 8 4 % 8 1 2 6 % 8 5 2 % 6 1 8 5 n a m o w l e b g i i l e H H % 1 % 0 9 2 1 1 % 2 % 0 7 0 % 1 % 2 5 6 % 1 % 0 5 0 % 0 % 0 % 5 3 4 1 % 3 1 2 5 % 5 9 1 % 4 7 1 % 1 2 0 3 % 1 % 0 5 1 % 0 % 0 % 3 2 1 % 0 0 0 1 % 1 % 1 2 2 % 1 % % 6 8 1 % % 4 7 7 3 3 2 % 6 6 4 6 2 % 0 7 5 6 2 % 9 6 8 1 3 % 6 6 4 9 2 % 4 8 3 5 3 % 2 8 7 8 2 % 5 8 8 6 2 % 7 7 8 8 2 s ’ n a m o W w e i v r e t n i d e t e l p m o c % 0 0 1 % 1 1 % 1 1 % 4 1 % 3 1 % 5 1 % 2 1 % 1 1 % 2 1 ) 7 3 3 2 = N ( s w e i v r e t n i s ’ n e m o w d e t e l p m o c f o % n o i t a c o L Page 46 of 246 Of the 3141 households that completed the household questionnaire, 20% of respondents told interviewers that there were no eligible women aged 15-49 years living in the household.
Two provinces (Penama and Malampa) had somewhat higher proportions of households without eligible women than Of the 3141 households that completed the household questionnaire, 20% of respondents told other locations (Table 3.3).

These findings are similar to those from the 2007 Ministry of Health (MOH) interviewers that there were no eligible women aged 15-49 years living in the household.
Two provinces Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey (MICS), which found that around 15% of households nationally had no (Penama and Malampa) had somewhat higher proportions of households without eligible women than women aged 15-49 years, and Penama, Malampa and Sanma were the three provinces that had the other locations (Table 3.3).

These findings are similar to those from the 2007 Ministry of Health (MOH) highest percentages of households with no women at all in this age group (MOH 2008: 8, 12).
The Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey (MICS), which found that around 15% of households nationally had no MICS survey concluded that a higher proportion of young women aged 15-19 were found to be living women aged 15-49 years, and Penama, Malampa and Sanma were the three provinces that had the away from home due to work or study (MOH 2008: 9), but this is equally likely to affect most rural highest percentages of households with no women at all in this age group (MOH 2008: 8, 12).

The areas.
The areas.

Moreover, although the national census reports that there are more men than women in Vanuatu MICS survey concluded that a higher proportion of young women aged 15-19 were found to be living with a sex ratio of 104 men for every 100 women, it also found that the overall proportion of women in away from home due to work or study (MOH 2008: 9), but this is equally likely to affect most rural Malampa and Penama was almost 50%, whereas other provinces (Sanma, Shefa and Torba) had less areas.
Moreover, although the national census reports that there are more men than women in Vanuatu than 50% women (VNSO 2009: 8).
Given that two well-designed national surveys have similar findings with a sex ratio of 104 men for every 100 women, it also found that the overall proportion of women in regarding high numbers of households reporting no women aged 15-49 in some provinces, this is Malampa and Penama was almost 50%, whereas other provinces (Sanma, Shefa and Torba) had less worthy of further research and analysis.16 than 50% women (VNSO 2009: 8).
Given that two well-designed national surveys have similar findings regarding high numbers of households reporting no women aged 15-49 in some provinces, this is Accuracy of Findings on the Prevalence of Violence Against Women worthy of further research and analysis.16 The figures included in this report should be seen as minimum estimates of the prevalence of violence Accuracy of Findings on the Prevalence of Violence Against Women against women in Vanuatu.
On the one hand, the WHO methodology was carefully pre-tested and refined in many countries before its adaptation for Vanuatu.

The high quality of the survey instrument The figures included in this report should be seen as minimum estimates of the prevalence of violence and the intensive training provided to interviewers helped to minimise bias in the implementation of the against women in Vanuatu.

On the one hand, the WHO methodology was carefully pre-tested and survey.
These factors increase the likelihood of women reporting their experiences honestly.

refined in many countries before its adaptation for Vanuatu.

The high quality of the survey instrument and the intensive training provided to interviewers helped to minimise bias in the implementation of the Nevertheless, there are several factors that may have decreased the likelihood of women disclosing survey.

These factors increase the likelihood of women reporting their experiences honestly.
their experiences of violence.

All survey teams reported that they found it difficult to ensure total privacy when conducting the interviews.

Although several effective strategies were used to distract other family Nevertheless, there are several factors that may have decreased the likelihood of women disclosing members, overcrowding in urban areas made it difficult at times, and all teams reported that it was their experiences of violence.
All survey teams reported that they found it difficult to ensure total privacy easier to talk to women when their husbands or partners were not at home.

Although VWC made every when conducting the interviews.
Although several effective strategies were used to distract other family effort to keep the content of the questionnaire confidential in line with WHO ethical guidelines to protect members, overcrowding in urban areas made it difficult at times, and all teams reported that it was the safety of women, VWC is recognised throughout the country for its work to address violence against easier to talk to women when their husbands or partners were not at home.
Although VWC made every women, and CAVAW members are also known for their work to address this issue in their home effort to keep the content of the questionnaire confidential in line with WHO ethical guidelines to protect islands.
Although the vast majority of Chiefs granted permission for the survey to go ahead without any the safety of women, VWC is recognised throughout the country for its work to address violence against difficulty, there was one village (on Pentecost) where the Chief refused permission, a few instances women, and CAVAW members are also known for their work to address this issue in their home where attempts were made to dissuade Chiefs from granting permission, and a few cases where teams islands.
Although the vast majority of Chiefs granted permission for the survey to go ahead without any or interviewers were threatened verbally or with weapons.
There were also several incidents where difficulty, there was one village (on Pentecost) where the Chief refused permission, a few instances male household heads, or the women randomly selected for interview, wrongly assumed that their where attempts were made to dissuade Chiefs from granting permission, and a few cases where teams household was selected because it was known that women were experiencing violence (Wasi 2009).

or interviewers were threatened verbally or with weapons.
There were also several incidents where (As explained in chapter 2, all households and all women were selected randomly, or by chance, with male household heads, or the women randomly selected for interview, wrongly assumed that their no prior knowledge of their status in relation to violence against women.)

For all these reasons, any household was selected because it was known that women were experiencing violence (Wasi 2009).
disclosure-related bias is likely to result in under-estimation of the prevalence and severity of violence, (As explained in chapter 2, all households and all women were selected randomly, or by chance, with and certainly not over-estimation.

This was also the conclusion of the WHO from its multi-country study no prior knowledge of their status in relation to violence against women.)

For all these reasons, any (WHO 2005: 23).


disclosure-related bias is likely to result in under-estimation of the prevalence and severity of violence, and certainly not over-estimation.

This was also the conclusion of the WHO from its multi-country study (WHO 2005: 23).

16 There are several possible explanations for the high number of households with no women aged 15-49 in these provinces.
For example, it could be indicative of: higher maternal mortality and lower status of women including a high work burden; higher numbers of women leaving these provinces for work, study or marriage; or misinformation regarding the 16 There are several possible explanations for the high number of households with no women aged 15-49 in these number of women and their ages by initial respondents (frequently men) due to misunderstandings about the way national provinces.
For example, it could be indicative of: higher maternal mortality and lower status of women including a high work surveys are used, or because they are reluctant to give permission for interviewers to talk to women living in their burden; higher numbers of women leaving these provinces for work, study or marriage; or misinformation regarding the households.
The latter explanation may be the most reasonable, given that the 2009 national census data showed roughly number of women and their ages by initial respondents (frequently men) due to misunderstandings about the way national equal numbers of women overall in Malampa and Penama (VNSO 2009: 8).

surveys are used, or because they are reluctant to give permission for interviewers to talk to women living in their households.
The latter explanation may be the most reasonable, given that the 2009 national census data showed roughly Page 47 of 249 equal numbers of women overall in Malampa and Penama (VNSO 2009: 8).

Page 47 of 249 Page 47 of 246 How Respondents Felt After the Interview When asked how they felt at the end of the interview, 83% of all women said that they felt good or better, 16% felt the same, and only 2% felt bad or worse.
Women who experienced physical or sexual violence by their husband/partner appreciated the opportunity to talk about it during the survey, with 87% reporting that they felt good or better, 11% who felt the same, and 2% who felt worse (Table 3.4).

This positive response was echoed during a debriefing with the VWC field teams, who felt that the survey was a step forward for the women of Vanuatu, despite the sadness of hearing so many stories about women living with severe and repeated violence (Wasi 2009).
For many of these women (43%, see Table 9.1), this was the first time that they had told anyone about the violence.

This is a testament to the skill and sensitivity of VWC’s interviewers, most of whom are members of VWC’s island-based CAVAWs.

Based on comments from respondents, the field teams were confident that they had helped many women, just by providing them with an opportunity to talk about their experiences, particularly those who had never spoken to anyone before about the violence.
All respondents were offered a brochure on VWC’s services at the end of the interview.

Most accepted it; only a few refused the brochure and this was due to fear that their husbands/partners would discover it (Wasi 2009).
Table 3.4: How respondents felt after the interview (number and percentage of all respondents, N = 2337) Experienced physical and/or sexual violence by husband/partner All respondents Good/better Same/no difference Bad/worse No answer Total Note: Percentage of all respondents does not add to 100% due to rounding.
Number 1083 133 22 1 1239 % 87% 11% 2% - 100% Number 1929 364 43 1 2337 % 83% 16% 2% - 100% This positive response to the survey was also found in the WHO’s multi-country study (WHO 2005) and in the more recent studies undertaken by the Secretariat of the Pacific Community (SPC) in the Solomon Islands (SPC 2009) and Kiribati (SPC 2010).
The WHO reported that the overwhelming impression gathered by interviewers across all countries was that “women were not only willing to talk about their experiences of violence, but were often deeply grateful for the opportunity to tell their stories in private to a non-judgemental and empathetic person” (WHO 2005: 23).

Characteristics of Households Thirty percent of respondents nationally said that the household was headed by a woman, 70% by a man, and less than 1% was headed jointly by a man and woman.
The breakdown between urban and rural areas shows substantial differences from the national average with only 15% of urban households headed by women, compared with 35% in rural areas (Table 3.5).
Table 3.5: Household characteristics, sex of household head by urban and rural area Sex of Household Head Both female and male Female Male Urban households Rural households Total Vanuatu Number 0 5 5 % 0% 0.2% 0.2% Number % Number % 105 850 955 15% 35% 30% 580 1598 2178 85% 65% 70% Total households Number 685 2453 3138 % 100% 100% 100% This finding contrasts with both the 2007 MICS (which reported that 92% of households were male- headed and only 8 percent female-headed (MOH 2007: xvii, 8), and with the 2007 agricultural census Page 48 of 249 Page 48 of 246 which found 93% of agricultural households headed by men (VNSO 2008: 23).
The reason for these differences in findings is unclear.17 The average size of the household throughout Vanuatu was about 5 persons (Table 3.6).

This is consistent with both the 2007 MICS (MOH 2008: 9), the agricultural census, and the 2009 national census which identified 4.8 as the average household size (VNSO 2009: 8; VNSO 2008: 23).

Socio-economic status was classified by combining respondents’ answers to 4 questions on household assets into a single overall measure.
These included the main source of drinking water, the type of toilet used by household members, household possessions, and ownership of transport-related assets by any member of the household.18 The VWC survey classified households into 3 rankings of socio- economic status: 46% of households were classified as low, 41% were medium, and 13% were high.

As expected, fewer rural households were classified as having high socio-economic status (5%) than urban households (43%, Table 3.6).
Annex 4 summarises the ranking system for socio-economic status.
Table 3.6: Household characteristics, mean size of household and socio-economic status Location Socio-economic status of households (N = 2712) Medium High Low Mean size of household (N = 3140) Number 5.00 5.61 4.93 5.18 4.67 4.82 4.92 6.12 Port Vila Luganville Torba Sanma Penama Malampa Shefa Tafea Total Urban Total Rural Whole of Vanuatu Note: Of the 3141 respondents who completed the household questionnaire, socio-economic status was classified for 2712 (86%) due to the combination of indicators used, and the need to have answers to all questions used as indicators.
5.14 Number 33 49 187 220 288 230 103 144 82 1172 1254 Number 134 108 128 142 146 127 134 189 242 866 1108 Number 171 69 3 11 9 4 73 10 240 110 350 % 40% 48% 40% 38% 33% 35% 43% 55% 43% 40% 41% % 10% 22% 59% 59% 65% 64% 33% 42% 15% 55% 46% % 51% 31% 1% 3% 2% 1% 24% 3% 43% 5% 13% Characteristics of Women Respondents Age of respondents Women aged 25-39 were 50% of the sample of respondents, women aged 15-24 made up 31%, and those aged from 40-49 were 19% of the respondents (Chart 3.1 and Table 3.7).
The lower numbers of women over 40 years of age is due to the demographic profile of Vanuatu’s total female population.

Chart 3.1 compares the percentage of ever-partnered women in each age group with the total sample of all women.

As expected, this shows that 15-19 year-old women are far less likely to have ever had a husband or intimate partner compared with women in the older age groups.
17 All the MICS respondents were women, whereas in the VWC survey about 58% of respondents to this question were female and the remainder were male, due to the placement of this question at the beginning of the questionnaire before individual women respondents were selected.

The MICS survey did not provide any urban/rural breakdown regarding the sex of the household head; the agricultural census focused only on agricultural households and no data was provided on the sex of the respondent.
The sampling strategies used in all 3 surveys were different: the MICS sample included 53% of respondents from rural areas and 47% from urban areas (MOH 2007: 8), where there is a substantially lower proportion of households headed by women.

In the VWC survey, 78% of respondents were from rural areas and 22% from urban areas.

18 These indicators are very similar to those used by the MICS which identified wealth index quintiles (MOH 2009: 14).
Page 49 of 249 Page 49 of 246 Chart 3.2 compares the total sample of women in the VWC survey with the MICS, which recorded the numbers of all women aged 15-49 in each household sampled (MOH 2008: 14).

This shows that younger women are somewhat under-represented in the VWC survey compared with the total population.
This has been the case for all country surveys that have used the WHO methodology and is due to the fact that (for ethical and safety reasons) only one eligible woman per household is randomly selected to participate in the interview.

Consequently, women from households with fewer eligible women were more likely to be selected than women from households where there were many women in the eligible age range.
This has affected the age distribution of respondents because women in the middle age groups from 25-39 were somewhat more likely to have fewer eligible women in the same household – because any daughters were more likely to be under 15 years and therefore too young; and their mothers would more frequently be too old to be eligible to participate in the survey.19 19 In order to assess the degree of bias that might have been introduced by using the selection criterion of one woman per household, the WHO and other country studies compared prevalence estimates for violence with age-weighted estimates, taking into account the number of eligible women in each household.
In all cases these estimates were not significantly different.

Unweighted estimates have been used for prevalence rates for all forms of violence against women in this report, in other country reports from the Pacific region, and in the WHO multi-country study (WHO 2005; SPC 2009; SPC 2010).
Page 50 of 249 Page 50 of 246 Table 3.7: Characteristics of respondents Age 15 - 19 20 - 24 25 - 29 30 - 34 35 - 39 40 - 44 45 - 49 Total Education None Primary Secondary Higher Total Literacy Yes No Don’t know Total Employment and income generation Not working for cash Working for cash Total Relationship status Never partnered Currently married Currently living with a man, not married Currently regular partner, living apart Formerly married, now separated / divorced Formerly living with a man, now separated Currently no man, widowed Formerly dating Status unknown Total Total Vanuatu All female respondents Number 313 414 415 402 352 250 191 2337 % 13% 18% 18% 17% 15% 11% 8% 100% Ever-Partnered % 6% 17% 19% 19% 17% 12% 9% 100% Number Education of respondents When asked whether they could read and write, 92% of women said yes, and 8% said no.
Of the total sample of women respondents, 4% had some tertiary education, 38% had attended secondary school, 52% had attended primary school and the remaining 6% said that they had never attended school.

The education levels of ever- partnered respondents were very similar (Table 3.7 and Chart 3.3).

Page 51 of 249 Page 51 of 246 There were substantial variations in literacy and the level of education achieved by women in some provinces.
Torba and Tafea provinces each had 14% of women reporting that they had never attended school, and in Sanma 10% of women had never attended school.

These provinces also had less women reporting that they had attended secondary and tertiary education, particularly in Torba where only 21% of respondents had attended secondary school.
Literacy levels were also considerably lower There were substantial variations in literacy and the level of education achieved by women in some than the national average in these three provinces with 18% of all respondents reporting that they could provinces.

Torba and Tafea provinces each had 14% of women reporting that they had never attended neither read nor write in Torba, 17% in Tafea, and 11% in Sanma (Table 3.8).20 school, and in Sanma 10% of women had never attended school.
These provinces also had less women reporting that they had attended secondary and tertiary education, particularly in Torba where Employment and income generation status of respondents only 21% of respondents had attended secondary school.

Literacy levels were also considerably lower The results show that 80% of women earn money by themselves, and 20% do not.
The proportion of than the national average in these three provinces with 18% of all respondents reporting that they could ever-partnered women who work for cash is slightly higher than the national average at 83% (Table neither read nor write in Torba, 17% in Tafea, and 11% in Sanma (Table 3.8).20 3.7).
Women living in urban areas are much less likely to be earning money by themselves than those in rural areas – only 58% of women in Port Vila and 57% in Luganville are earning their own income, Employment and income generation status of respondents compared with the national average of 80% (Table 3.8 and Chart 3.4).

This difference is probably due The results show that 80% of women earn money by themselves, and 20% do not.
The proportion of to the importance of informal sector trading for those women who do earn their own cash: 74% of ever-partnered women who work for cash is slightly higher than the national average at 83% (Table women earn their income from selling, marketing or trading; whereas only 34% have formal sector 3.7).

Women living in urban areas are much less likely to be earning money by themselves than those employment (Table 3.9 and chart 3.5).
in rural areas – only 58% of women in Port Vila and 57% in Luganville are earning their own income, compared with the national average of 80% (Table 3.8 and Chart 3.4).

This difference is probably due to the importance of informal sector trading for those women who do earn their own cash: 74% of women earn their income from selling, marketing or trading; whereas only 34% have formal sector employment (Table 3.9 and chart 3.5).
Relationship status of respondents Sixty-one percent of women were currently married, 21% were living with a man, and 5% currently had a regular partner although they were living apart.

Only 1% of women were previously married and were currently divorced or separated, and another 1% had previously lived with a man but were now separated.

Less than 1% of respondents were widowed or had previously been in an intimate dating Relationship status of respondents relationship with a partner.
Eleven percent or respondents had never been married or had a sexual Sixty-one percent of women were currently married, 21% were living with a man, and 5% currently had relationship with a boyfriend (Table 3.7 and Chart 3.6).

a regular partner although they were living apart.

Only 1% of women were previously married and were currently divorced or separated, and another 1% had previously lived with a man but were now separated.
Less than 1% of respondents were widowed or had previously been in an intimate dating relationship with a partner.

Eleven percent or respondents had never been married or had a sexual relationship with a boyfriend (Table 3.7 and Chart 3.6).

20 Literacy rates reported here are based on women’s own self-assessment of their reading and writing capacity (see question 109 of the questionnaire in Annex 2, which asked women “Can you read or write?”).


Page 52 of 249 Page 52 of 249 Page 52 of 246 % % 6 % 2 5 % 8 3 % 4 % 0 0 1 % 2 9 % 8 % 0 .
o N 8 4 1 7 1 2 1 9 7 8 7 8 1 3 3 2 6 5 1 2 8 7 1 2 % % 4 1 % 3 5 % 3 3 % 1 % 1 8 % 3 8 % 7 1 0 % 0 0 1 6 3 3 2 % 0 0 1 % 0 2 3 7 4 % 2 2 % 0 8 % 0 0 1 8 3 8 1 1 1 3 2 % 8 7 % 0 0 1 .

 % % 3 % 8 5 % 6 3 % 3 % 0 0 1 % 7 9 % 3 % 0 .

o N 7 4 5 1 5 9 9 5 6 2 7 5 2 8 0 % % 1 % 0 6 % 4 3 % 4 % 0 0 1 % 8 9 % 2 % 0 .
o N 4 1 9 1 9 0 1 2 1 6 1 3 2 1 3 5 1 % % 4 % 7 5 % 3 3 % 5 % 0 0 1 % 4 9 % 6 % 0 % 0 0 1 5 6 2 % 0 0 1 8 1 3 % 0 0 1 % 0 2 % 0 8 % 0 0 1 4 5 1 1 2 5 6 2 % 8 % 2 9 % 0 0 1 6 2 2 9 2 8 1 3 % 3 1 % 7 8 % 0 0 1 .

 % % 0 1 % 6 5 % 4 3 % 0 % 0 0 1 % 9 8 % 1 1 % 0 % 0 0 1 % 1 1 % 9 8 % 0 0 1 .

 % % 4 1 % 4 6 % 1 2 % 1 % 0 0 1 % 2 8 % 8 1 % 0 % 0 0 1 % 8 % 2 9 % 0 0 1 .
% % 1 % 7 3 % 7 5 % 4 % 0 0 1 % 9 9 % 1 % 0 .

o N 4 0 0 1 1 5 1 2 1 7 6 2 4 6 2 4 0 % % 2 % 0 3 % 6 5 % 1 1 % 0 0 1 % 8 9 % 2 % 0 .
o N 7 6 8 1 6 1 3 3 7 8 2 1 8 2 6 1 % 0 0 1 8 6 2 % 0 0 1 8 8 2 % 3 4 % 7 5 % 0 0 1 5 1 1 3 5 1 8 6 2 % 2 4 2 2 1 % 8 5 % ’ , : 8 .
3 e l b a T ) e m o c n i f o e c r u o s y b i , ( n o i t a r e n e g e m o c n i f o e c r u o S : 9 .

3 e l b a T i g n n r a e n e m o w f o % s t n e d n o p s e r l l a f o % r e b m u N e m o c n i f o e c r u o S ) 8 3 8 1 = N ( e m o c n i % 4 3 % 4 7 % 4 1 % 5 .

0 % 6 1 ) 1 1 3 2 = N ( % 7 2 % 9 5 % 1 1 % 4 .
0 % 2 1 6 2 6 6 6 3 1 2 5 2 9 7 8 2 i g n d a r t , g n i t e k r a m , , g n i l l e S , % 0 0 1 o t d d a t o n o d s e g a t n e c r e p : e t o N .
n o i t p o n o i t a r e n e g - e m o c n i Page 53 of 246 Community Concerns The household questionnaire – which was answered by about 58% women and 42% men – asked a series of questions to gauge levels of community concern about other forms of violence.

This provides an important context for the analysis of community responses and attitudes to domestic violence.
The findings show that 44% of respondents were very concerned about levels of crime, 37% about violence due to land disputes, and 49% about violence due to sorcery.

The vast majority of respondents were either a little or very concerned about all these problems (Table 3.10).
Table 3.10: Community concerns about other forms of violence (number and percentage of all male and female respondents who answered the household questionnaire, N = 2326) Issue Total Not concerned Number % A little concerned Number % Very concerned % Number Number Concerned about levels of crime (robbery, assault, murder) Concerned about violence due to land disputes Concerned about violence due to sorcery Note: This table presents findings from questions 8 to 9(d) of the household questionnaire which could be answered by either women or men.
Respondents included about 58% women and 42% men.
1149 2326 1104 1020 2326 2326 49% 36% 14% 41% 37% 22% 44% 47% 844 332 963 858 202 505 9% Concerned about crime (robbery, assault, murder) Concerned about violence due to land disputes Concerned about violence due to sorcery Page 54 of 249 Page 54 of 246 CHAPTER 4: VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN BY HUSBANDS AND INTIMATE PARTNERS Summary of main findings on prevalence  Three in 5 women (60%) who have ever been in a relationship have experienced either physical or sexual violence or both by a husband or intimate partner.
 More than 2 in 3 ever-partnered women (68%) have been emotionally abused by their husband or intimate partner.

 Rates of emotional, physical and sexual violence against women by husbands/partners are higher in rural areas than in urban areas.

Nevertheless, there are very high rates of all forms of violence against women across all provinces, islands, age groups, education levels, and religions.
  Areas where the Vanuatu Women’s Centre (VWC) has been most active have lower rates of physical and sexual violence by husbands/partners than areas where VWC has been less active.

There is a significant overlap between emotional, physical and sexual violence with the majority of women reporting that they experienced multiple forms of violence by their husbands/partners.
 Women who experience physical or sexual violence are far more likely to be subjected to controlling behaviours by their husbands/partners.

These controlling behaviours directly undermine women’s access to health care and their economic and social development and rights.
For the majority of women living with physical violence by their husband/partner, the violence happens many times and is often severe, including being punched, kicked, dragged, beaten up, choked, burned, or having a weapon used against them.

 Summary of main findings on attitudes  Many women agree with several statements that undermine women’s rights and gender equality.
 Three in 5 women (60%) agree with at least one justification for a man to beat his wife; 37% do not agree with any reasons for physical violence by a husband/partner.

 More than half of the women interviewed (53%) believe that if bride price is paid, a woman becomes the husband’s property; and almost 1 in 3 (32%) believe that the payment of bride price justifies physical violence.

 More than 1 in 3 (36%) believe it is all right for a girl to be swapped or exchanged for marriage.
 Most women (78%) have a strong sense of sexual autonomy and believe that a woman has the right to refuse sex with her husband if she doesn’t feel like it.

However, about 1 in 5 women do not believe that a woman has the right to refuse sex in a range of different situations.

The issue of whether or not bride price has been paid introduces uncertainty in many women’s minds about their right to refuse sex with their husband/partner.
 Section 4.1 covers the national prevalence of each form of violence against women by their husbands/partners, including physical and sexual violence and emotional abuse, and the types of control that men exert over their wives and partners.

It presents findings according to women’s location, age, education level, socio-economic status, and religion.

It also reports in detail on the specific acts of violence that women experience, and how often.
This is followed by section 4.2 which presents findings on women’s attitudes to gender power relations and violence against women.

4.1 PREVALENCE AND TYPES OF VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN Of all the women who were interviewed, 2061 between the ages of 15 and 49 have ever been married or had an intimate sexual relationship with a boyfriend.
This includes all women respondents who have ever been legally married, those who have ever lived with a male partner including in a de facto relationship, those who ever had a regular intimate male partner but never lived with him, and those who had an intimate relationship with a man they were dating.
Page 55 of 249 Page 55 of 246 In order to measure the prevalence rates of physical, sexual and emotional violence, women were asked whether they had ever experienced specific acts of violence and emotional abuse by their husband/partner (see section 7 of the questionnaire in Annex 2).

The calculation of national prevalence rates follows the international standard used by the WHO.
National prevalence is the number of women In order to measure the prevalence rates of physical, sexual and emotional violence, women were who have ever experienced at least 1 act of a specific type of violence by her husband/partner, at least asked whether they had ever experienced specific acts of violence and emotional abuse by their once in her life.

This is expressed as a percentage of the number of ever-partnered women in the husband/partner (see section 7 of the questionnaire in Annex 2).
The calculation of national prevalence sample (2061).21 rates follows the international standard used by the WHO.

National prevalence is the number of women who have ever experienced at least 1 act of a specific type of violence by her husband/partner, at least Prevalence of physical, sexual and emotional violence against women by husbands/partners once in her life.
This is expressed as a percentage of the number of ever-partnered women in the sample (2061).21 The findings show very high rates of violence against women by husbands/partners.

Overall, 60% of ever-partnered women experienced physical and/or sexual violence by their husband/partner in their Prevalence of physical, sexual and emotional violence against women by husbands/partners lifetime, and 44% suffered from either or both of these forms of violence in the last 12 months.
Comparing the prevalence of those who experienced violence in their lifetime with the last 12 months The findings show very high rates of violence against women by husbands/partners.

Overall, 60% of reinforces the ongoing nature of the problem and demonstrates that most women tend to continue to ever-partnered women experienced physical and/or sexual violence by their husband/partner in their experience all forms of violence throughout their lifetime (Table 4.1 and Chart 4.1).
lifetime, and 44% suffered from either or both of these forms of violence in the last 12 months.
 Over half of ever-partnered women (51%) experienced some type of physical violence in their Comparing the prevalence of those who experienced violence in their lifetime with the last 12 months reinforces the ongoing nature of the problem and demonstrates that most women tend to continue to  Sexual violence was only slightly less common, with 44% of ever-partnered women experiencing it experience all forms of violence throughout their lifetime (Table 4.1 and Chart 4.1).
in their lifetime, and 1 in 3 (33%) suffering from some type of sexual abuse by their husband/partner  Over half of ever-partnered women (51%) experienced some type of physical violence in their in the last 12 months.

lifetime, and 1 in 3 (33%) were physically abused in the last 12 months.

lifetime, and 1 in 3 (33%) were physically abused in the last 12 months.
 Emotional violence was the most prevalent, with 68% of women (more than 2 in every 3)  Sexual violence was only slightly less common, with 44% of ever-partnered women experiencing it experiencing it in their lifetime, and over half (54%) in the last 12 months.

in their lifetime, and 1 in 3 (33%) suffering from some type of sexual abuse by their husband/partner in the last 12 months.
Table 4.1: Prevalence of violence against women by husbands/partners (number and percentage of ever-  Emotional violence was the most prevalent, with 68% of women (more than 2 in every 3) partnered women who experienced violence in their lifetime or in the last 12 months, N = 2061) experiencing it in their lifetime, and over half (54%) in the last 12 months.
Physical Sexual Table 4.1: Prevalence of violence against women by husbands/partners (number and percentage of ever- Lifetime partnered women who experienced violence in their lifetime or in the last 12 months, N = 2061) Last 12 months % 51% 33% Number 910 678 % 44% 33% Number 1045 691 Physical and/or sexual Number 1239 899 % 60% 44% Physical and/or sexual Emotional Number 1404 1111 Emotional % 68% 54% Physical Sexual Lifetime Last 12 months Number 1404 1111 % 68% 54% Number 1045 691 % 51% 33% Number 910 678 % 44% 33% Number 1239 899 % 60% 44% 21 Table 3.7 show that there were 2069 ever-partnered women in the sample; 2061 is used as the common denominator for calculating prevalence rates because data were missing for several questions for 8 of these respondents.
Page 56 of 249 21 Table 3.7 show that there were 2069 ever-partnered women in the sample; 2061 is used as the common denominator for calculating prevalence rates because data were missing for several questions for 8 of these respondents.

Page 56 of 249 Page 56 of 246 Chart 4.2 shows the overlap of physical and sexual violence among the 1239 women who said that they had ever experienced violence by a husband/partner in their lifetime.
This shows that the majority of women (58%) experienced both physical and sexual violence by their husband/partner; 16% experienced only sexual violence; and 26% experienced only physical violence.

This finding is important because most women only report physical violence by their husbands/partners to authorities, and anecdotal evidence suggests that most women who apply for Family Protection Orders (FPOs) do so only on the grounds of physical violence.
All provinces and both urban and rates of rural areas have high violence against women.

However, urban areas tend to have somewhat lower rates than rural areas.

Of all respondents the interviewed who live in urban areas, 50% have experienced physical and/or sexual violence their lifetime; this compares with 63% of all the ever-partnered respondents interviewed who live in rural areas (Table 4.2 and Chart 4.3).
Some government and community leaders have expressed the view that violence against women mainly occurs in urban areas; the findings show very clearly that this is a myth.
ever-partnered in Table 4.2: Lifetime prevalence of emotional, physical and sexual violence against women by husbands/partners, by location (number and percentage of ever-partnered women who experienced violence in their lifetime, N = 2061) Location Emotional Physical Sexual Port Vila Luganville Torba Sanma Penama Malampa Shefa Tafea number 137 133 182 254 209 228 106 155 % 57% 67% 68% 78% 77% 80% 46% 65% Number 94 89 115 201 156 196 58 136 % 39% 45% 43% 61% 57% 69% 25% 57% Number 67 81 100 191 137 160 45 129 % 28% 41% 37% 60% 50% 56% 20% 54% Physical and/or sexual Number 111 110 142 242 188 214 72 160 % 46% 55% 53% 74% 69% 75% 31% 67% 61% 70% 68% 270 1134 1404 41% Total Urban 53% Total Rural 51% Total Vanuatu Note: urban prevalence is calculated as the number of ever-partnered women who experienced each type of violence, as a percentage of the total number of ever-partnered women interviewed who live in urban areas.
Similarly, rural prevalence is the number of ever-partnered women who experienced each type of violence, as a percentage of the total number of ever- partnered women interviewed who live in urban areas.

221 1018 1239 183 862 1045 34% 47% 44% 50% 63% 60% 148 762 910 Page 57 of 249 Page 57 of 246 Locations where VWC has been most active since its establishment in 1992 have significantly lower rates of physical and sexual violence by husbands/partners than areas where VWC has been less active.
For example, Port Vila has 46% of women reporting physical and/or sexual violence compared with the national rate of 60%.

Shefa province, where VWC has had regular mobile counselling and community education activities over many years, has the lowest rates of physical and/or sexual violence at 31%.

Luganville, where the Sanma Counselling Centre has been working since 1995, also has substantially lower rates of physical and/or sexual violence (55%) compared with Sanma (74%) as a whole.
The areas where VWC and its network of CAVAWs have been least active include the remotest parts of Sanma province and most of Malampa province where the prevalence of violence against women is highest (75% of ever-partnered women in Malampa and 74% in Sanma) (Table 4.2 and Chart 4.4).

Multivariable risk factor analysis (see chapter 10) confirms that differences in prevalence between these locations and the national rate is statistically significant (P value of 0.04).
One of the most important findings is the extremely high rates of emotional violence against women by their husbands/partners throughout Vanuatu (see Box 2.1 for the types of actions that classify as emotional violence).
Overall, the percentage of women experiencing emotional violence in rural areas (70%) is somewhat higher than in urban areas (61%); and the rates range from 46% in Shefa province (a little less than half of all women in a relationship) to a high of 80% in Malampa province (4 women in every 5).

Rates of emotional violence are higher than the rates of physical or sexual violence in all locations except for Tafea province (Table 4.2 and Charts 4.3 and 4.5).
Page 58 of 249 Page 58 of 246 Physical and/or sexual violence by husbands/partners affects women of all ages and education levels, and from all socio-economic groups.

There are variations between the rates of physical and/or sexual violence experienced by women in different age groups, with younger women at somewhat higher risk than older women.

Nevertheless, these differences were not found to be statistically significant after applying multi-variable analysis (see chapter 10).
However, young women aged 15-19 are the only age group where the prevalence of sexual violence by husbands/partners is higher than physical violence – 44% of young women in this age group experience physical violence and 52% experience sexual violence.

This compares with national rates of 51% for physical violence and 44% for sexual violence by husbands/partners (Table 4.3 and Chart 4.6).
Table 4.3: Lifetime prevalence of physical and sexual violence by husbands/partners by woman’s age, education and socio-economic status (number and percentage of ever-partnered women, N = 2061) Woman’s age group Physical Sexual Physical and/or sexual Number Number Number Woman’s education level Physical Sexual Physical and/or sexual Number Number Number 15-19 20-24 25-29 30-34 35-39 40-44 45-49 None Primary Secondary Higher Low Medium 51 214 212 197 170 109 92 77 593 345 29 61 188 188 155 147 89 82 78 538 272 21 % 44% 59% 53% 50% 49% 44% 49% % 57% 52% 49% 39% % 57% 50% % 52% 52% 47% 39% 42% 36% 44% % 58% 47% 38% 28% % 51% 43% 73 246 253 220 203 135 109 91 709 405 33 % 62% 68% 63% 56% 58% 54% 58% % 67% 62% 57% 45% % 66% 60% Page 59 of 249 Socio-economic status Physical Sexual Physical and/or sexual Number 531 421 Number 471 359 Number 616 502 every 5).
Rates of emotional violence are higher than the rates of physical or sexual violence in all locations except for Tafea province (Table 4.2 and Charts 4.3 and 4.5).

Physical and/or sexual violence by husbands/partners affects women of all ages and education levels, and from all socio-economic groups.

There are variations between the rates of physical and/or sexual violence experienced by women in different age groups, with younger women at somewhat higher risk than older women.
Nevertheless, these differences were not found to be statistically significant after applying multi-variable analysis (see chapter 10).

However, young women aged 15-19 are the only age group where the prevalence of sexual violence by husbands/partners is higher than physical violence – 44% of young women in this age group experience physical violence and 52% experience sexual violence.
This compares with national rates of 51% for physical violence and 44% for sexual violence by husbands/partners (Table 4.3 and Chart 4.6).
Table 4.3: Lifetime prevalence of physical and sexual violence by husbands/partners by woman’s age, education and socio-economic status (number and percentage of ever-partnered women, N = 2061) Woman’s age group Physical Sexual 15-19 20-24 25-29 30-34 35-39 40-44 45-49 Number 51 214 212 197 170 109 92 % 44% 59% 53% 50% 49% 44% 49% Number 61 188 188 155 147 89 82 % 52% 52% 47% 39% 42% 36% 44% Woman’s education level Physical Sexual None Primary Secondary Higher Number 77 593 345 29 % 57% 52% 49% 39% Number 78 538 272 21 % 58% 47% 38% 28% Socio-economic status Physical Sexual Low Medium High Number 531 421 66 % 57% 50% 29% Number 471 359 57 % 51% 43% 25% Physical and/or sexual Number 73 246 253 220 203 135 109 % 62% 68% 63% 56% 58% 54% 58% Physical and/or sexual Number 91 709 405 33 % 67% 62% 57% 45% Physical and/or sexual Number 616 502 88 % 66% 60% 39% Page 59 of 249 Page 59 of 246 Overall, the prevalence of physical and sexual violence by husbands/partners is somewhat less for women with a higher education – 45% of women who have attended tertiary education said that they experienced either physical or sexual violence or both.
This compares with 67% for women with no education, 62% for primary education and 57% for secondary education.

These differences were statistically significant when applying a uni-variable analysis (with a P value of 0.002); however after controlling for all other variables in the multi-variable analysis, education did not emerge as a statistically significant risk factor (see chapter 10).
Furthermore, although lower than the national rate of 60%, the prevalence of violence for women with tertiary education is still very high, with almost half of these women experiencing either physical or sexual violence or both (Table 4.3 and Chart 4.7).

Similarly, the prevalence of physical and sexual violence by husbands/partners is substantially less for women from households with high socio-economic status (39%), compared to those with low (66%) or medium (60%) socio-economic status.
These differences were statistically significant in both the uni- variable and multi-variable analysis (with P values of less than 0.001 and 0.028 respectively, see chapter 10).

Higher education was also found to be closely related to higher socio-economic status (Table 4.3 and Chart 4.8).
Page 60 of 249 High 66 29% 57 25% 88 39% Overall, the prevalence of physical and sexual violence by husbands/partners is somewhat less for women with a higher education – 45% of women who have attended tertiary education said that they experienced either physical or sexual violence or both.

This compares with 67% for women with no education, 62% for primary education and 57% for secondary education.
These differences were statistically significant when applying a uni-variable analysis (with a P value of 0.002); however after controlling for all other variables in the multi-variable analysis, education did not emerge as a statistically significant risk factor (see chapter 10).
Furthermore, although lower than the national rate of 60%, the prevalence of violence for women with tertiary education is still very high, with almost half of these women experiencing either physical or sexual violence or both (Table 4.3 and Chart 4.7).

Similarly, the prevalence of physical and sexual violence by husbands/partners is substantially less for women from households with high socio-economic status (39%), compared to those with low (66%) or medium (60%) socio-economic status.
These differences were statistically significant in both the uni- variable and multi-variable analysis (with P values of less than 0.001 and 0.028 respectively, see chapter 10).

Higher education was also found to be closely related to higher socio-economic status (Table 4.3 and Chart 4.8).

Page 60 of 249 Page 60 of 246 Finally, the findings show that women from all religions experience physical and/or sexual violence by their husbands/partners.
Although there are some variations between the prevalence rates between religions, these are minor and not statistically significant; all religions have prevalence rates close to the national rate of 60% (Table 4.4).

These findings should not be used to argue that women from any one religion are more or less likely to experience intimate partner violence than women from any other religion.
Table 4.4: Lifetime experience of physical and/or sexual partner violence by religion (number and percentage of ever-partnered women reporting physical and/or sexual violence for each religion) Religion Never experienced physical and/or sexual partner violence (N=822) Experienced physical or sexual partner violence (N=1239) %* Number 60% 234 56% 68 61% 35 69% 186 64% 48 53% 189 60% 299 62% 171 64% 9 60% 1239 Anglican Assemblies of God Apostolic Catholic Church of Christ Other Presbyterian Seventh Day Adventist No answer/no religion Total * Percentages are based on the proportion of women in each religion.
Note: variations in prevalence between religions are minor and not statistically significant; the findings from this table cannot be used to argue that women from any one religion are more or less likely to experience intimate partner violence than women from any other religion.
Number 155 53 22 85 27 169 201 105 5 822 %* 40% 44% 39% 31% 36% 47% 40% 38% 35% 40% Total ever-partnered women for each religion (N=2061) %* 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% Number 389 121 57 271 75 358 500 276 14 2061 Prevalence, frequency and severity of specific acts of physical and sexual violence Physical violence The most common types of physical violence are being slapped or having something thrown at them (45% of all ever-partnered women), and being hit with a fist or something else (42%) by their husband/partner.
Almost 1 in 4 women (24%) have been pushed or shoved, or have been kicked, dragged or beaten repeatedly.

The number of women who have experienced extremely severe forms of violence is a very worrying finding.

More than 1 in 10 (12%) have been choked or burnt on purpose by their husband/partner, or have had a weapon used against them (11%) such as a knife, iron bar, piece Page 61 of 249 of wood, an axe or a gun.
The fact that 15% of ever-partnered women have been threatened with a weapon provides an insight into the extreme degree of control and power that some men exert over their wives and partners (Table 4.5).
Page 61 of 246 Table 4.5: Types of physical violence by husbands/partners in a woman’s lifetime (number and percentage of ever-partnered women interviewed [N = 2061], compared with percentage of those who reported physical violence [N = 1045]) Types of physical violence % of ever-partnered women % of total ever- Number partnered women who experienced physical (N=2061) violence (N=1045) Slapped or threw something Pushed or shoved Hit with a fist or something else Kicked, dragged, beaten up Choked or burnt on purpose Threatened to use a weapon Actually used a weapon 925 501 858 498 251 299 239 45% 24% 42% 24% 12% 15% 11% 89% 48% 82% 48% 24% 29% 23% Table 4.5 also provides the percentages of women experiencing each specific type of physical violence, among the 1045 ever-partnered women who reported that they had experienced any one act of physical violence in their lifetime.
These figures provide a stark insight into these women’s lives and demonstrate that many women are experiencing multiple types of physical violence: 82% of the women who do suffer from violence by their husbands/partners have been hit with a fist or something else, and almost half (48%) have been kicked, dragged or beaten up.
Almost 1 in 4 have been choked or burnt on purpose (24%), 29% have been threatened with a weapon, and 23% have actually had a weapon used against them by their husbands/partners (Table 4.5 and Chart 4.9).

Some community members and leaders believe that women who experience domestic violence are only occasionally hit, and that in most cases the violence is minor – one view that has often been expressed to VWC is that the violence was “just a slap”.

The data clearly shows that these beliefs are myths.
Of all the ever-partnered women in the survey (2061), 46% have experienced the most severe types of violence, and 5% have experienced “moderate” violence only (Table 4.6).

The WHO and other country studies typically define “moderate” violence as including slapping, pushing, shoving and having something thrown at them, whereas all other forms of physical violence are categorised as “severe” Page 62 of 249 violence is a very worrying finding.
More than 1 in 10 (12%) have been choked or burnt on purpose by their husband/partner, or have had a weapon used against them (11%) such as a knife, iron bar, piece of wood, an axe or a gun.

The fact that 15% of ever-partnered women have been threatened with a weapon provides an insight into the extreme degree of control and power that some men exert over their wives and partners (Table 4.5).
Table 4.5: Types of physical violence by husbands/partners in a woman’s lifetime (number and percentage of ever-partnered women interviewed [N = 2061], compared with percentage of those who reported physical violence [N = 1045]) Types of physical violence Number Slapped or threw something Pushed or shoved Hit with a fist or something else Kicked, dragged, beaten up Choked or burnt on purpose Threatened to use a weapon Actually used a weapon 925 501 858 498 251 299 239 % of total ever- partnered women (N=2061) 45% 24% 42% 24% 12% 15% 11% % of ever-partnered women who experienced physical violence (N=1045) 89% 48% 82% 48% 24% 29% 23% Table 4.5 also provides the percentages of women experiencing each specific type of physical violence, among the 1045 ever-partnered women who reported that they had experienced any one act of physical violence in their lifetime.
These figures provide a stark insight into these women’s lives and demonstrate that many women are experiencing multiple types of physical violence: 82% of the women who do suffer from violence by their husbands/partners have been hit with a fist or something else, and almost half (48%) have been kicked, dragged or beaten up.
Almost 1 in 4 have been choked or burnt on purpose (24%), 29% have been threatened with a weapon, and 23% have actually had a weapon used against them by their husbands/partners (Table 4.5 and Chart 4.9).
Slapped or threw something Pushed or shoved Hit with fist or something else Kicked, dragged, beaten Chocked or burnt Threatened to use a gun, knife or other weapon Actually used a gun, knife or other weapon Some community members and leaders believe that women who experience domestic violence are only occasionally hit, and that in most cases the violence is minor – one view that has often been expressed to VWC is that the violence was “just a slap”.

The data clearly shows that these beliefs are myths.
Of all the ever-partnered women in the survey (2061), 46% have experienced the most severe types of violence, and 5% have experienced “moderate” violence only (Table 4.6).

The WHO and other country studies typically define “moderate” violence as including slapping, pushing, shoving and having something thrown at them, whereas all other forms of physical violence are categorised as “severe” Page 62 of 249 Page 62 of 246 (WHO 2005: 15, 30).
While all forms of violence may cause short-term or permanent injury, those categorised as severe are very likely to do so in the vast majority of cases.
Table 4.6: Severity of physical violence experienced by ever-partnered women by their husbands/partners (number and percentage of ever-partnered women [N=2061], and percentage of those who reported any type of physical violence [N=1045]) Number % of ever-partnered No physical violence Moderate physical violence only Severe and moderate physical violence Note: for the purposes of this table, “moderate” violence includes slapping, pushing or shoving only; “severe” physical violence includes all the other types of violence listed in Tables 4.5 and 4.7 and in Chart 4.9.
1016 101 944 women (N=2061) 49% 5% 46% % of women who reported physical violence (N=1045) 0% 10% 90% When we consider the 1045 women who have experienced any form of physical violence, 90% of them have been subjected to the most severe forms of violence and very few (10%) have only experienced slapping, pushing and shoving (Table 4.6 and Chart 4.10).

One positive finding is that for about 1 in 3 women, each act of physical violence is a once in a lifetime event (Table 4.7 and Chart 4.11).
However the majority – between 50% and 62% – have experienced each type of violence many times.

This is the case for even the most severe types of physical violence, such being kicked, dragged or beaten repeatedly, choking and burning, and having a weapon used against them (Table 4.7 and Chart 4.11).
Table 4.7: Frequency of physical violence experienced by women (percentage of women who experienced each type of physical violence by their husband/partner in their lifetime) Types of physical violence Many times A few times Once Total 304 169 300 149 77 Number % Number % Number % Number 15% 16% 15% 19% 15% Slapped or threw something Pushed or shoved Hit with a fist or something else Kicked, dragged, beaten Choked or burnt on purpose Threatened to use a gun, knife or weapon Actually used a gun, knife or other weapon 100% Note: the total figures for women who have experienced each type of physical violence are less than in Table 4.5 because some women did not say how frequently the violence occurred.
% Page 63 of 249 Page 63 of 246 Slapped or threw something Pushed or shoved Hit with fist or something else Kicked, dragged or beaten up Chocked or burnt Threatened to use a gun, knife or other weapon Actu- ally used a gun, knife or other weapon In summary, for most of the women who experience any type of physical violence by their husband or partner, they experience multiple types of violence, the violence is frequently severe, and they experience it many times in their life.
These are important findings for policy makers, service-providers, Chiefs, family members and all individuals who may be asked for help by women living with violence.

Sexual violence The most common form of sexual violence is rape – 39% of ever-partnered women (almost 2 in every 5 women) have been physically forced to have sex against their will by their husband/partner; and 35% have had sex because they were afraid of what their husband/partner might do.
Almost 1 in 5 women (18%) have been forced to do something sexual that they felt was degrading or humiliating (Table 4.8).
Table 4.8: Types of sexual violence by husbands/partners in a woman’s lifetime (number and percentage of ever-partnered women interviewed [N=2061], compared with percentage of those who reported sexual violence [N = 910]) Types of sexual violence Number % of ever-partnered women in Vanuatu (N=2061) 39% 799 % of ever-partnered women who experienced sexual violence (N=910) 88% Forced to have sex Had sex because afraid of what husband/partner might do Forced to perform a degrading or humiliating sexual act 712 361 35% 18% 78% 40% Of the 910 women who have experienced any of these forms of sexual violence, most have experienced more than one type (Table 4.8 and Chart 4.12).
For those women who have been subjected to each type of sexual violence, almost half have experienced the abuse many times by their husband/partner (Table 4.9 and Chart 4.13).

Furthermore, for many women, physical abuse is followed by rape.

Of the 1045 women who have experienced physical violence by their husband/partner, 42% have been forced to have sex following the physical violence (Table 4.10 and Chart 4.14).
Page 64 of 249 Page 64 of 246 Forced to have sex Had sex because afraid of what partner may do Forced to perform a degrading or humiliating sexual act Table 4.9: Frequency of sexual violence experienced by women (percentage of women who experienced each type of physical violence in their lifetime, N=910) Types of sexual violence A few times Many times Once Total 269 Number % Number % Number % Number 21% 35% 45% Forced to have sex Had sex because afraid of what partner may do Forced to perform a degrading or humiliating sexual act 100% Note: the total figures for women who have experienced each type of sexual violence are less than in Table 4.8 because some women did not say how frequently the violence occurred.
100% 36% 15% 48% 17% 36% 48% % 100% 347 331 106 160 248 685 776 123 165 346 58 Page 65 of 249 Page 65 of 246 Table 4.10: Links between physical violence and forced sex (rape) by husbands/partners (number and percentage of ever-partnered women who experienced physical violence in their lifetime, N = 1045) Never Frequency of forced sex following physical violence 1-2 times Sometimes Many times/most of the times Sub-total where there was forced sex following physical violence No answer Total Number 594 220 135 80 435 16 1045 % 58% 21% 13% 8% 42% 100% Prevalence of specific husbands/partners types of emotional violence and controlling behaviours by Emotional violence The survey asked women about 5 different types of emotional abuse.
Being insulted by her husband/partner or made to feel bad about herself is the most common form of emotional abuse, experienced by about 2 in every 3 ever-partnered women (64%).

Being belittled or humiliated in front of her parents or family is experienced by 29% of women; and being humiliated in front of other people is experienced by 27%.

About 1 in 3 women (31%) have been scared or intimidated on purpose by their husband/partner.
For almost 1 in 5 women (18%), her husband/partner has threatened to hurt her or someone she cares about (Table 4.11).

Women in rural areas are somewhat more likely to be insulted or made to feel bad about themsleves by their husband/partner than women in urban areas – 56% of women in urban areas have been insulted, compared with 66% in rural areas (Table 4.11 and Chart 4.15).
Comparing this finding with the overall rates of emotional abuse in urban and rural areas (Table 4.2 and Chart 4.3), this difference accounts for the fact that women in rural areas experience higher rates of emtional abuse than those in urban areas.

However, women in urban areas are slightly more likely than those in rural areas to be scared or intimdated on purpose by their husband/parter; for all the other types of emotional abuse, the rural and urban rates are about the same.
Page 66 of 249 Page 66 of 246 Table 4.11: Types of emotional abuse of women by their husbands/partners, by location (number and percentage of ever-partnered women interviewed, N = 2061) Location Insulted her or made her feel bad about herself Number 118 128 167 235 199 222 101 139 % 49% 64% 63% 72% 73% 78% 44% 58% Belittled or humiliated her in front of her parents/family % Number 26% 62 31% 61 22% 59 34% 110 31% 85 30% 86 29% 67 28% 67 Belittled or humiliated her in front of other people Scared or intimidated her on purpose Number 65 59 63 103 79 74 46 65 % 27% 30% 24% 31% 29% 26% 20% 27% Number 76 70 78 114 100 82 50 68 % 31% 35% 29% 35% 37% 29% 22% 28% Threatened to hurt her or someone she cares about % 17% 19% 8% 29% 19% 17% 16% 20% Number Pt Vila Luganville Torba Sanma Penama Malampa Shefa Tafea Total Urban Total Rural Total Vanuatu Several patterns that were observed for physical and sexual violence are also evident in women’s experience of emotional abuse.
Many women are experiencing multiple types of emotional abuse through their lifetime.

Women of all ages, education levels and socio-economic status experience all types of emotional abuse.

However, younger women are slightly more likely to experience it, although this fluctuates according to the different types of abuse (Table 4.12 and Chart 4.16).

Women with higher education are less likely to experience all types of emotional abuse.
In particular, 49% of women with higher education have been insulted by their husband/partner, compared with 71% of those with no education.

Overall, the percentage of women experiencing emotional abuse decreases according to their level of education achieved (Table 4.12 and Chart 4.17).
Similarly, women from households with a high socio-economic status are less likely to experience all types of emotional abuse, compared with those from households with medium and low socio-economic status (Table 4.12 and Chart 4.18).
Page 67 of 249 Page 67 of 246 Table 4.12: Types of emotional abuse of women by their husbands/partners, by age, level of education and socio-economic status (percentage of ever-partnered women interviewed, N = 2061) Insulted her or made her feel bad about herself Belittled or humiliated her in front of her parents or family Belittled or humiliated her in front of other people Scared or intimidated her on purpose Threatened to hurt her or someone she cares about Age group 15-19 20-24 25-29 30-34 35-39 40-44 45-49 Education level None Primary Secondary Higher 56% 69% 68% 61% 63% 57% 63% 71% 66% 60% 49% Socio-economic status 70% Low 61% Medium 45% High Page 68 of 249 Page 68 of 246 Page 69 of 249 Page 69 of 246 Controlling behaviours Findings on the type of control that men exert over their wives, partners and girlfriends provide important insights into the lives of women in Vanuatu, regardless of whether they experience partner violence.
The survey asked questions about 8 different types of control including attempts to restrict a woman’s social contact with her family, friends or other men, and the extent to which women are expected to get male permission when accessing health care or undertaking activities.
The study found that 69% of ever-partnered women (more than 2 in 3) have experienced at least 1 type of controlling behaviour by their husbands/partners; and more than 1 in 4 (28%) have experienced 4 or more (Table 4.13 and Chart 4.19).

The rates of controlling behaviour observed in Vanuatu are among the highest in the world where the WHO survey has been used (WHO 2005: 34-35, 182-183; SPC 2009: 65; SPC 2010: 85).
This indicates that male control is a common element of many relationships in Vanuatu, whether or not a women experiences physical or sexual partner violence.

This has serious implications for women’s ability to take up opportunities for social and economic development.
Table 4.13: Prevalence of ever-partnered women reporting controlling behaviours by husbands/partners, according to their experience of physical or sexual violence (number and percentage of ever-partnered women who experienced controlling behaviours in their lifetime, N = 2061) Type of control Ever-partnered women (N = 2061) Never experienced partner violence (N = 822) Experienced partner violence (N = 1239) P value* Keeps her from seeing friends Restricts her contact with family Insists on knowing where she is at all times Ignores her or treats indifferently Gets angry if she speaks with another man Often suspicious that she is unfaithful Expects his permission before she accesses health care Expects his permission before she does anything Number % Number % Number % <0.001 14% <0.001 64% <0.001 23% <0.001 35% <0.001 39% <0.001 50% <0.001 61% <0.001 Experienced at least one act of controlling behaviour Experienced 4 or more acts of controlling behaviour <0.001 * P value tests the difference between “never experienced physical or sexual violence by a husband or partner” and “experienced physical or sexual violence by a husband or partner”.
All associations are highly statistically significant.

<0.001 1011 1422 42% 28% 82% 50% 69% 523 586 411 8% 63 The most common forms of controlling behaviour for ever-partnered women are: insisting on knowing where she is at all times (52% of women); expecting her to request his permission before she does anything (48%); and expecting her to request his permission before she accesses health care (41%).
The fact that 2 in 5 women are expected to ask permission before getting health care has potentially negative implications for women’s and children’s health.

On the positive side, relatively few women are restricted from seeing their family (9% of ever-partnered women).
Nevertheless, about 1 in 4 is Page 70 of 249 Page 70 of 246 restricted from seeing her friends, subjected to anger if she speaks with another man, and frequently treated with suspicion regarding whether she is faithful to her husband/partner (Table 4.13).

Women who have experienced either physical or sexual partner violence are significantly more likely to experience controlling behaviours by their husbands/partners than those who have not experienced partner violence.
More than 4 in 5 women (82%) who experienced partner violence also experienced at least 1 act of controlling behaviour, compared with 50% among those who never experienced violence.

Furthermore, more than 2 in 5 women (42%) who have been subjected to partner violence have experienced 4 or more types of control by their husbands/partners, compared with only 8% among those who have not experienced physical or sexual violence (Table 4.13 and Chart 4.19).
In fact, women who experience any form of controlling behaviour at all are significantly more likely to be living with either physical or sexual violence or both by their husband/partner (P values for all associations are less than 0.001, Table 4.13).
For those women who have experienced either physical or sexual violence or both, in 64% of cases their husbands/partners insist on knowing where they are at all times, for 61% he expects her to get his permission before she does anything, and for 50% he expects her to get his permission before she accesses health care.
Moreover, for more than 1 in 3 of those women who have experienced violence, her husband/partner restricts her from seeing her friends (34%), gets angry if she speaks with another man (35%), and often suspects that she is unfaithful (39%).

These figures paint a picture of a highly controlled, oppressive and intimidating environment for many women living with violence (Table 4.13).
All these associations underline the strong links between violence against women and reduced opportunities for economic and social development.

Unlike other forms of violence against women (physical, sexual and emotional), urban women are more likely to experience some forms of controlling behaviour by husbands/partners than their rural sisters.
This is the case for insisting on knowing where she is at all times (62% of urban women experience this behaviour compared with 50% of rural women); and for expecting his permission before she accesses health care or does anything.

With other aspects of controlling behaviours, the difference in percentages between urban and rural areas is small (Table 4.14 and Chart 4.20).
Page 71 of 249 Page 71 of 246 Table 4.14: Types of controlling behaviours by husbands/partners in women’s lifetime, by location (percentage of ever-partnered women interviewed, N = 2061) Ignores her Characteristics or treats of the woman indifferently Keeps her from seeing friends Restricts her contact with family Insists on knowing where she is at all times Gets angry if she speaks with another man Often suspicious that she is unfaithful Expects his permission before she accesses health care Expects his permission before she does anything Location Pt Vila Luganville Torba Sanma Penama Malampa Shefa Tafea Total Urban Total Rural Total Vanuatu Age group 15-19 20-24 25-29 30-34 35-39 40-44 45-49 Education level None Primary Secondary Higher 28% 30% 28% 24% 25% 19% 15% 30% 29% 24% 25% 41% 35% 27% 22% 19% 16% 19% 36% 23% 26% 20% Socio-economic status 24% Low 24% Medium 26% High As with the other forms of violence discussed above, women of all ages, education levels and socio- economic status experience high levels of controlling behaviours.
However, younger women aged 15- 29 are more likely to experience some of these acts of control than older age groups.

For example, a younger woman is somewhat more likely to be prevented from seeing friends and family than an older woman; and it is more likely that her husband/partner will insist on knowing where she is at all times or get angry if she speaks with another man (Table 4.14 and Chart 4.21).
Women with higher education are less likely to experience most controlling behaviours than women with secondary, primary or no education.

These differences vary slightly from one type of controlling behaviour to the other: women with higher education are substantially less likely to have to ask for permission to access health care and are less often suspected of being unfaithful.
However, a woman’s educational status has very little impact on whether her husband/partner insists on knowing where she Page 72 of 249 Page 72 of 246 is at all times; this type of control is imposed on women regardless of their level of education (Table 4.14 and Chart 4.22).
On the other hand, women with no education are much more likely to be restricted from seeing their friends or family, more likely to be suspected of being unfaithful, and more likely to have to ask permission from their husband/partner to do anything.

Social and economic development for women with no education is already limited; these controlling behaviours restrict women’s opportunities even further (Table 4.14 and Chart 4.22).
Page 73 of 249 Page 73 of 246 Unlike other forms of violence, socio-economic status does not affect whether or not a woman will experience controlling behaviours.

Although women with higher socio-economic status experience slightly less controlling behaviours, the differences for most types of control are not significant (Table 4.14 and Chart 4.23).

Page 74 of 249 Page 74 of 246 4.2 WOMEN’S ATTITUDES TO GENDER POWER RELATIONS AND VIOLENCE This section presents findings on women’s attitudes.
Women were asked whether they agreed or 4.2 WOMEN’S ATTITUDES TO GENDER POWER RELATIONS AND VIOLENCE disagreed with a series of statements.

The first series of statements focused on gender power relations and selected customary practices; the second explored women’s views on whether a man has “a good This section presents findings on women’s attitudes.
Women were asked whether they agreed or reason to hit his wife/partner” in specific situations; and the third asked about situations where a disagreed with a series of statements.

The first series of statements focused on gender power relations married woman can refuse to have sex with her husband (see section 6 of the questionnaire in Annex and selected customary practices; the second explored women’s views on whether a man has “a good 2).
All questions were asked of all 2337 respondents, including ever-partnered and never-partnered reason to hit his wife/partner” in specific situations; and the third asked about situations where a women.

married woman can refuse to have sex with her husband (see section 6 of the questionnaire in Annex 2).

All questions were asked of all 2337 respondents, including ever-partnered and never-partnered Women’s attitudes to gender roles, gender equality and women’s rights women.
On several key questions relating to women’s rights and gender equality, about half of the respondents Women’s attitudes to gender roles, gender equality and women’s rights agree with statements that oppose or undermine gender equality, and about half reject these statements.
For example, half of the respondents (50% of the 2337 women interviewed) agreed that a On several key questions relating to women’s rights and gender equality, about half of the respondents “good wife” obeys her husband/partner even if she disagrees with him; 40% (2 in 5) agreed that “it is agree with statements that oppose or undermine gender equality, and about half reject these important for a man to show his wife/partner that he is the boss”; and almost half (47%) disagreed that statements.
For example, half of the respondents (50% of the 2337 women interviewed) agreed that a “a woman should be able to choose her own friends, even if her husband/partner disapproves”.
On the “good wife” obeys her husband/partner even if she disagrees with him; 40% (2 in 5) agreed that “it is positive side, compared to the answers to other questions, relatively few women (18% or slightly less important for a man to show his wife/partner that he is the boss”; and almost half (47%) disagreed that than 1 in 5) agreed that “it’s a wife’s obligation to have sex with her husband/partner even if she doesn’t “a woman should be able to choose her own friends, even if her husband/partner disapproves”.
On the feel like it” (Table 4.15 and Chart 4.24).

positive side, compared to the answers to other questions, relatively few women (18% or slightly less than 1 in 5) agreed that “it’s a wife’s obligation to have sex with her husband/partner even if she doesn’t Another positive finding is the fact that three-quarters of respondents (74%) believe that if a man feel like it” (Table 4.15 and Chart 4.24).

mistreats his wife/partner, then others outside the family should intervene.
This is a potential protective factor for women living with violence.

However, a strong risk factor that is likely to prevent women from Another positive finding is the fact that three-quarters of respondents (74%) believe that if a man seeking help when living with domestic violence is that more than 4 in 5 (82%) believe that family mistreats his wife/partner, then others outside the family should intervene.
This is a potential protective problems should only be discussed with the family (Table 4.15 and Chart 4.24).

factor for women living with violence.

However, a strong risk factor that is likely to prevent women from seeking help when living with domestic violence is that more than 4 in 5 (82%) believe that family Three questions were asked on traditional customs.

Almost 3 in 5 women (58%) believe that a woman problems should only be discussed with the family (Table 4.15 and Chart 4.24).
or girl should not touch food when she is menstruating.

The high level of agreement with this statement is a worrying finding because it is based on a negative and discriminatory view of women and girls and Three questions were asked on traditional customs.

Almost 3 in 5 women (58%) believe that a woman their natural biological functions.

A disturbing finding is the fact that over half of the respondents (53%) or girl should not touch food when she is menstruating.
The high level of agreement with this statement believe that a woman becomes a man’s property if bride price is paid.

The notion of a woman as is a worrying finding because it is based on a negative and discriminatory view of women and girls and property is dehumanising and opposed to basic human rights; it also severely restricts her options if their natural biological functions.
A disturbing finding is the fact that over half of the respondents (53%) she is living in a violent relationship, as so many women in Vanuatu are.

Finally, more than 1 in 3 (36%) believe that a woman becomes a man’s property if bride price is paid.
The notion of a woman as believe that it is all right for a girl or woman to be swapped or exchanged in marriage (Table 4.15 and property is dehumanising and opposed to basic human rights; it also severely restricts her options if Chart 4.24).22 she is living in a violent relationship, as so many women in Vanuatu are.
Finally, more than 1 in 3 (36%) believe that it is all right for a girl or woman to be swapped or exchanged in marriage (Table 4.15 and Chart 4.24).22 22 If a man from family A marries into family B, then family B is obliged by custom to provide a girl or woman to marry a man in family A.

This is a traditional practice in Tafea province and part of Sanma province.
22 If a man from family A marries into family B, then family B is obliged by custom to provide a girl or woman to marry a man Page 75 of 249 in family A.

This is a traditional practice in Tafea province and part of Sanma province.
Page 75 of 249 Page 75 of 246 Table 4.15: Women’s attitudes to gender roles and women’s rights (number and percentage of all women respondents who agree or disagree with each statement, whole of Vanuatu, N=2337) Statements Good wife/partner obeys husband even if she disagrees Family problems should only be discussed in the family It is important for a man to show his wife/partner that he is the boss A woman should be able to choose her own friends, even if husband / partner disapproves Wife has obligation to have sex with her husband / partner, even if she doesn’t feel like it If a man mistreats his wife / partner, others outside the family should intervene A woman or girl should not touch food when she is menstruating It is all right for a woman or girl to be swapped or exchanged for marriage If bride price is paid, a wife becomes the husband’s property Agree Don't know / no answer Disagree Number % Number % Number % Table 4.16 shows attitudes to women’s roles, gender equality and women’s rights in different locations, and for different age groups, education levels and socio-economic status.
For most questions, there were very few differences in attitudes between urban and rural locations.
However, more women in urban areas held views that undermined women’s rights on 3 issues: that a man should show his wife/partner that he is the boss (50% in urban areas compared with 38% in rural areas); that a woman becomes her husband’s property if bride price is paid (62% in urban areas compared with 50% in rural areas); and negative taboos regarding menstruation (64% in urban areas compared with 57% in rural areas) (Table 4.16).
Page 76 of 249 Page 76 of 246 n e m o w l l a f o e g a t n e c r e p d n a r e b m u n ( s u t a t s i c m o n o c e - o c o s i d n a n o i t a c u d e , e g a , n o i t a c o l y b , s t h g i r s ’ ’ n e m o W : 6 1 .
4 e l b a T ) 7 3 3 2 = N , , i d a p s i e h t s e m o c e b ’ , r e n t r a p / / d n a b s u h r e h n e v e , r e n t r a p t ’ , s d n e i r f / / / % % 5 5 % 9 6 % 7 1 % 2 5 % 7 6 % 8 4 % 0 6 % 5 5 % 2 6 % 0 5 % 3 5 % 8 4 % 7 5 % 5 5 % 8 4 % 8 5 % 4 5 % % % 9 2 % 5 3 % 7 1 % 5 3 % 9 3 % 1 4 % 1 2 % 9 6 % 2 3 % 7 3 % 6 3 % 1 3 % 6 3 % 9 3 % 9 3 % 7 3 % 2 3 % % % 0 5 % 8 7 % 1 4 % 2 5 % 5 6 % 4 5 % 3 4 % 6 8 % 4 6 % 7 5 % 8 5 % 9 5 % 9 5 % 0 6 % 6 5 % 9 5 % 8 5 % % % 4 8 % 9 5 % 0 6 % 5 6 % 7 7 % 2 9 % 3 7 % 0 8 % 2 7 % 4 7 % 4 7 % 8 6 % 4 7 % 6 7 % 3 7 % 6 7 % 6 7 % 3
3 1 7 2 7 1 1 1 2 5 0 3 6 1 3 4 9 2 7 6 2 1 9 1 3 4 1 % % 2 1 % 9 1 % 8 % 7 1 % 2 3 % 8 2 % 7 1 % 1 1 % 5 1 % 9 1 % 8 1 % 1 1 % 5 1 % 1 2 % 8 1 % 2 2 % 2 2 % 9 1 % 9 3 7 5 % 1 4 0 6 % 8 5 6 8 % 5 6 6 9 % % % 9 4 % 8 4 % 1 6 % 4 3 % 4 4 % 2 5 % 3 4 % 0 5 % 8 4 % 7 4 % 7 4 % 2 4 % 9 4 % 7 4 % 6 4 % 1 5 % 2 5 % % % 2 4 % 9 5 % 1 1 % 5 3 % 2 5 % 9 3 % 8 6 % 2 2 % 0 5 % 8 3 % 0 4 % 8 3 % 0 4 % 3 4 % 7 3 % 7 4 % 8 3 % % % 4 8 % 7 8 % 6 8 % 6 7 % 3 7 % 0 9 % 7 7 % 0 8 % 6 8 % 0 8 % 2 8 % 3 8 % 3 8 % 2 8 % 1 8 % 2 8 % 1 8 % % % 4 4 % 9 5 % 0 2 % 0 4 % 0 6 % 7 5 % 0 7 % 7 5 % 1 5 % 0 5 % 0 5 % 7 4 % 0 5 % 1 5 % 9 4 % 4 5 % 3 5 % - 5 1 4 2 - 0 2 9 2 - 5 2 4 3 - 0 3 9 3 - 5 3 4 4 - 0 4 9 4 - 5 4 % 7 5 5 8 % 3 2 4 3 % 1 8 0 2 1 % 4 4 5 6 e n o N l e v e l n o i t a c u d E Page 77 of 246 e c i r p e d i r b f I e f i w a , i d a p s i e h t s e m o c e b ’ , r e n t r a p / / d n a b s u h r e h n e v
h t i w x e s e v a h / d n a b s u h r e h n e v e , r e n t r a p t ’ , s d n e i r f / / / % % 6 5 % 1 5 % 1 4 % 0 5 % 2 5 % 4 5 % 7 4 % 1 7 N 6 8 6 0 5 4 6 3 3 0 3 5 5 0 5 8 3 1 9 5 % % 9 3 % 3 3 % 5 1 % 7 1 % 9 3 % 7 3 % 0 2 % 0 4 N 5 7 4 8 8 2 3 1 1 2 0 4 4 4 3 8 5 3 3 % % 9 5 % 9 5 % 8 4 % 0 5 % 6 5 % 3 6 % 8 4 % 9 6 N 2 1 7 8 1 5 2 4 3 7 6 5 6 9 5 1 4 1 7 5 % % 4 7 % 5 7 % 6 7 % 0 0 1 % 3 7 % 6 7 % 2 7 % 6 6 N 2 0 9 7 5 6 6 6 6 8 4 7 3 1 7 1 1 2 5 5 % % 1 2 % 5 1 % 1 1 % 0 5 % 0 2 % 8 1 % 1 1 % 3 2 N 0 6 2 8 2 1 0 1 3 8 0 2 8 6 1 1 3 9 1 % % 7 4 % 5 4 % 1 5 % 3 8 % 9 4 % 6 4 % 3 4 % 4 5 N 8 7 5 2 9 3 4 4 5 7 9 4 5 3 4 7 2 1 5 4 % % 3 4 % 1 4 % 6 2 % 0 5 % 9 3 % 1 4 % 1 4 % 8 5 N 6 2 5 0 6 3 3 2 3 6 9 3 2 8 3 0 2 1 8 4 % % 2 8 % 2 8 % 8 7 % 0 0 1 % 1 8 % 3 8 % 0 8 % 9 8 N 2 9 9 3 2 7 8 6 6 5 2 8 5 7 7 5 3 2 4 7 % % 3 5 % 9 4 % 3 3 % % 1 5 % 0 5 % 4 4 % - o i c o S Page 78 of 246 Age is not a significant factor in women’s views relating to gender roles or key questions regarding women’s rights.
For example, younger women aged 15-29 are just as likely to agree with taboos regarding menstruation as older women; and very young women (15-19) are only slightly less likely to agree that a woman becomes the husband’s property after payment of bride price.

Interestingly, women aged 45-49 are the only ones substantially less likely to believe that bride price confers ownership, with 46% of women believing this compared with 53% for the total sample (Table 4.16).
Level of education and socio-economic status were not clear predictors of different attitudes to gender roles and women’s rights.

In most cases, women from all socio-economic groups and education levels agreed with most statements at about the same rates as the national averages.
However, women with no education as well as those with higher education were somewhat less likely to believe that a man should show his wife/partner who is boss, and both these groups were less likely to believe that bride price confers ownership.
Women with higher education were also less likely to agree with the menstruation taboo (48% of higher educated women agreed with the taboo, compared with 58% for all respondents), and much less likely to agree with swapping women and girls for marriage (only 15% of higher educated women agreed with this, compared with 36% for all respondents).
Similarly, women from households with high socio-economic status were less likely to agree with the menstruation taboo, with swapping for marriage, and that a husband owns his wife once bride price has been paid (Table 4.16).

Women’s attitudes to bride price Respondents’ attitudes to bride price were explored in questions on gender roles and women’s rights discussed above, and in questions on attitudes to physical and sexual violence which are discussed in detail below.
In addition, 3 specific questions were also asked on bride price in section 1 of the questionnaire (see Annex 2).

First, women who had ever been married were asked if their marriage involved bride price.

Ever-married women were defined as those who had a ceremony to formalise the union, regardless of whether it was a civil, religious or custom ceremony.

Of the 1437 women who had ever been married, bride price was involved in about 4 in 5 cases (81% or 1162 women).
Among the 1162 women whose marriage involved bride price, it had been fully paid in 89% of cases; in the remaining 11% it had been partially paid (Table 4.17 and Chart 4.25).
% 81% 19% 100% Table 4.17: Payment of bride price and women's view of the impact of bride price on how she is treated by her husband and his family (number and percentage of ever-married women, N = 1437)* Number Number of ever-married women whose marriage involved bride price 1162 Marriage involves bride price 275 No bride price involved in the marriage Total 1437 How much of the bride price has been paid (percentage of 1162) Bride price all paid Bride price partially paid Don’t know/don’t remember/no answer Total Impact of bride price on how she is treated by her husband and his family (percentage of 1162) Positive impact Negative impact No impact Don’t know/don’t remember/no answer Total * Ever-married women were defined as those who had a ceremony to formalise the union, including a civil, religious or custom ceremony.
84% 14% 2% 0.7% 100% 971 159 24 8 1162 89% 11% 0.2% 100% 1029 127 2 1162 Page 79 of 249 Page 79 of 246 More than 4 in 5 women (84%) thought the bride price had a positive impact on how they were treated by their husband and his family; 14% thought it had a negative impact; and the remaining 2% either thought it had no impact, or they didn’t answer the question (Table 4.17 and Chart 4.25).
While these findings appear to suggest that bride price brings positive benefits for most women, the responses above to questions on gender roles and women’s rights, and those below on attitudes to physical and sexual violence present a more complex picture; this will be discussed further below.

Women’s attitudes to physical violence by husbands and intimate partners Respondents were presented with 11 statements regarding whether a man has “a good reason to hit his wife/partner”.
Three in 5 women (60% of all respondents including both ever-partnered and never- partnered women) agreed with one or more justifications for physical partner violence.

In contrast, less than 2 in 5 (37%) agreed with none of the reasons presented.

This is a very important finding because it indicates that the majority of women condone or sanction some level of physical violence by a husband/partner (Table 4.18 and Chart 4.26).
Almost 2 in 5 women (38%) believe that violence is justified if the wife is unfaithful.

More than 1 in 3 (34%) believe that violence is justified in cases of disobedience, and 28% that it is justified if her husband thinks that “she needs to be disciplined, taught a lesson or educated”.

Almost one-third (32%) believe that it is justified if bride price has been paid (Table 4.18).
When we consider only the views of ever-partnered women, and compare women who have experienced violence with those who have not, some very strong associations can be observed.

Women who agree with one or more justification for physical violence are significantly more likely to experience it (P value of less than 0.0001): 63% of women living with partner violence agree that physical violence can be justified, compared with 55% of women who have not experienced violence (Table 4.18 and Chart 4.26).
In addition, a higher percentage women living with partner violence agree with each of the reasons listed.
Statistically significant associations between specific justifications and the experience of violence are (Table 4.18):  the payment of bride price – 36% of women living with violence agree that this is a good reason for a man to beat his wife, compared with 27% of those who have not experienced partner violence; he thinks she needs to be taught a lesson, disciplined or educated – 32% of women living with partner violence agree with this reason, compared with 23% of those who have not experienced it; disobedience – 37% of women living with partner violence agree with this reason, compared with 30% who have not experienced it;   Page 80 of 249 Page 80 of 246     she does not complete the housework to his satisfaction – although only 21% of women living with violence agree with this justification, this compares with 13% of those who have not experienced it; she is unable to get pregnant – sadly, 23% of women living with violence agree with this justification, compared with 15% of those who have not experienced partner violence; she is living in his house or on his land – 16% of women living with violence agree with this reason, compared with 11% of those who have not experienced it; and she refuses to have sexual relations – although only 18% of women living with violence agree with this reason, this compares with 14% of those who have not experienced violence.
Table 4.18: Women’s attitudes to physical partner violence, according to their experience of physical or sexual violence from their husbands or partners (number and % of all women respondents who agree with each statement [N = 2337]; compared with ever-partnered women [N=2061] who have [N=1239] and have not [822] experienced partner violence) “A man has good reason to beat his wife if:” P value* All women respondents (N=2337) Never experienced physical or sexual partner violence (N=822) Experienced physical or sexual violence (N=1239) Number % Number % # Number % # She does not complete her housework to his satisfaction She disobeys him She refuses to have sexual relations with him She asks him whether he has other girlfriends He suspects that she is unfaithful He finds out that she has been unfaithful Bride price has NOT been paid Bride price HAS been paid She is living in his house or on his land He thinks she need to be disciplined, taught a lesson or educated She is unable to get pregnant <0.0001 0.001 37% 14% 220 18% 0.008 13% 16% 37% 10% 27% 204 223 463 138 439 17% 18% 0.016 0.12 0.76 0.40 38% 11% 36% <0.0001 11% 198 16% 0.001 23% 15% 392 278 32% <0.0001 23% <0.0001 1396 Agreed with one or more justification above Agreed with no reasons for husband hitting wife # Percentages are for the number of women who agree with that reason, as a fraction of all women who have or have not experienced physical or sexual partner violence * P value based on a 2x2 chi-square test of the lifetime experience of physical and/or sexual partner violence (experienced versus never experienced) and agreement with each rationale justifying physical partner violence.
<0.0001 63% 60% 55% 37% 37% 45% 781 448 374 870 458 Page 81 of 249 Page 81 of 246 Table 4.19 shows attitudes to violence against women in different locations, and for different age groups, education levels and socio-economic status.

For most of the justifications for violence against women, there are few differences in opinion between women living in urban areas compared with rural women.

However, there are three justifications that more urban women agree with.
These include: disobedience (40% of urban women agree with this reason compared with 33% of rural women); the need for discipline (32% of urban women agree with this reason compared with 28% of rural women); and unfaithfulness (59% of urban women agree with this reason compared with 32% of rural women) (Table 4.19 and Chart 4.27).
Interestingly, younger women aged 15-29 and older women aged 35-39 are somewhat more likely Interestingly, younger women aged 15-29 and older women aged 35-39 are somewhat more likely to to agree with several of the justifications for violence than other age groups.

A higher proportion of agree with several of the justifications for violence than other age groups.
A higher proportion of younger women believe that poor housework, disobedience, unfaithfulness, payment of bride price younger women believe that poor housework, disobedience, unfaithfulness, payment of bride price and and living in her husband’s house or on his land are good reasons for physical violence, compared living in her husband’s house or on his land are good reasons for physical violence, compared with with other age groups (Table 4.19 and Chart 4.28).

4.28).
4.28).

other groups (Table Chart 4.19 age and Page 82 of 249 Page 82 of 246 o h w n e m o w f o e g a t n e c r e p d n a r e b m u n ( s u t a t s i i c m o n o c e - o c o s d n a n o i t a c u d e f o l e v e l , e g a , n o i t a c o l y b , ’ n e m o W : 9 1 .
, “ i s h t a e b ” : f i e f i w ) 7 3 3 2 = N , t n e m e t a t s h c a e h t i w e e r g a % % 0 2 % 7 1 % 6 % 4 2 % 7 2 % 0 2 % 8 2 % 2 1 % 9 1 N 5 5 2 4 7 1 0 8 8 7 3 6 0 7 0 3 7 9 % % 5 2 % 0 4 % 6 % 0 3 % 7 3 % 9 2 % 4 3 % 2 3 N 0 7 7 9 7 1 2 0 1 8 0 1 2 9 6 8 4 8 % % 9 1 % 9 1 % 2 % 3 1 % 9 1 % 6 1 % 8 1 % 2 1 N 3 5 7 4 5 3 4 6 5 1 5 6 4 2 3 % % 5 3 % 8 3 % 9 % 4 4 % 6 4 % 6 2 % 7 3 % 6 2 N 7 9 4 9 7 2 6 4 1 6 3 1 3 8 1 9 7 6 % % 1 1 % 8 % 0 1 % 1 1 % 2 1 % 4 1 % 5 1 % 5 % 2 3 7 6 1 % 9 1 0 0 1 % 7 3 1 9 1 % 0 1 N 2 3 9 1 0 3 8 3 4 3 5 4 7 3 3 1 1 5 % % 1 6 % 7 5 % 7 % 0 3 % 5 4 % 7 2 % 2 5 % 5 3 N 2 7 1 3 4 1 9 1 4 0 1 3 3 1 6 8 3 3 1 1 9 % % 4 2 % 6 % 3 % 2 1 % 9 2 % 0 2 % 1 3 % 1 1 % 9 5 5 1 3 % 5 1 N 6 6 4 1 0 1 2 4 4 8 4 6 0 8 0 3 0 8 % % 6 1 % 0 1 % 2 % 2 1 % 4 2 % 6 1 % 9 2 % 1 1 % 3 1 N 6 4 5 2 7 2 4 0 7 1 5 3 7 0 3 1 7 % % 8 1 % 0 1 % 3 % 5 1 % 7 2 % 9 1 % 2 2 % 1 1 % 4 1 N 0 5 6 2 9 2 5 0 8 8 5 6 5 9 2 6 7 % % 2 3 % 9 4 % 7 % 8 3 % 2 5 % 3 2 % 2 4 % 8 3 N 0 9 1 2 1 0 2 1 3 1 2 5 1 4 7 8 0 1 9 9 % % 9 1 % 5 1 % 4 % 0 2 % 0 3 % 4 1 % 3 2 % 7 1 % 0 4 1 1 2 % 7 1 N 3 5 9 3 2 1 0 7 8 8 3 4 0 6 4 4 2 9 % 9 1 8 3 3 % 8 2 9 8 4 % 3 1 3 3 2 % 2 3 0 5 5 % 1 1 7 9 1 % 2 3 6 6 5 % 8 1 0 1 3 % 6 1 3 7 2 % 6 1 4 8 2 % 3 3 4 8 5 % 8 1 7 1 3 e l l i v n a g u L a m
2 % 3 3 4 8 5 % % 9 1 5 3 4 % 8 2 6 5 6 % 4 1 3 3 3 % 2 3 1 4 7 % 1 1 8 4 2 % 8 3 1 8 8 % 7 1 0 9 3 % 5 1 4 4 3 % 5 1 0 6 3 % 4 3 5 9 7 % 8 1 9 0 4 u t a u n a V % 7 1 % 2 2 % 0 2 % 5 1 % 2 2 % 2 2 % 5 1 % 2 2 0 5 1 9 9 7 0 6 5 7 3 5 7 2 1 3 % 1 3 % 1 3 % 8 2 % 4 2 % 0 3 % 1 3 % 7 2 % 7 2 2 9 5 2 1 3 1 1 5 9 3 0 1 7 7 1 5 0 4 % 0 2 % 7 1 % 5 1 % 0 1 % 6 1 % 2 1 % 0 1 % 3 1 8 5 1 7 1 6 1 4 5 5 9 2 8 1 9 1 % 9 3 % 3 3 % 4 3 % 7 2 % 5 3 % 4 3 % 7 2 % 1 3 4 1 1 4 3 1 5 3 1 8 0 1 7 1 1 3 8 0 5 4 4 % 1 1 % 3 1 % 9 % 9 % 5 1 % 0 1 % 9 % 2 1 1 3 1 5 6 3 7 3 1 5 5 2 7 1 7 1 % 5 4 % 2 4 % 0 4 % 4 3 % 9 3 % 6 3 % 0 3 % 3 2 3 3 1 1 7 1 3 6 1 4 3 1 4 3 1 9 8 7 5 3 3 % 9 1 % 8 1 % 7 1 % 5 1 % 9 1 % 9 1 % 2 1 % 2 1 6 5 2 7 9 6 8 5 5 6 7 4 3 2 8 1 % 5 1 % 6 1 % 7 1 % 0 1 % 8 1 % 5 1 % 3 1 % 2 1 4 4 7 6 9 6 0 4 2 6 8 3 4 2 8 1 % 3 1 % 7 1 % 7 1 % 2 1 % 9 1 % 7 1 % 3 1 % 5 1 9 3 0 7 9 6 8 4 6 6 3 4 5 2 1 2 % 2 4 % 2 4 % 4 3 % 9 2 % 2 3 % 4 3 % 7 2 % 1 3 5 2 1 1 7 1 9 3 1 5 1 1 1 1 1 3 8 1 5 5 4 % 6 2 % 0 2 % 7 1 % 4 1 % 7 1 % 6 1 % 2 1 7 7 3 8 2 7 5 5 0 6 0 4 2 2 p u o r g e g A 9 1 - 5 1 4 2 - 0 2 9 2 - 5 2 4 3 - 0 3 9 3 - 5 3 4 4 - 0 4 9 4 - 5 4 % 1 2 0 3 e n o N l e v e l n o i t a c u d E Page 83 of 246 “ % N t n a n g e r p % 3 2 % % 5 1 % 3 2 % 2 % , , d e n i l t h g u a t i p c s d i % d e t a c u d e N % 1 3 % % 8 2 % 1 3 % 1 1 % S
% N % N % N % N % N % % N % 7 1 % % 3 1 % 7 1 % 5 % 3 1 9 9 1 N 1 1 1 9 9 1 4 1 1 1 % 8 3 % % 8 2 % 8 3 % 1 1 % 8 2 7 4 4 N 8 3 2 7 4 4 9 8 3 2 % 3 1 % % 8 % 3 1 % 5 % 8 1 6 1 N 6 6 1 6 1 4 6 6 % 8 3 % % 3 4 % 8 3 % 4 3 % 3 4 1 5 4 N 3 6 3 1 5 4 0 3 3 6 3 % 1 2 % % 3 1 % 1 2 % 0 1 % 3 1 2 5 2 N 0 1 1 2 5 2 9 0 1 1 % 8 1 % % 2 1 % 8 1 % 7 % 2 1 0 2 2 N 9 9 0 2 2 6 9 9 % 1 2 % % 0 1 % 1 2 % 3 % % N % 8 3 % % 3 3 % 8 3 % 2 1 % 3 3 8 5 4 N 1 8 2 8 5 4 0 1 1 8 2 % 3 2 % 2 7 2 2 2 % 9 2 % 1 1 6 9 2 9 % 6 1 % 5 7 5 1 4 % 5 3 % 1 1 7 4 3 9 % 3 1 % 5 8 2 1 4 % 3 3 % 4 3 8 2 3 0 3 % 8 1 % 0 1 7 8 1 9 % 6 1 % 7 5 6 1 6 % 9 1 % 3 2 9 1 3 % 5 3 % 2 1 6 5 3 0 1 % 8 1 % 3 2 % 2 1 % 8 1 % 3 1 % 2 1 6 6 1 7 2 2 2 3 0 1 6 6 1 2 3 % 0 3 % 9 2 % 0 2 % 0 3 % 2 4 % 0 2 3 7 2 6 9 2 4 5 3 3 3 7 2 4 5 % 4 1 % 6 1 % 1 1 % 4 1 % 9 1 % 1 1 0 3 1 7 5 1 1 3 5 1 0 3 1 1 3 % 2 3 % 5 3 % 5 2 % 2 3 % 3 4 % 5 2 2 9 2 7 4 3 8 6 4 3 2 9 2 8 6 % 0 1 % 3 1 % 8 % 0 1 % 8 % 8 1 9 8 2 1 3 2 6 1 9 3 2 % 1 4 % 3 3 % 3 4 % 1 4 % 5 6 % 3 4 1 8 3 8 2 3 0 2 1 1 8 3 2 5 0 2 1 % 7 1 % 8 1 % 4 1 % 7 1 % 7 % 4 1 7 5 1 7 8 1 0 4 7 5 1 6 0 4 % 5 1 % 6 1 % 1 1 % 5 1 % 8 % 1 1 2 4 1 5 6 1 1 3 2 4 1 6 1 3 % 5 1 % 9 1 % 0 1 % 5 1 % 5 % 0 1 5 3 1 2 9 1 9 2 5 3 1 4 9 2 % 5 3
 % 5 3 % 9 2 % 5 3 % 4 4 % % n o i t c a f s i t a s N % 1 2 % % 4 1 % 1 2 % 1 % 4 1 7 5 2 N 1 2 1 7 5 2 1 1 2 1 i d o o g s a h n a m A “ o t n o s a e r d o o g s a h s h t a e b o t n o s a e r ” : f i s i h t a e b e f i w y r a m i r P ” : % 0 2 s u t a t s 5 0 2 % 1 s u t a t s 1 c i m o n o c e - o i c o S c i m o n o c e - o i c o S w o L r e h g H i % 7 1 % 0 2 % 4 1 % 7 1 % 4 1 % % 3 1 0 1 % 2 4 3 3 % 9 1 5 1 % 3 4 4 3 % 8 6 % 5 6 2 5 % 7 6 % 8 6 % 5 4 % 4 4 5 3 % Page 84 of 246 A woman’s level of education is the strongest predictor of differences in attitudes regarding situations where violence against women might be justified.
Women with higher education are less likely to agree with any of the justifications for physical violence than women with primary or secondary education.

However, women with primary education have the highest level of agreement with all the reasons given for violence (with one exception, unfaithfullness, where there is little variation in the percentage of women who see this as a good reason for physical violence).
Overall, there are few differences of opinion between those with no education, and those with secondary education (Table 4.19 and Chart 4.29).

In contrast, there are few differences in opinion between women from different socio-economic groups, although those with higher socio-economic status are less likely to agree that disobedience, bride price, discipline and the inability to get pregnant are reasonable justifications for physical violence (Table 4.19 and Chart 4.30).
Page 86 of 249 Page 85 of 246 Women’s attitudes to sexual autonomy Respondents were presented with 11 situations and asked whether a woman has the right to refuse sex with her husband for each one.

Consistent with the responses on physical partner violence above (Table 4.18), the majority of women have a strong sense of their sexual autonomy.

More than 4 in 5 women (81%) believe that a woman has the right to refuse sex if she does not want it.
For 8 of the 11 situations, 80% or more of all respondents agreed that a woman has the right to refuse sex: when she is sick (87%); when she suspects or knows that the husband is HIV positive or that he has a sexually transmitted infection (88%); if he has sex with other women (87%) or with men (86%); and if she doesn’t want to get pregnant (80%).

In addition, 77% think that a woman has the right to refuse when the husband is drunk (Table 4.20).
Compared to the certainty that most women feel about their right to refuse sex in most situations, bride price introduces uncertainty and confusion.

Only 60% thought that a woman has the right to refuse sex when bride price has been paid; however, 61% also thought that a woman has the right to refuse sex when bride price has not been paid (Table 4.20).
The contradictory picture that emerges from these findings confirms VWC’s experience when working with women living with violence – that is, many women today are unclear about whether bride price protects their rights, or undermines them.
Table 4.20: Women's attitudes on sexual autonomy (number and % of all women respondents who agree with each statement [N = 2337]; compared with ever-partnered women [N=2061] who have [N=1239] and have not [822] experienced partner violence) A woman has the right to refuse sex with her husband if: P value* All women respondents (N=2337) Never experienced physical or sexual partner violence (N=822) Experienced physical or sexual violence (N=1239) She does not want to He is drunk She is sick He mistreats her She suspects/knows that he is HIV+ She suspects/knows that he has a sexually transmitted infection (STI) He has sex with other women He has sex with men She does not want to get pregnant Bride price has NOT been paid Bride price HAS been paid Number 1903 1801 2027 1968 % 81% 77% 87% 84% 2063 88% 2056 2027 2010 1862 1430 1392 88% 87% 86% 80% 61% 60% Number 675 629 714 679 % # 84% 79% 87% 85% Number 1024 966 1091 1077 % # Agreed with at least one reason for refusing sex Agreed with none of the reasons listed above # Percentages are the number of women who agree with that reason, as a fraction of all women who have or have not experienced physical or sexual partner violence.
* P value based on a 2x2 chi-square test of the lifetime experience of physical and/or sexual partner violence (experienced versus never experienced) and agreement with each rationale justifying sexual partner violence.

<0.0001 1211 95% 96% 98% 777 4% 5% 2% 45 28 83 Women living with partner violence are slightly more likely to agree with each statement than those who have not experienced it.
In addition, there is a significant association between agreeing with at least one reason for refusing sex, and experiencing partner violence (P value of less than 0.0001).

The association between women’s experience of partner violence and attitudes to refusing sex is also Page 87 of 249 significant for the following situations: if her husband mistreats his wife, if he is HIV positive or has a sexually transmitted infection, or if he has sex with other female or male partners (Table 4.20).
Overall, the findings are positive with most women believing that they have the right to refuse sex in most circumstances.

However, about 1 in 5 women do not think that they have the right to refuse sex; Page 86 of 246 and where bride price is involved, this increases to 2 in 5.
Looking at the breakdown of attitudes by location, more women in urban areas believe that a woman has the right to refuse sex in some situations (if the wife does not want to have sex, if she is sick, if he is HIV positive or has an STI, and if he has sex with other women).

However, rural women were more likely to believe that they have the right to refuse sex in other situations (when he is drunk, if she doesn’t want to get pregnant, and where bride price is involved) (Table 4.21 and Chart 4.31).
Overall, women from Shefa province are less likely overall to believe that married women have the right to refuse sex; whereas women from Malampa, Tafea and Port Vila are more likely to agree that women have the right to refuse sex (Table 4.21 and Chart 4.32).

In contrast to the variations in attitudes observed between provinces, there is very little variation in attitudes to sexual autonomy for women from different age groups, educational levels and socio- economic status.
However, younger women are slightly less likely to agree that they have a right to refuse sex than older women, and women with no education are a little less likely to agree than women with primary, secondary or higher education (Table 4.21 and Charts 4.33 – 4.35).

Page 88 of 249 one reason for refusing sex, and experiencing partner violence (P value of less than 0.0001).
The association between women’s experience of partner violence and attitudes to refusing sex is also significant for the following situations: if her husband mistreats his wife, if he is HIV positive or has a sexually transmitted infection, or if he has sex with other female or male partners (Table 4.20).

Overall, the findings are positive with most women believing that they have the right to refuse sex in most circumstances.
However, about 1 in 5 women do not think that they have the right to refuse sex; and where bride price is involved, this increases to 2 in 5.

Looking at the breakdown of attitudes by location, more women in urban areas believe that a woman has the right to refuse sex in some situations (if the wife does not want to have sex, if she is sick, if he is HIV positive or has an STI, and if he has sex with other women).
However, rural women were more likely to believe that they have the right to refuse sex in other situations (when he is drunk, if she doesn’t want to get pregnant, and where bride price is involved) (Table 4.21 and Chart 4.31).

Overall, women from Shefa province are less likely overall to believe that married women have the right to refuse sex; whereas women from Malampa, Tafea and Port Vila are more likely to agree that women have the right to refuse sex (Table 4.21 and Chart 4.32).
In contrast to the variations in attitudes observed between provinces, there is very little variation in attitudes to sexual autonomy for women from different age groups, educational levels and socio- economic status.

However, younger women are slightly less likely to agree that they have a right to refuse sex than older women, and women with no education are a little less likely to agree than women with primary, secondary or higher education (Table 4.21 and Charts 4.33 – 4.35).
Page 88 of 249 Page 87 of 246 Page 89 of 249 Page 88 of 246 ( s u t a t s i c m o n o c e - o i c o s d n a n o i t a c u d e f o l e v e l , e g a , n o i t a c o l y b , y m o n o t u a l a u x e s o t s e d u t i t t a s ’ n e m o W : 1 2 .
4 e l b a T ) 7 3 3 2 = N , / / % % 4 6 % 1 3 % 1 7 % 9 5 % 5 4 % 9 7 % 0 6 % 4 6 N 4 8 1 4 8 4 0 2 8 0 2 2 3 1 2 5 2 9 5 1 9 6 1 % % 7 6 % 7 4 % 1 6 % 0 5 % 0 6 % 4 8 % 4 5 % 6 6 N 3 9 1 6 2 1 5 7 1 8 7 1 5 7 1 6 6 2 4 4 1 3 7 1 % % 3 8 % 9 6 % 5 7 % 9 7 % 2 8 % 2 9 % 7 6 % 8 8 N 8 3 2 6 8 1 5 1 2 0 8 2 2 4 2 2 9 2 7 7 1 2 3 2 % % 1 9 % 1 8 % 7 7 % 1 9 % 2 9 % 3 9 % 0 7 % 0 9 N 1 6 2 8 1 2 1 2 2 2 2 3 0 7 2 5 9 2 6 8 1 7 3 2 % % 1 9 % 5 8 % 6 7 % 3 9 % 1 9 % 2 9 % 0 7 % 2 9 N 3 6 2 8 2 2 9 1 2 7 2 3 8 6 2 4 9 2 5 8 1 3 4 2 % % 3 9 % 1 9 % 7 7 % 2 9 % 5 9 % 2 9 % 2 7 % 0 9 N 7 6 2 5 4 2 2 2 2 3 2 3 9 7 2 2 9 2 0 9 1 8 3 2 % % 3 9 % 0 9 % 7 7 % 3 9 % 5 9 % 2 9 % 2 7 % 2 9 N 7 6 2 0 4 2 2 2 2 8 2 3 8 7 2 3 9 2 2 9 1 3 4 2 % % 8 8 % 2 8 % 5 7 % 8 8 % 0 9 % 2 9 % 8 6 % 8 8 N 4 5 2 9 1 2 6 1 2 1 1 3 4 6 2 2 9 2 0 8 1 2 3 2 % % 4 9 % 0 9 % 7 7 % 0 9 % 8 8 % 2 9 % 1 7 % 0 9 N 0 7 2 0 4 2 2 2 2 9 1 3 0 6 2 2 9 2 7 8 1 7 3 2 % % 2 7 % 0 7 % 7 7 % 2 8 % 2 7 % 0 9 % 6 6 % 3 8 N 8 0 2 8 8 1 1 2 2 0 9 2 3 1 2 7 8 2 6 7 1 8 1 2 % % 1 9 % 9 7 % 6 7 % 7 7 % 8 7 % 9 8 % 4 7 % 8 8 N 1 6 2 3 1 2 7 1 2 2 7 2 9 2 2 3 8 2 7 9 1 1 3 2 % 8 4 8 6 2 % 7 5 9 1 3 % 6 7 4 2 4 % 6 8 9 7 4 % 8 8 1 9 4 % 2 9 2 1 5 % 1 9 7 0 5 % 5 8 3 7 4 % 2 9 0 1 5 % 1 7 6 9 3 % 5 8 4 7 4 % 3 6 4 2 1 1 % 2 6 1 1 1 1 % 1 8 8 3 4 1 % 6 8 1 3 5 1 % 6 8 6 3 5 1 % 7 8 4 4 5 1 % 7 8 6 5 5 1 % 4 8 5 9 4 1 % 5 8 7 1 5 1 % 9 7 5 0 4 1 % 0 8 9 2 4 1 n a m o w A “ ” : m
% 0 6 2 9 3 1 % 1 6 0 3 4 1 % 0 8 2 6 8 1 % 6 8 0 1 0 2 % 7 8 7 2 0 2 % 8 8 6 5 0 2 % 8 8 3 6 0 2 % 4 8 8 6 9 1 % 7 8 7 2 0 2 % 7 7 1 0 8 1 % 1 8 3 0 9 1 u t a u n a V % 6 5 % 0 6 % 0 6 % 1 6 % 6 5 % 2 6 % 4 6 4 7 1 0 5 2 0 5 2 4 4 2 8 9 1 4 5 1 1 2 1 % 1 6 % 9 5 % 3 6 % 3 6 % 7 5 % 3 6 % 4 6 9 8 1 3 4 2 2 6 2 4 5 2 2 0 2 8 5 1 1 2 1 % 2 7 % 8 7 % 0 8 % 4 8 % 0 8 % 4 8 % 1 8 4 2 2 3 2 3 3 3 3 6 3 3 2 8 2 0 1 2 4 5 1 % 9 7 % 7 8 % 6 8 % 8 8 % 4 8 % 9 8 % 0 9 6 4 2 1 6 3 8 5 3 4 5 3 7 9 2 3 2 2 1 7 1 % 3 8 % 9 8 % 7 8 % 8 8 % 3 8 % 9 8 % 9 8 8 5 2 7 6 3 2 6 3 5 5 3 3 9 2 3 2 2 9 6 1 % 5 8 % 8 8 % 9 8 % 9 8 % 6 8 % 0 9 % 1 9 5 6 2 4 6 3 0 7 3 6 5 3 2 0 3 6 2 2 3 7 1 % 6 8 % 8 8 % 9 8 % 9 8 % 6 8 % 1 9 % 1 9 7 6 2 6 6 3 9 6 3 7 5 3 3 0 3 8 2 2 2 7 1 % 0 8 % 4 8 % 5 8 % 6 8 % 3 8 % 7 8 % 5 8 0 5 2 7 4 3 3 5 3 5 4 3 2 9 2 8 1 2 2 6 1 % 3 8 % 7 8 % 9 8 % 8 8 % 6 8 % 8 8 % 8 8 7 5 2 0 6 3 8 6 3 2 5 3 2 0 3 1 2 2 7 6 1 % 6 7 % 0 8 % 9 7 % 8 7 % 4 7 % 8 7 % 5 7 5 3 2 0 3 3 6 2 3 4 1 3 9 5 2 4 9 1 3 4 1 % 9 7 % 3 8 % 0 8 % 4 8 % 8 7 % 3 8 % - 5 1 4 2 - 0 2 9 2 - 5 2 4 3 - 0 3 9 3 - 5 3 4 4 - 0 4 9 4 - 5 4 % 0 6 9 8 % 1 6 1 9 % 6 7 2 1 1 % 2 8 1 2 1 % 1 8 0 2 1 % 4 8 5 2 1 % 5 8 6 2 1 % 5 7 1 1 1 % 2 8 2 2 1 % 3 7 8 0 1 % 8 7 5 1 1 e n o N l e v e l n o i t a c u d E Page 89 of 246 / / “ ” : f i 9 4 2
u f e r r e h h t i w d n a b s u h ” : f i 9 4 2 f o 1 9 e g a P % % 2 6 % 5 5 % 4 6 % 3 6 % 0 6 % 6 5 % 1 3 N 9 5 7 6 8 4 6 5 8 3 6 3 6 5 5 6 1 6 2 % % 4 6 % 7 5 % 8 6 % 5 6 % 8 5 % 0 6 % 8 4 N 4 7 7 2 0 5 9 5 4 6 6 9 4 5 7 7 1 0 4 % % 1 8 % 9 7 % 8 7 % 2 8 % 8 7 % 7 7 % 6 7 N 3 8 9 4 9 6 8 6 4 3 8 7 3 7 8 2 2 3 6 % % 6 8 % 6 8 % 9 8 % 7 8 % 6 8 % 4 8 % 2 8 N 1 5 0 1 7 5 7 7 7 4 8 8 9 0 8 9 4 2 8 6 % % 6 8 % 8 8 % 0 9 % 7 8 % 7 8 % 6 8 % 0 8 N 8 4 0 1 7 7 7 8 7 5 8 8 1 2 8 5 5 2 6 6 % % 7 8 % 0 9 % 1 9 % 8 8 % 8 8 % 5 8 % 3 9 N 8 5 0 1 8 8 7 9 7 9 9 8 8 2 8 2 5 2 7 7 % % 7 8 % 0 9 % 1 9 % 8 8 % 9 8 % 5 8 % 3 9 N 0 6 0 1 2 9 7 9 7 2 0 9 4 3 8 0 5 2 7 7 % % 4 8 % 6 8 % 6 8 % 5 8 % 5 8 % 2 8 % 0 8 N 1 2 0 1 7 5 7 5 7 4 6 8 6 9 7 2 4 2 6 6 % % 5 8 % 9 8 % 0 9 % 7 8 % 6 8 % 8 8 % 0 9 N 8 3 0 1 4 8 7 8 7 6 8 8 7 0 8 9 5 2 5 7 % % 7 7 % 9 7 % 5 7 % 0 8 % 6 7 % 3 7 % 9 6 N 3 3 9 1 9 6 5 6 1 1 8 7 1 7 6 1 2 7 5 % % 0 8 % 3 8 % % 0 8 % 2 8 % 5 8 % - o i c o S Page 90 of 246 4.3 DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS The rates of all forms of violence against women by their husbands and partners in Vanuatu are alarmingly high and the findings from this research challenge some common myths and assumptions:  All forms of violence are widespread in rural and urban areas and in all provinces and islands.
 Women of all ages, education levels, socio-economic status and religions are subjected to physical, sexual and emotional violence.

The prevalence of physical and sexual violence is higher in rural areas than in the urban areas.

 Page 92 of 249 Page 91 of 246  Rates of emotional violence are even higher than physical or sexual violence.

 Domestic violence is neither minor nor occasional.
Of those women living with partner violence, about 1 in 3 women experience it once in their lives; the majority experience physical and/or sexual violence several or many times; the violence continues throughout their lives; and the majority experience physical violence of the most severe kind.

The majority of women living with violence also experience multiple forms of violence by their husbands/partners – physical, sexual and emotional, as well as controlling behaviours.
 It is important for policy-makers and service-providers not to under-estimate the potential impacts on health, self-esteem, and psychological well-being of emotional violence (these impacts are discussed in chapter 6).

In addition to insults and humiliation experienced by 2 in 3 ever-partnered women, for 1 in 3 it includes scaring or intimidating her on purpose, and for almost 1 in 5 it includes threatening to hurt her or someone she cares about.
There are also very high rates of controlling behaviours by men over their wives and partners in Vanuatu, with more than 2 in 3 ever-partnered women being subjected to some form of control.

For those women who live with partner violence, the rates of all these types of emotional violence and controlling behaviours are significantly higher.
The findings describe a situation of extreme gender inequality, with men imposing power over women in a range of very damaging ways – controlling what they do and who they see, intimidation, emotional abuse and threats, in addition to the violent acts that most people associate with “domestic violence”.
This pattern of violence in intimate relationships has also been found in other countries where research has been undertaken on violence against women, including in the Pacific region (WHO 2005: 36; SPC 2009: 61; and SPC 2010: 98).

In addition, the evidence does not support the view that sexual abuse is motivated by uncontrollable biological urges.
On the contrary, the overlap between physical and sexual violence and the fact that physical violence is often followed by rape highlights the fact that sexual abuse is just one aspect of this wider pattern of domination and control.

This picture contrasts with the fact that most women report only physical violence to authorities such as the Police or to organisations such as VWC, despite the provisions in the Family Protection Act which also cover sexual and emotional violence.
VWC’s experience is that women are ashamed to talk about other forms of domestic violence (particularly sexual abuse), or feel that they won’t be taken seriously (a view that is confirmed by the findings in chapter 9.)

This complex pattern of intimidation and multiple forms of violence needs to be taken into account by all service providers, the law and justice sector, Chiefs, faith-based organisations, civil society organisations and families who are asked to help women deal with violence.
For example, the web of controlling behaviours constrains women’s physical and social mobility and prevents them from finding out about their legal and human rights, reporting the violence to authorities, and telling family, friends, or community and church leaders.
The findings also underline the fact that threats of violence using a weapon (experienced by 29% of women who have been physically or sexually abused), should always be treated very seriously by authorities; in many cases, VWC’s experience is that these threats are actually carried out sooner or later.
Controlling behaviours, especially when combined with other forms of violence, have both direct and indirect impacts on development – with women having to request permission before getting health care or undertaking activities, and with husbands/partners insisting on knowing where women are at all times.

This type of control is not conducive to good physical or mental health; it prevents women from taking opportunities, and undermines their capacity to participate in social and economic development.
With 60% of women in Vanuatu experiencing physical and/or sexual violence, and 69% experiencing some form of control by their husbands/partners, there can be no doubt that this problem is retarding national development.
Page 93 of 249 Page 92 of 246 Both education and socio-economic status are closely associated with each other and both are significantly associated with the experience of physical and/or sexual violence using uni-variable analysis, with rates of violence decreasing as the level of education and socio-economic status increases.

Levels of emotional abuse and controlling behaviours also decline substantially as the level of education increases.
Women who had secondary or higher level of education were least likely to condone physical violence.

However, women with primary education were more likely to agree that physical violence was justified than those with no education; education was not a clear predictor of women’s attitudes on gender roles and other aspects of women’s rights.

Overall, the findings point to the enormous potential of education to help protect women from violence in intimate relationships.
They also indicate that primary and secondary schools could do much more to educate both boys and girls about human rights, reinforce women’s right to live without violence, and promote the view that violence is never justified in any circumstances.
The findings on attitudes provide important insights into women’s views of gender equality and human rights in general, and highlight some positive beliefs and values that VWC and other stakeholders can build on to prevent domestic violence – such as women’s strong sense of sexual autonomy, and the belief by most women that people outside the family should intervene if a man mistreats his wife/partner.
Nevertheless, the high levels of agreement with many statements that are directly opposed to women’s human rights are a disturbing finding that calls for attention from all stakeholders.
Several widely-held attitudes are in direct opposition to the principles of the Convention to Eliminate All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW), the Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC), and the United Nations Declaration on Human Rights, in addition to the United Nations Declaration on the Elimination of Violence Against Women.
The view that woman should be obedient to their husbands/partners, and that the need for discipline or “education” are “good reasons” for physical violence highlight women’s subservient role and pervasive gender inequality in Vanuatu.
Other disturbing findings on attitudes that will need government and community leadership to be effectively countered are the fact that only a minority of women (1 in 3) believe that violence is never justified for any reason; and that more than 4 in 5 believe that family problems should only be discussed within the family.

The findings show that when women are asked solely about the impact of bride price (without connecting this to the experience of domestic violence), most women see it as beneficial.
Bride price has a positive impact on women’s identity and her sense of belonging and security in her husband’s family; just as importantly, it confers a clear place for her children in his family.

In most cases, if the husband takes a mistress, his wife knows that her position in his family will remain secure, because his relatives will be highly unlikely to pay the bride price a second time.
The payment of bride price confers legal status and access rights to property for both her and her children; the husband’s family and chiefs will say that he should stop his affair with a mistress, and if he leaves her, she will be entitled to receive maintenance for herself and the children.

The payment of bride price also confers social status – as the legal wife, she has an important role to play in all custom and religious ceremonies.
A mistress has none of these rights or status, and nor do her children.

However, when questions are asked about how bride price impacts on physical or sexual partner violence, over half the respondents believe a woman becomes the husband’s property after payment of bride price, 1 in 3 believe that it confers the right for a man to physically abuse his wife, and there is considerable confusion surrounding a woman’s sexual autonomy when bride price is involved.
In summary, despite the positive aspects of bride price discussed above, it is clear that bride price does not protect women from either physical or sexual violence.

On the contrary, the findings indicate that Page 94 of 249 Page 93 of 246 women themselves may be confused about whether bride price confers or undermines rights in relation to their sexual autonomy and their physical safety; as a result, bride price may increase women’s risk of experiencing violence.
VWC staff believe that women were not traditionally seen as the property of men women themselves may be confused about whether bride price confers or undermines rights in relation and that the extensive control that men have over women in intimate relationships is also not based on to their sexual autonomy and their physical safety; as a result, bride price may increase women’s risk of traditional custom.23 This suggests the need for debate and reflection on how bride price is viewed experiencing violence.
VWC staff believe that women were not traditionally seen as the property of men today, and its links with various forms of violence.

and that the extensive control that men have over women in intimate relationships is also not based on traditional custom.23 This suggests the need for debate and reflection on how bride price is viewed today, and its links with various forms of violence.
MY SON Mother anxious to have a baby son, after wedding An heir to the father’s land and property, For mum’s pride and future security, And prove motherhood to mother-in-law Rewarding the Bride Price, despite unfaithful father.
My Son, born into chiefly family, fed with best food, Carried everywhere on the aunties’ back if you cried, Unlike your sisters and other girls in the family and village You are a son, a man and a future leader My Son, clothed in best clothes Travelled on cars, trucks, planes and ships Attended best schools in the country Received everything a boy must have, But mum was treated a foreigner and slave in the family.
My Son, received all from parent, family and the community To prepare a leader, chief, a provider But mum suffered abuse during your up bringing, Not privileged as you, though a special mum My Son will you be there for me, Your Mother ?

23 VWC Research Workshop, 19 January 2011.

23 VWC Research Workshop, 19 January 2011.


Page 95 of 249 Page 95 of 249 Page 94 of 246 CHAPTER 5: PREVALENCE OF VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND GIRLS BY PEOPLE OTHER THAN HUSBANDS OR INITMATE PARTNERS Summary of main findings  More than 1 in 4 women (28%) have been physically abused since the age of 15 by someone other than a husband or intimate partner.

 One in 3 women (33%) has been sexually abused since the age of 15 by someone other than a  husband or intimate partner.
The combined national prevalence of non-partner physical and/or sexual abuse of women since the age of 15 is 48%.

 Almost 1 in 3 women (30%) was sexually abused under the age of 15 years.

 For more than 1 in 4 women (28%), their first sexual experience was forced.

 The main perpetrators of physical abuse are family members; the main perpetrators of sexual abuse are male family members and boyfriends.
This section presents findings on physical and sexual violence against women over the age of 15, by people other than husbands or intimate partners (non-partner violence).

It also presents the findings on child sexual abuse of girls (sexual violence under the age of 15), including the age of first abuse and the frequency of the abuse.

Finally, data is presented on women’s first sexual experience.
National prevalence for non-partner violence is calculated as the number of women who experienced at least 1 act of violence in their lifetime, expressed as a percentage of the total sample of 2337 women (which includes both ever-partnered and never-partnered women).
5.1 PREVALENCE OF NON-PARTNER VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN Physical and sexual abuse since the age of 15 years The rates of physical and sexual non-partner violence against women are very high with almost 1 in 2 women (48%) having experienced either or both since the age of 15.

More than 1 in 4 (28%) have experienced physical violence; 1 in 3 (33%) have experienced sexual violence; and about 20% have experienced both (Table 5.1 and Chart 5.1).
Overall, the prevalence of non-partner physical and sexual violence is higher in rural than urban areas.

However, there are substantial variations in prevalence rates between locations.
Port Vila (16%) and Sanma (12%) have the lowest prevalence for non-partner physical violence; Penama (22%) and Shefa (24%) have prevalence below the national rate of 28%; whereas Tafea (45%), Luganville (39%), Torba (37%) and Malampa (36%) have prevalence considerably higher than the national rate (Table 5.1 and Chart 5.1).

There is a similar pattern in the rates of sexual violence by people other than husbands or intimate partners.
The rural prevalence (36%) is much higher than the urban rate (23%), but this masks substantial variation between locations.

Port Vila again has one of the lowest rates (14%) along with Shefa (10%); Luganville and Tafea have prevalence of 34%, which is close to the national rate of 33%; but Torba (44%), Sanma (44%), Penama (41%), and Malampa (37%) have prevalence considerably higher than the national rate (Table 5.1 and Chart 5.1).
Women of all ages, education levels and socio-economic status have been physically and sexually abused by people other than their husbands/partners.

Although younger women aged 15-24 are most likely to have experienced non-partner physical violence (about 1 in 3 in this age group have been Page 96 of 249 Page 95 of 246 physically abused), more than 1 in 4 women aged 25-44 have been physically abused by someone other than their husband or partner, and almost 1 in 4 over aged 45-49 (Table 5.1 and Chart 5.2).
Table 5.1: Prevalence of non-partner physical and sexual violence against women over the age of 15 years, by location, age, education level and socio-economic status (number and percentage of all female respondents, N = 2337) Location Physical Sexual Port Vila Luganville Torba Sanma Penama Malampa Shefa Tafea Total Urban Total Rural Total Vanuatu Woman’s age group 15-19 20-24 25-29 30-34 35-39 40-44 45-49 Woman’s education level None Primary Secondary Higher Number 45 104 107 44 65 115 64 119 149 514 663 115 131 109 109 90 64 44 33 368 241 20 Woman’s socio-economic status 288 Low 280 Medium 58 High % 16% 39% 37% 12% 22% 36% 24% 45% 27% 29% 28% 37% 32% 26% 27% 26% 26% 23% 22% 30% 27% 23% 28% 30% 20% Number 39 91 127 157 122 118 27 91 130 642 772 98 167 158 136 90 78 45 62 421 268 20 401 300 43 % 14% 34% 44% 44% 41% 37% 10% 34% 23% 36% 33% 32% 40% 38% 34% 26% 31% 24% 42% 35% 30% 23% 39% 32% 15% Physical and/or sexual Number 66 149 162 175 159 173 73 155 % Although the overall prevalence of physical and/or sexual abuse declines with increasing levels of education, there are variations within this pattern.
Women with no education (22%) and higher education (23%) are least likely to experience physical abuse compared with the national rate of 28%; and those with primary education are the most likely (30%).
However, the prevalence of sexual abuse declines steadily as the level of education increases: 42% of women with no education have been sexually abused by someone other than their husband/partner, compared with 35% for those with primary education, 30% with secondary education and 23% with higher education (Table 5.1 and Chart 5.3).

Page 97 of 249 Page 96 of 246 Because education is closely associated with socio-economic status, some similar prevalence patterns are observed with these two characteristics.
Overall the prevalence of physical and/or sexual violence declines with increasing socio-economic status.

However, women from households with high socio- Page 98 of 249 Page 97 of 246 economic status are the least likely to experience non-partner physical abuse (20%) compared with 28% for those with low status and 30% for those with medium status.
For sexual abuse, women with low socio-economic status are the most likely to be abused (39%) compared with medium (32%) and high status (15%) (Table 5.1 and Chart 5.4).

Almost 1 in 5 (19%) were physically assaulted many times; and 16% were sexually abused many times by people other than their husbands or partners.

About half of the women who experienced non-partner physical or sexual violence said that they had been abused once or twice only; about 1 in 3 experienced it a few times.
Overall, about half experienced physical and/or sexual abuse either a few or many times (Table 5.2 and Chart 5.5).
Table 5.2: Frequency of non-partner physical and sexual violence against women over the age of 15 years (number and percentage of female respondents who experienced each type of violence, N = 2337) Frequency of abuse Physical Sexual Once or twice A few times Many times Total Number 332 202 129 663 % 50% 30% 19% 100% Number 433 215 124 772 % 56% 28% 16% 100% Physical and/or sexual Number 554 341 217 1112 % 50% 31% 20% 100% Page 99 of 249 Page 98 of 246 The main perpetrators of physical violence against women over the age of 15 years were: fathers (51%), female family members (37%), teachers (24%), other male family members (11%), and boyfriends (10%).
The majority of perpetrators of physical violence are male.

However, female family members (mothers, aunts and mothers-in-law) also use physical violence to discipline other women and girls.

One disturbing finding is that 1 in 4 women have been physically abused by a teacher (Table 5.3).
Table 5.3: Perpetrators of non-partner physical violence against women over the age of 15 years (number and percentage of women who experienced non-partner physical violence, N = 663) Perpetrators Father Female family member Teacher Male family member (other than those noted below) Boyfriend Stranger Male friend of family Stepfather Chief Female friend of the family Police / soldier Someone at work Church leader Other Note: Numbers add to more than 663 and percentages to more than 100% because multiple perpetrators were identified.
Number 341 245 161 72 69 33 26 12 9 9 1 1 1 43 % 51% 37% 24% 11% 10% 5% 4% 2% 1% 1% 0.2% 0.2% 0.2% 6% Boyfriends were identified by 3 in 5 women (60%) as the main perpetrators of sexual violence.

The second largest group of perpetrators were male family members, mentioned by more than 1 in 4 women (28%).
This includes grandfathers (mentioned by 4% of women), brothers (3%), and stepfathers (2%), with other male family members such as uncles, cousins and male in-laws making up the largest group of perpetrators from within the family (20%) (Table 5.4).
Table 5.4: Perpetrators of non-partner sexual violence against women over the age of 15 years (number and percentage of women who experienced non-partner sexual violence, N = 772) Perpetrators Boyfriend Stranger Male family member (other than those noted below) Male friend of family Grandfather Brother Teacher Stepfather Someone at work Police / soldier Female friend of family Father Other Number 464 171 155 41 30 22 14 12 8 2 2 1 61 % 60% 22% 20% 5% 4% 3% 2% 2% 1% 0.3% 0.3% 0.1% 7% Total all male family members (grandfather, father, brother, stepfather and other male family member) Note: Numbers add to more than 772 and more than 100% because multiple perpetrators were identified.
Male family perpetrators total 28% rather than 29% due to rounding of percentages for categories of male family members.

28% 220 Page 100 of 249 Page 99 of 246 One positive finding is that chiefs and church leaders were not specifically mentioned by any respondents as perpetrators of sexual violence against women over the age of 15 years, and they were rarely identified as perpetrators of physical abuse.
However, VWC and its branches have occasionally had clients who have been sexually assaulted by these community leaders.

Child sexual abuse under the age of 15 years Women were asked during the interview whether anyone had ever touched them sexually, or made them do something sexual that they didn’t want to do, before they were 15 years old.
In addition, at the end of the interview, women were given a card with 2 pictures of a happy and sad face where they could indicate anonymously whether or not either of these events had occurred by marking the card and placing it into a sealed envelope (see the questionnaire in Annex 2 and chapter 2).
Consistent with research on child sexual assault over the world, substantially more women admitted to experiencing sexual abuse as children using the face card: 15% of women said that they had been sexually abused as children during the questionnaire, but almost 1 in 3 (30%) admitted to this when the anonymous face card was also used (Table 5.5).
Table 5.5: Prevalence of child sexual abuse of girls under the age of 15 years (number and percentage of all women who admitted to experiencing child sexual abuse, N=2337) During questionnaire Using anonymous face card Either questionnaire or face card Number 342 599 704 % 15% 26% 30% Child sexual assault is more prevalent in rural areas (33% of all respondents) compared with urban areas (20%) (Table 5.6).
The pattern of prevalence by location shows some similarities with that of sexual violence over the age of 15 discussed above, but also some differences.

Port Vila and Shefa have the lowest prevalence of women reporting child sexual assault (15%); these provinces also have the lowest rates of non-partner sexual assault over the age of 15.
Tafea (41%), Torba (39%), Penama and Malampa (38%) have the highest rates of child sexual assault among the provinces, and the rate in Sanma is 30% (Table 5.6 and Chart 5.6); Torba, Sanma and Penama also had very high rates of sexual assault over the age of 15 (Table 5.1 and Chart 5.1).

As with all other forms of violence, women of all ages, education levels, socio-economic status and religions experience child sexual assault.
Prevalence fluctuates for different age groups but it decreases steadily in inverse relationship to the level of education and socio-economic status.

Two in 5 women (40%) with no education had been sexually abused as children, compared with 1 in 3 (32%) women with primary education, 28% with secondary education and 17% with higher education.
Similarly, more than 1 in 3 women (35%) from households with low socio-economic status experienced child sexual assault, compared with 30% of those with medium socio-economic status and 15% with high socio-economic status (Table 5.6 and Charts 5.7-5.9).

Women from all religions experienced child sexual assault at about the same rates (Table 5.7).
Page 101 of 249 Page 100 of 246 Table 5.6: Prevalence of child sexual abuse of girls under the age of 15 years, by location, age, education level and socio-economic status (number and percentage of all women who admitted to experiencing child sexual abuse during the questionnaire or using the face card, N=2337) Location Port Vila Luganville Torba Sanma Penama Malampa Shefa Tafea Number 44 65 111 104 112 121 39 108 % 15% 24% 39% 30% 38% 38% 15% 41% Total Urban Total Rural Total Vanuatu Woman’s age group 15-19 20-24 25-29 30-34 35-39 40-44 45-49 Women’s education level None Primary Secondary Higher Woman’s socio-economic status Low Medium High Page 102 of 249 Page 101 of 246 Page 103 of 249 Page 102 of 246 Table 5.7: Child sexual abuse of girls under the age of 15 years, by religion (number and percentage of women reporting child sexual assault for each religion) Religion Experienced child sexual assault (N=704) No answer (N=18) Total women for each religion (N=2337) %* 100% Anglican 100% Assemblies of God 100% Apostolic 100% Catholic 100% Church of Christ 100% Other 100% Presbyterian 100% Seventh Day Adventist 100% No answer/no religion Total 100% * Percentages are based on the proportion of women in each religion; variations between religions are not statistically significant and these findings cannot be used to argue that women from any one religion are more or less likely to experience child sexual abuse than women from any other religion.
Number 1 1 0 4 2 0 7 2 1 18 Number 154 34 20 101 25 120 151 97 2 704 Number 439 136 65 315 87 407 569 305 14 2337 %* 0.2% 1% 0% 1% 2% 0 0% 1% 7% 1% %* 35% 25% 31% 32% 29% 29% 27% 32% 14% 30% Never experienced child sexual assault (N=1615) %* Number 65% 284 74% 101 69% 45 67% 210 69% 60 71% 287 72% 411 68% 206 79% 11 69% 1615 Boyfriends were identified by 1 in 3 women (33%) as perpetrators of child sexual assault and 1 in 4 (21%) said that strangers were the perpetrators.
However overall, male family members made up the largest group of perpetrators, with more than 1 in 2 women (55%) mentioning them.

This includes grandfathers (mentioned by 10% of women), brothers (7%), and stepfathers (3%), with other male family members such as uncles, cousins and male in-laws making up the largest group of perpetrators from within the family (33%) (Table 5.8).
The high percentage of male family members as perpetrators is consistent with the findings from research in a range of other countries (WHO 2005: 50-51).

Although only some of these male family perpetrators would be living in the same household as the victim, it is noteworthy that 26% of respondents to the household questionnaire said there was only 1 room for all household members for sleeping, 42% had 2 rooms used and the remainder had 3 or more.
Table 5.8: Perpetrators of child sexual abuse against girls under the age of 15 years (number and percentage of women who experienced child sexual abuse, N = 342) Number Perpetrators 114 Boyfriend 114 Male family member (other than those noted below) 90 Stranger 34 Grandfather 23 Brother 21 Male friend of family 9 Stepfather 7 Father 5 Teacher 2 Female friend of family 1 Someone at work 18 Other % 33% 33% 26% 10% 7% 6% 3% 2% 1% 1% 0.3% 5% Total all male family members (grandfather, father, brother, stepfather and other male family member) Note: Numbers add to more than 342 and percentages to more than 100% because respondents could identify multiple perpetrators.
N=342 because this question was only asked of those respondents who reported child sexual abuse during the interview; it was not asked of those respondents who disclosed child sexual abuse using the face card.

55% 187 Page 104 of 249 Page 103 of 246 For about 3 in 4 (74%) of the women who reported that they were sexually abused under the age of 15, the abuse first happened when they were between 11 and 14 years old.
In 14% of cases, they were between 6 and 10 years old; in 12% of cases, the women did not know or remember how old they were when the abused first happened.

For the remainder (only 1 woman), the abuse first occurred when she was less than 5 years old (Table 5.9 and Chart 5.10).
Table 5.9: Features of child sexual abuse under the age of 15 years (N = 342) Age when first sexually abused 0 to 5 years 6 to 10 years 11 to 14 years Age not known Total Number 1 49 252 40 342 Frequency of sexual abuse Once or twice Few times Many times Frequency not known Total 55 71 184 32 342 % 0.3% 14% 74% 12% 100% 16% 21% 54% 9% 100% Number of perpetrators One perpetrator Two perpetrators Three perpetrators Number of perpetrators not known Total Note: N=342 because this question was only asked of those respondents who reported child sexual abuse during the interview; it was not asked of those respondents who disclosed child sexual abuse using the face card.
66% 20% 5% 9% 100% 226 68 16 32 342 abused More than half (54%) of the women who were sexually as children experienced the abuse many times; 1 in 5 (21%) experienced it a few times, 16% once or twice; and in 9% of cases the respondent did not say how many times she was abused (Table 5.9 and Chart 5.11).

In most cases (2 in 3 or 66%) there was only one perpetrator.
For 1 in 5 women (20%) there were 2 perpetrators, in 5% of cases there were 3 perpetrators, and the remaining 9% did not say how many perpetrators there were (Table 5.9).

It is not surprising that some women were either unable or unwilling to provide details of their experiences of child sexual abuse – for most women, this is an extremely difficult thing to talk about under any circumstances.
Page 105 of 249 Page 104 of 246 5.2 WOMEN’S FIRST SEXUAL EXPERIENCE Whether women consent to their first sexual experience is an important indicator of gender equality.

For more than 1 in 4 women (28%) their first experience of sex was rape.

An additional 13% said that they did not want to have sex the first time, but they had it anyway.

This means that in total, the first experience of sex was either forced or coerced for about 2 in 5 women (41%).
For the remaining 3 in 5 women (59%), the first experience of sex was consensual (Table 5.10 and Chart 5.12).
Table 5.10: Age and consent of first sexual experience among sexually active respondents (N=2042) Age of first sex Total women Wanted to have sex Did not want to have sex but it happened anyway Forced to have sex % 6% Less than 15 years 32% 15-17 years 53% 18-21 years 9% 22-49 years 100% Total Note: N is 2042 because respondents were first asked whether they had ever had sex, and only those who answered yes were asked this series of questions.
Number 35 298 728 142 1203 Number 73 244 231 27 575 Number 16 110 118 20 264 Number 124 652 1077 189 2042 % 13% 17% 11% 11% 13% % 59% 37% 21% 14% 28% % 28% 46% 68% 75% 59% Not surprisingly, younger women make up the majority of those whose first experience of sex was forced or coerced.

A disturbing finding is that 2 in 5 (59%) of those sexual experience was forced were less than 15 years old; 37% were aged 15-17 years; 21% were aged 18-21 years; and 14% were 22 or older (Table 5.10).
whose first Page 106 of 249 Page 105 of 246 In total, almost 2 in 5 women (38%) had their first experience of sex under the age of 17.

This includes 32% who first had sex when they were between 15-17 years old, and 6% whose first experience was younger than 15 years old.

The older the woman when she first had sex, the more likely that it was consensual (Table 5.10 and Chart 5.13).
5.3 DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS The combined prevalence of non-partner physical and/or sexual violence against women aged 15-49 is among the very highest in the world where the WHO methodology has been used (WHO 2005: 46; Fulu 2007: 48; Jansen 2009: 66; SPC 2009: 79-80: SPC 2010: 102).

The findings indicate that there is a high tolerance for physical violence in Vanuatu, with over 1 in 4 women experiencing physical abuse since the age of 15 years.
The fact that fathers, female family members, other male family members and teachers are the main perpetrators of physical violence reflects community norms; it also reinforces and normalises the use of violence as a form of discipline and conflict resolution.
The high rates of non-partner physical violence found in this study are worrying for their own sake, because most types of violence can cause short-term or permanent injury, and because the use of violence against adults tends to escalate anger and resentment, rather than resolve conflict.
However, the findings are even more disturbing because the experience of non-partner physical abuse since the age of 15 years is a highly significant risk factor for women experiencing physical or sexual abuse from their husband or partner (P value of 0.005 using multi-variable regression analysis and less than 0.001 using uni-variable analysis, see chapter 10).
This suggests that there is an inter-generational component in women’s experience of physical and sexual violence by their husbands and intimate partners, where young women and girls – as well as young men and boys – come to learn and accept that physical abuse is “normal” by those who have the most power in relationships.
This does not mean that all women who experience physical violence as young women will become victims of abuse by their partners, but the findings clearly show that they are significantly more likely to do so.

A common perception all around the world is that women are most at risk of violence from people they hardly know or do not know at all.

This is certainly not the case in Vanuatu.


Non-partner violence is generally perpetrated by people who women and girls know very well and who in most circumstances they trust – their family members and boyfriends.

It is noteworthy that 1 in 10 women were physically assaulted by boyfriends who were not their husbands or intimate partners – this suggests that the use of physical violence begins very early in some relationships.
Boyfriends were also the largest group of perpetrators of sexual assault against Page 107 of 249 Page 106 of 246 women over the age of 15 years, and the largest group of perpetrators of sexual assault of girls under the age of 15 years.

These findings all underline the fact that women are most at risk from sexual violence from their intimate partners, or those who wish to be their husbands and partners.
Furthermore, although the prevalence of non-partner violence is particularly high in Vanuatu, comparing the overall findings on non-partner and partner physical and sexual violence demonstrates clearly that the greatest risk to women is from their husbands, intimate partners and family members.

Ni-Vanuatu believe that children in Vanuatu are much loved, and the family is valued very highly (Ministry of Justice and Community Services 2009: 21).
Yet the prevalence of child sexual assault in Vanuatu is also among the very highest in the world, as is the rate of forced sex at the first sexual encounter (WHO 2005: 49-52).

This has very damaging psychological and physical consequences for women and girls, in addition to the human rights implications and negative impacts on national social and economic development.
One major impact is that girls subjected to sexual assault under the age of 15 years are significantly more likely to also suffer from physical and/or sexual abuse by their husband or intimate partner during their life (P value of less than 0.001 using uni-variable analysis and 0.024 using multi-variable regression analysis, see chapter 10).
Another impact is that teenage pregnancies in Vanuatu are reported to be high and increasing – 15% of all pregnancies in Port Vila in 2002 were among teenagers, and in 2003 there were three 12 year old girls attending the Port Vila Antenatal Clinic (Republic of Vanuatu 2005: 111).

International studies have demonstrated a wide range of other impacts from sexual abuse of young women and girls.
These include low self-esteem, depression, suicidal thoughts, self-harm, alcohol and substance abuse, and sexual risk-taking, including evidence that victims of sexual abuse start having voluntary sex significantly earlier than non-victims.

In addition to unwanted teenage pregnancy that is dangerous for women’s health and their babies, there is increased risk of sexually transmitted infections, including HIV (WHO 2005: 53).
It is important for these findings on child sexual assault to be discussed widely, to determine how best to protect girls and young women from sexual abuse, keeping in mind that there is a substantially higher prevalence in rural areas than urban areas.

It is unclear whether some cultural practices have resulted in higher rates of abuse in Vanuatu compared with other countries.
For example, in some areas where a girl is swapped or exchanged for marriage, she may go to live with the family or her husband-to-be at a very young age.

VWC is aware of cases in Tanna where girls as young as 3 go to live with the family of the husband-to-be, and in Sanma it is not uncommon for the girl to go to the new home at age 13.

On the other hand, people from Torba rarely exchange girls or women for marriage, yet Torba has one of the highest rates of child sexual assault in the country.
The Ministry of Health (MOH) Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey (MICS) found that 7% of the married women aged 15-49 in their sample were married before the age of 15, and 24% were married before they reached 18 years of age.

Furthermore, the MICS found that girls who marry very young are more likely to marry men who are 10 years older or more (MOH 2008: 107-109), and this may increase the likelihood of gender inequality being expressed through various forms of controlling behaviours and abuse.
Further research is needed to assess whether such cultural practices contribute to the high rates of child sexual assault and forced first sexual experiences.

(It is not suggested that these practices necessarily lead to sexual assault in all or even most situations; however it is important to explore the circumstances in which child sexual assault and forced first sex occur, to better protect young women and girls.)
The Vanuatu Government’s report to the United Nations Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women suggested that changes in social control mechanisms that traditionally protected girls and young women from abuse may be one cause of child sexual abuse and the increase in teenage pregnancies – such as a breakdown in taboos that traditionally governed relationships between in-laws, Page 108 of 249 Page 107 of 246 and the lack of segregated sleeping areas (Republic of Vanuatu 2005: 112).
There is also as an increasing trend for girls and boys to live with relatives in towns to continue their education.

Further research is also needed in these areas to assess whether they contribute to higher levels of child sexual assault in rural and urban areas.

Regardless of the factors contributing to the very high rates of child sexual assault, the findings point to the urgent need for Vanuatu to raise the minimum age of marriage for women from 16 to 18 years.
This was recommended by the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women, and would bring Vanuatu into line with articles of the Convention the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) and with the Convention on the Rights of the Child (CEDAW 2007: 8).

Other findings from the study have implications for ways to protect women and girls.
First, it is very important for government agencies, community leaders and family members to take assertive action to protect girls as soon as a case of sexual abuse comes to light, to prevent further abuse – most women who were sexually assaulted as children experienced the assault many times; and about half those who experienced physical or sexual assault since the age of 15 also experienced it several or many times.
The findings underline the need for all agencies and programs working with children to have policies and protocols in place to address child protection issues from a human rights perspective, and for all workers to be trained to respond sensitively and appropriately.

Second, the positive impact of education is a striking finding that has implications for policy makers and others who aim to protect women and girls from all types of abuse.
Overall, the prevalence of non- partner physical and sexual violence since the age of 15, and the prevalence of child sexual assault, tends to decrease as the woman’s level of education increases.

This trend was also observed for most forms of violence by husbands and intimate partners.

In addition, although all ages are subjected to non-partner violence, younger women are more vulnerable.
These findings point both to the importance of ensuring equal access to secondary and higher education, and to addressing gender inequalities, human rights and violence against women and girls in primary and secondary schools.

Child protection needs to be included in the school curriculum, and in the teacher training curriculum.
The high rates of forced first sex and of coercion also point to the need for young women to be given assertiveness training, and for young men to be taught that forcing sex upon young women and girls is wrong and not part of Vanuatu custom.
Finally, the very significant associations between violence by husbands/partners and the experience of non-partner physical violence and child sexual assault demonstrate powerfully that preventing violence against women requires an integrated approach through the whole of her life cycle.

Prevention programs need to be soundly based on a commitment to women’s and girls’ human rights.
Prevention programs need to targets families, young women and girls, and young men and boys to understand women’s and girls’ human rights, and the links between gender inequality and violence.
Page 109 of 249 Page 108 of 246 CHAPTER 6: CONSEQUENCES OF VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN FOR GENERAL PHYSICAL AND MENTAL HEALTH Summary of main findings  Almost 2 in 5 women (39%) who have experienced partner violence have been injured in their lifetime due to physical or sexual violence by their husband or intimate partner.

This amounts to 1 in 4 ever-partnered women (24%).


 Of those injured, more than 2 in 5 (41%) were injured more than 3 times; more than 1 in 5 (21%)  now has a permanent disability; and almost half (48%) lost consciousness at least once.

Less than half of those injured (42%) told a health worker the real reason for their injury, and many did not receive the health care they needed.
 Women living with physical and/or sexual violence have much poorer health, are hospitalised more often, and are more likely to have an operation than women who are not experiencing violence.

 Women living with physical, sexual or emotional violence have more mental health problems and are much more likely to attempt suicide than women who are not experiencing violence.
This section presents findings on the impact of physical and sexual partner violence on women’s general health, including the frequency and type of injuries women experienced, and their use of medication and health services.

It also discusses the impacts of physical, sexual and emotional violence on women’s mental health, and their likelihood of thinking about or attempting suicide.
The survey posed several different questions on women’s physical and mental health in order to explore the impact of violence by husbands and intimate partners.

Some of these questions were asked of all women before they disclosed whether they had experienced violence by a husband/partner; others focused on women’s views of the specific impacts of partner violence.

This approach helped to eliminate bias in women’s responses and provides robust evidence on the impact of violence on women’s health.
6.1 IMPACTS OF PARTNER VIOLENCE ON PHYSICAL HEALTH Injuries caused by partner violence Of the 2061 ever-partnered women interviewed during the study, almost 1 in 4 (24%) were injured in their lifetime as a result of violence by their husband/partner, and more than 1 in 10 (11%) were injured in the last 12 months (Table 6.1 and Chart 6.1).
When we look at the 1239 women who have experienced either physical and/or sexual violence in their lifetime, almost 2 in 5 (486 women or 39%) reported that they were injured at some stage in their life.

Of these 486 women who have been injured, 59% were injured once or twice, 20% were injured several times (between 3 and 5 times), and 21% were injured many times (Table 6.1 and Chart 6.2).
This is a very high burden of injury among women in the total population annually, which has substantial social and economic costs.

Nevertheless, these figures should be seen as minimum estimates of the burden of injury from domestic physical and sexual violence.

Several studies have found that women tend to under-estimate the number of minor injuries, particularly if they occurred more than 12 months before the survey.
On the other hand, the respondent’s recall regarding severe injuries is likely to be accurate, regardless of when the injury occurred (WHO 2005: 61).
Page 110 of 249 Page 109 of 246 Table 6.1: Frequency of injuries as a result of violence by a husband/partner (number and percentage of ever-partnered women who reported physical and/or sexual violence) Frequency of injuries Number Ever injured in her lifetime Injured many times Injured several (3-5) times Injured once or twice Sub-total of women injured in their lifetime Not injured in their lifetime Total who experienced violence Injured in the last 12 months 102 96 288 486 753 1239 221 % of ever- partnered women who were injured due to partner violence (N=486) 21% 20% 59% % of ever- partnered women who experienced partner violence (N=1239) 8% 8% 23% % of ever- partnered women (N=2061) 5% 5% 14% 100% - - 45% 39% 61% 100% 18% 24% 36% 60% 11% Most ever-injured women reported minor injuries: 66% had scratches, bruises or abrasions, and 13% reported that they had small cuts or bites.
However, serious injuries were also common, with more than 1 in 3 (37%) reporting that they had broken eardrums or eye injuries.

This confirms VWC’s experience – many women who have come to the centre and branches for counselling have these types of injuries Page 111 of 249 because they have been punched or beaten on the head.

It is also consistent with the finding that 82% of women have been hit with a fist or something else (see chapter 4).
About 1 in 10 women have had sprains or dislocations (12%), fractured or broken bones (9%), or internal injuries (9%) as a result of the violence from their husband/partner.

Sadly, 5% had suffered from internal injuries due to violent sexual assault and 2% (12 women) had to have their spleen removed (Table 6.2 and Chart 6.3).
Page 110 of 246 Table 6.2: Type of injuries as a result of violence by a husband or intimate partner (number and percentage of ever-partnered women who experienced partner violence who reported an injury, N = 486) Type of injury reported Scratches, abrasions, bruises Broken eardrum, eye injuries Small cuts, puncture, bites Sprains, dislocations Other internal injuries Fractures, broken bones Penetrating injuries, deep cuts, gashes Internal injuries from sexual violence Burns Broken teeth Other injuries Permanent disability Losing consciousness Ever lost consciousness Internal injuries requiring spleen to be removed Lost consciousness in the past 12 months Access to health care Ever hurt badly enough to need health care Hurt badly enough to need health care in the past 12 months Ever received health care Ever spent any nights in hospital due to injuries Median number of nights spent in hospital* Ever told a health worker the cause of the injury Number 320 181 65 60 46 46 25 22 14 13 12 101 103 233 92 271 105 234 113 5 205 % 66% 37% 13% 12% 9% 9% 5% 5% 3% 3% 2% 21% 21% 48% 19% 56% 22% 48% 23% - 42% Note: Numbers add to more than 486 for the type of injury reported and percentages to more than 100% because respondents could identify multiple types of injury.
above the median and half below.

* Median refers to the middle score or mid-point, after arranging all scores in numerical order, with half the scores falling One very disturbing finding is that more than 1 in 5 women (21%) who have been injured have a permanent disability due to their husband’s/partner’s violence.

Given that 37% reported broken eardrums and eye injuries, it is reasonable to assume that in some of these cases the disability relates to these types of injuries.
Almost half of the women who have been injured (48%) have lost consciousness at least once in their lives.

Even more alarming is that almost 1 in 5 (19%, or 92 women) lost consciousness in the last 12 months (Table 6.2 and Chart 6.3).

This amounts to 4% of the total ever-partnered sample of 2061 women and it can be safely assumed that about the same percentage lose consciousness each year due to domestic violence.
Women’s reports of the injuries they have received reinforce the findings from chapter 4 that violence is often very severe indeed.

Over half of the women who have been injured said that they had been hurt badly enough to need health care (56%), but less than half (48%) actually received the health care they needed and only 42% have ever told a health worker about the cause of their injury.

More than 1 in 5 Page 112 of 249 1 in 3 (37%) reporting that they had broken eardrums or eye injuries.
This confirms VWC’s experience – many women who have come to the centre and branches for counselling have these types of injuries because they have been punched or beaten on the head.

It is also consistent with the finding that 82% of women have been hit with a fist or something else (see chapter 4).

About 1 in 10 women have had sprains or dislocations (12%), fractured or broken bones (9%), or internal injuries (9%) as a result of the violence from their husband/partner.
Sadly, 5% had suffered from internal injuries due to violent sexual assault and 2% (12 women) had to have their spleen removed (Table 6.2 and Chart 6.3).
% 66% 37% 13% 12% 9% 9% 5% 5% 3% 3% 2% 21% 21% Number 320 181 65 60 46 46 25 22 14 13 12 101 103 Table 6.2: Type of injuries as a result of violence by a husband or intimate partner (number and percentage of ever-partnered women who experienced partner violence who reported an injury, N = 486) Type of injury reported Scratches, abrasions, bruises Broken eardrum, eye injuries Small cuts, puncture, bites Sprains, dislocations Other internal injuries Fractures, broken bones Penetrating injuries, deep cuts, gashes Internal injuries from sexual violence Burns Broken teeth Internal injuries requiring spleen to be removed Other injuries Permanent disability Losing consciousness Ever lost consciousness Lost consciousness in the past 12 months Access to health care Ever hurt badly enough to need health care Hurt badly enough to need health care in the past 12 months Ever received health care Ever spent any nights in hospital due to injuries Median number of nights spent in hospital* Ever told a health worker the cause of the injury Note: Numbers add to more than 486 for the type of injury reported and percentages to more than 100% because respondents could identify multiple types of injury.
* Median refers to the middle score or mid-point, after arranging all scores in numerical order, with half the scores falling above the median and half below.

56% 22% 48% 23% - 42% 271 105 234 113 5 205 48% 19% 233 92 One very disturbing finding is that more than 1 in 5 women (21%) who have been injured have a permanent disability due to their husband’s/partner’s violence.
Given that 37% reported broken eardrums and eye injuries, it is reasonable to assume that in some of these cases the disability relates to these types of injuries.

Almost half of the women who have been injured (48%) have lost consciousness at least once in their lives.

Even more alarming is that almost 1 in 5 (19%, or 92 women) lost consciousness in the last 12 months (Table 6.2 and Chart 6.3).
This amounts to 4% of the total ever-partnered sample of 2061 women and it can be safely assumed that about the same percentage lose consciousness each year due to domestic violence.

Women’s reports of the injuries they have received reinforce the findings from chapter 4 that violence is often very severe indeed.
Over half of the women who have been injured said that they had been hurt badly enough to need health care (56%), but less than half (48%) actually received the health care they needed and only 42% have ever told a health worker about the cause of their injury.

More than 1 in 5 (22%) have been hurt badly enough to need health care in the last 12 months (Table 6.2 and Chart 6.3).
Other important findings for estimating the national economic cost of violence against women are Page 112 of 249 that almost 1 in 4 women (23% of ever-injured women) have been hospitalised in their lifetime due to their injuries, and the median number of nights in hospital was 5 (Table 6.2 and Chart 6.4).
Page 111 of 246 Use of health services and medication At the beginning of the questionnaire, before being asked about violence, women were asked about health-related matters including the need to have an operation or hospitalisation in the last 12 months, use of medication, and consultation with health service professionals in the last 4 weeks.
Women living with violence were significantly more likely to have an operation in the last 12 months and to spend time in hospital, compared with women who had not experienced partner violence.

The strongest association is the need for care in hospital: 5% of women who have not experienced violence needed to spend a night in hospital in the last 12 months, compared with 10% of those who have experienced violence (P value of less than 0.0001, Table 6.3 and Chart 6.5).
These findings are broadly consistent with those above regarding the number of women hurt badly enough to require health care.

However, they indicate a higher rate of hospitalisation than that identified by women as being due to injury.

Possible explanations are that women subjected to partner violence may also be prone to indirect Page 113 of 249 (22%) have been hurt badly enough to need health care in the last 12 months (Table 6.2 and Chart 6.3).
Other important findings for estimating the national economic cost of violence against women are that almost 1 in 4 women (23% of ever-injured women) have been hospitalised in their lifetime due to their injuries, and the median number of nights in hospital was 5 (Table 6.2 and Chart 6.4).
Ever hurt badly enough to need health care Ever received health care Ever spent any nights in hospital due to injuries Ever told a health worker the cause of injury Use of health services and medication At the beginning of the questionnaire, before being asked about violence, women were asked about health-related matters including the need to have an operation or hospitalisation in the last 12 months, use of medication, and consultation with health service professionals in the last 4 weeks.
Women living with violence were significantly more likely to have an operation in the last 12 months and to spend time in hospital, compared with women who had not experienced partner violence.

The strongest association is the need for care in hospital: 5% of women who have not experienced violence needed to spend a night in hospital in the last 12 months, compared with 10% of those who have experienced violence (P value of less than 0.0001, Table 6.3 and Chart 6.5).
These findings are broadly consistent with those above regarding the number of women hurt badly enough to require health care.

However, they indicate a higher rate of hospitalisation than that identified by women as being due to injury.
Possible explanations are that women subjected to partner violence may also be prone to indirect Page 113 of 249 Page 112 of 246 health impacts, in addition to the direct impacts of serious injury; or that some of the injuries caused by partner violence create ongoing and serious health problems which require hospitalisation later.
Table 6.3: Severe health outcomes for women with and without physical and/or sexual violence (number and percentage of ever-partnered women reporting hospitalisation or operation according to their experience of physical and/or sexual violence by a husband or intimate partner in their lifetime, N = 2061) Health outcomes in the past 12 months for ever- partnered women: No violence (N=822) P value* Physical and/or sexual violence (N=1239) 0.0012 Had an operation (other than caesarean section) Had to spend night in hospital <0.0001 * P value is based on a 2x2 chi-square test of the lifetime experience of physical and/or sexual violence (experienced versus never experienced) and each category of health outcome.
N 27 44 % 3% 5% N 50 127 % 4% 10% There was also a highly significant association between the experience of partner violence and the need to take medication over the last 4 weeks (P values of less than 0.0001).

Women who experienced partner violence are far more likely to need medication to help them calm down or sleep (10% compared with 5% for those who did not experience violence), for pain (15% compared with 12%), and to help them with depression (11% compared with 8%) (Table 6.4 and Chart 6.6).
Similarly, women who experienced partner violence were significantly more likely to need to consult a health professional over the last 4 weeks (P value of less than 0.0001): 27% of women who did not experience violence consulted with a health professional, compared with 37% of those living with violence.

Table 6.4 lists the range of health professionals consulted.
Table 6.4: Use of medication and health services in the past 4 weeks for women with and without physical and/or sexual violence (number and percentage of ever-partnered women according to their experience of physical and/or sexual violence by a husband or intimate partner in their lifetime, N = 2061) Use of mediation and health services in the last 4 weeks: No violence (N=822) P value* Physical and/or sexual violence (N=1239) % Number Number % Reported use of medication in the last 4 weeks 10% Many times to calm down or sleep 15% Many times for pain Many times to help not feel sad or depressed 11% Consulted a doctor, health worker or church leader because she was sick in the last 4 weeks 37% Someone consulted 10% Doctor 25% Nurse 27% 8% 14% 5% 12% 8% 462 123 306 221 68 119 124 185 134 44 95 64 <0.0001 <0.0001 <0.0001 <0.0001 <0.0001 <0.0001 Page 114 of 249 Page 113 of 246 P value* Use of mediation and health services in the last 4 weeks: No violence (N=822) Number Midwife 16 Aid post worker 23 Pharmacist 1 Custom doctor 27 Traditional birth attendant 1 Church leader 28 Counsellor 1 10 Other * P value is based on a 2x2 chi-square test of the lifetime experience of physical and/or sexual violence (experienced versus never experienced) and each health category.
- 0.0003 - <0.0001 - - - - Physical and/or sexual violence (N=1239) % Number 2% 23 4% 55 0% 1 4% 52 0% 2 2% 29 0% 0 2% 20 % 2% 3% 0% 3% 0% 3% 0% 1% Other measures of women’s physical health status Several other questions were designed to assess the overall impact of physical and/or sexual violence on women’s health.

One robust measure is women’s self-assessment of their own health, which included a number of questions posed very early in the questionnaire.
Women were asked whether their overall health was excellent, good, fair, poor or very poor.

Women who experienced physical and/or sexual partner violence were significantly more likely to say that their health was fair, poor or very poor (41%) compared with those who had not experienced violence (26%).

Conversely, women who had not experienced violence were more likely to report that their health was good or excellent (74%) compared with those living with violence (59%).
All associations were highly significant with P values of less than 0.0001 (Table 6.5 and Chart 6.7).
Table 6.5: Health status for women with and without physical and/or sexual violence (number and percentage of ever-partnered women reporting different categories of health status, N = 2055) Women’s assessment of their own health Experienced physical and/or sexual violence (N=1235) Total ever- partnered women (N=2055) No physical or sexual violence (N=820) P value* Number 188 421 171 21 19 820 Number < 0.0001 250 Excellent < 0.0001 478 Good < 0.0001 432 Fair < 0.0001 35 Poor < 0.0001 40 Very poor Total < 0.0001 1235 Note: N = 2055 because some women did not answer this question.
Percentages are the number in each health category, as a proportion of the number in the abuse category.

* P value is based on a 2x2 chi-square test of the lifetime experience of physical and/or sexual violence (experienced versus never experienced) and each category of health status.
Number 438 899 603 56 59 2055 % 23% 51% 21% 3% 2% 100% % 21% 44% 29% 3% 3% 100% % 20% 39% 35% 3% 3% 100% Page 115 of 249 Page 114 of 246 Women were also asked whether they had 6 physical symptoms over the last 4 weeks and if so, to what extent they had experienced those symptoms.
There was a highly significant association between women’s experience of 5 of the 6 symptoms, and the experience of physical and/or sexual violence against women, although in some cases the number of women reporting that they had suffered many problems with specific symptoms was too small to be meaningful.
Of the women who had experienced partner violence, almost half (49%) reported that they had problems with dizziness and 25% had vaginal discharge, compared with 31% and 20% respectively of those who had not experienced violence (Table 6.6).
Table 6.6: Physical health problems in the past four weeks for women with and without physical and/or sexual violence (number and percentage of ever-partnered women, N = 2055) Health problems reported by women in the past 4 weeks P value* No physical or sexual violence (N=820) Number 6 % 1% Experienced physical and/or sexual violence (N=1235) Number 10 % 1% Total ever- partnered women (N=2055) Number 16 % 1% 21 10 1% 2% 0.31 F Many problems walking Many problems performing usual activities Severe or extreme pain or discomfort Many problems with memory or concentration 0.0003 F < 0.0001 Dizziness Vaginal discharge < 0.0001 Note: N = 2055 rather than 2061 because some women did not answer these questions.
Percentages are the number in each health category, as a proportion of the number in the abuse category.

* P value is based on a 2x2 chi-square test of the lifetime experience of physical and/or sexual violence and each category of health status; Fisher's exact test was used for categories with small frequencies (denoted as "F").
1% 31% 20% 1% 49% 25% 1% 42% 19% 24 861 386 17 604 308 7 257 78 0.0012 F < 0.0001 140 102 2% 5% 7% 8% 31 38 Women living with violence were also asked about the impact that the violence has on their physical and emotional health and spiritual well-being.

This is a very broad question and more specific impacts on emotional well-being and mental health are discussed below in section 6.2.

Nevertheless, women’s answers demonstrate a very important feature of how they cope with domestic violence.
Despite the intensity of the violence experienced by many women and the frequency and severity of injuries, the majority minimised the impact of the violence on their lives.

Only 19% (240 women) said that the violence had a lot of impact on their health and spiritual life, 37% (457 women) said it had a little effect, and 42% (519 women) said it had no effect (Table 6.7 and Chart 6.8).
This compares with 39% who Page 116 of 249 Page 115 of 246 have been injured (Table 6.1), 49% who experience dizziness (Table 6.4) and 233 women (19%) who have lost consciousness at least once.24 have been injured (Table 6.1), 49% who experience dizziness (Table 6.4) and 233 women (19%) who These comparisons are a powerful demonstration of women’s reluctance to complain or dwell on the have lost consciousness at least once.24 violence.
These findings challenge the view, held by some community members and leaders, that women over-emphasise, over-react or over-state the severity of their experiences of domestic violence, These comparisons are a powerful demonstration of women’s reluctance to complain or dwell on the and that they are unforgiving and over-critical of their husbands.

On the contrary, these findings confirm violence.
These findings challenge the view, held by some community members and leaders, that VWC’s experience with clients; most women rarely dwell on the physical impacts of the violence, either women over-emphasise, over-react or over-state the severity of their experiences of domestic violence, because they are too busy fulfilling their role of caring for the family, because they see the violence as a and that they are unforgiving and over-critical of their husbands.
On the contrary, these findings confirm normal part of life, because they forgive their husbands, or because they believe they have no option VWC’s experience with clients; most women rarely dwell on the physical impacts of the violence, either other than to continue to live with the violence.
The focus in this question on spiritual well-being is also because they are too busy fulfilling their role of caring for the family, because they see the violence as a important here – the experience of violence rarely prompts women to give up their faith, although it normal part of life, because they forgive their husbands, or because they believe they have no option does encourage forgiveness.

other than to continue to live with the violence.


The focus in this question on spiritual well-being is also important here – the experience of violence rarely prompts women to give up their faith, although it Table 6.7: Women's view of impact of intimate partner violence on her physical and emotional health and does encourage forgiveness.
spiritual well-being (number and percentage of women who experienced physical and/or sexual violence by a husband/partner in their lifetime, N = 1239) Table 6.7: Women's view of impact of intimate partner violence on her physical and emotional health and Women’s view of the impact of physical and/or sexual violence spiritual well-being (number and percentage of women who experienced physical and/or sexual violence No effect by a husband/partner in their lifetime, N = 1239) A little Women’s view of the impact of physical and/or sexual violence A lot No effect No answer A little Total A lot No answer Total Number 519 457 Number 240 519 23 457 1239 240 23 1239 % 42% 37% % 19% 42% 2% 37% 100% 19% 2% 100% 6.2 IMPACTS OF PARTNER VIOLENCE ON MENTAL HEALTH Associations between emotional distress and physical, sexual and emotional violence 6.2 IMPACTS OF PARTNER VIOLENCE ON MENTAL HEALTH Mental health status was assessed using 20 questions developed by the WHO as a screening tool for Associations between emotional distress and physical, sexual and emotional violence emotional distress.
These were included in the health section at the beginning of the questionnaire before women were asked to disclose their experience of violence (see section 2 of Annex 2).

The use Mental health status was assessed using 20 questions developed by the WHO as a screening tool for of these 20 questions has been validated as a robust method for assessing mental health status in a emotional distress.

These were included in the health section at the beginning of the questionnaire wide range of settings.
Respondents were asked whether, within the 4 weeks prior to the interview, they before women were asked to disclose their experience of violence (see section 2 of Annex 2).

The use of these 20 questions has been validated as a robust method for assessing mental health status in a 24 This paragraph consistently uses percentages of the 1239 women living with physical and/or sexual violence, whereas wide range of settings.
Respondents were asked whether, within the 4 weeks prior to the interview, they tables referred to also include percentages of the number injured (486), and the total ever-partnered women (2061).

24 This paragraph consistently uses percentages of the 1239 women living with physical and/or sexual violence, whereas Page 117 of 249 tables referred to also include percentages of the number injured (486), and the total ever-partnered women (2061).
Page 117 of 249 Page 116 of 246 experienced a range of symptoms that are associated with emotional distress, such as crying, inability to enjoy life, tiredness, and thoughts of ending life.

(WHO 2005: 59).

The number of symptoms that women experienced can be added up to provide an overall score of emotional distress, where 0 represents the lowest level of emotional distress and 20 represents the highest level.
Table 6.8 shows the percentage of women who reported each symptom, comparing those who did not experience partner violence, those who experienced physical and/or sexual violence, and those who experienced emotional violence in their lifetime.

This shows the enormous impact of physical, sexual and emotional violence on women’s levels of emotional distress.

Women who experience any type of violence are far more likely to have every symptom.
The biggest percentage differences between those women who do and do not experience violence are in the following areas: feeling nervous, tense or worried; easily tired; uncomfortable feelings in the stomach; trouble thinking clearly; difficulty with enjoying daily activities; and difficulty with doing daily work.
Table 6.8: Symptoms of emotional distress reported by women with and without physical, sexual and emotional violence (number and percentage of ever-partnered women reporting each symptom according to their experience of violence by a husband/partner in their lifetime) Symptoms of emotional distress in the last 4 weeks: Physical and/or sexual violence in their lifetime (N=1239) Emotional violence in their lifetime (N=1404) No physical or sexual violence (N=822) Frequent headaches Poor appetite Sleep badly Easily frightened Hands shaking Nervous, tense, worried Poor digestion Trouble thinking clearly Feel unhappy Cry more than usual Difficulty enjoying daily activities Difficulty in decision making Difficulty in doing daily work Feel unable to be active and useful Lost interest in things she enjoyed Feel worthless Thought of ending her life Feel tired all the time Uncomfortable feelings in stomach Tires easily N 229 179 186 316 76 455 210 159 234 84 217 279 272 136 339 78 35 443 220 434 % 28% 22% 23% 38% 9% 55% 26% 19% 29% 10% 26% 34% 33% 17% 41% 10% 4% 54% 27% 53% N 521 474 508 624 243 930 562 497 538 298 619 609 717 450 711 298 193 890 614 901 % 42% 38% 41% 50% 20% 75% 45% 40% 43% 24% 50% 49% 58% 36% 57% 24% 16% 72% 50% 73% N 562 492 544 709 264 1040 594 527 585 305 652 670 763 472 774 306 198 1002 646 989 % 40% 35% 39% 50% 19% 74% 42% 37% 41% 22% 46% 48% 54% 33% 55% 22% 14% 71% 46% 70% In addition to helping to assess the impact of partner violence, women’s responses to the 20 questions also provide an interesting insight into the status of women in Vanuatu and the impact of their burden of work.
For example, 55% of women who did not experience partner violence reported that they were nervous, tense or worried in the past 4 weeks, 54% felt tired all the time, 53% said that they tired easily, 41% had lost interest in things they enjoyed, 34% had difficulty with decision-making, and 33% reported difficulties in doing their daily work (Table 6.8).
If we consider the number of women who have 0-10 of these symptoms, compared with those who have 11 or more, it is clear that women who experience physical and/or sexual violence are significantly more likely to suffer from a greater number mental health symptoms, particularly those who experience Page 118 of 249 Page 117 of 246 both physical and sexual violence.

Table 6.9 allows us to compare the impacts of these two different types of violence.
Women who had 11 or more symptoms included: 13% of women with no experience of violence; 21% of women who only experience physical violence; 40% of women who only experience sexual violence; and 45% of those who experience both physical and sexual violence (Table 6.9 and Chart 6.9).

The median number of symptoms for women who have not experienced violence is 5.
This compares with 6 symptoms for women who experience only physical violence, 9 for those women who experience only sexual violence, and 10 symptoms for those women who experience both physical and sexual violence from their husbands/partners.
P value* Sexual only (N=194) Physical only (N=329) No violence (N=822) % N 55% 448 32% 266 12% 97 11 1% 822 100% Table 6.9: Number of mental health symptoms for women with and without physical and/or sexual violence (number and percentage of ever-partnered women reporting emotional distress according to their experience of physical or sexual violence by a husband/partner in their lifetime, N = 2061) Number of symptoms of emotional distress experienced in the past 4 weeks 0-5 symptoms 6-10 symptoms 11-15 symptoms 16-20 symptoms Total Median number of symptoms Note: Percentages are the number in each mental health category, as a proportion of the number in the abuse category.
Median refers to the middle score or mid-point, after arranging all scores in numerical order, with half the scores falling above the median and half below.

* P value is based on a 2x2 chi-square test of the lifetime experience of physical and/or sexual violence (experienced versus never experienced) and each category of mental health status.

Fisher's exact test was used for categories with small frequencies (denoted as "F").
Physical and sexual violence (N=716) % 21% 34% 28% 17% 100% <0.0001 <0.0001 <0.0001 0.002 F - % 29% 30% 30% 10% 100% % 45% 34% 16% 5% 100% N 153 243 200 120 716 N 147 113 54 15 329 N 57 59 58 20 194 10 6 9 5 - On several occasions during its community awareness and advocacy work, VWC has heard community leaders and members express the view that emotional violence has little impact on women.
The findings clearly show that this belief is a myth – in fact, emotional violence has an enormous impact on those who experience it.

Women who have not experienced emotional violence are significantly more likely to have fewer symptoms of emotional distress (P value of less than 0.0001).

Of those women who have experienced emotional violence, 34% have 11 or more symptoms of emotional distress, compared with 15% of those who have not experienced emotional violence.
Moreover, women who have not experienced violence are most likely to have 5 symptoms of emotional distress (the median Page 119 of 249 Page 118 of 246 number of symptoms for this group), whereas those living with emotional violence are most likely to have 8 symptoms (Table 6.10 and Chart 6.10).
In fact, emotional violence has a similar overall impact on women’s experience of mental health symptoms as physical and/or sexual violence: 38% of women who experience either physical or sexual violence or both have 11 or more symptoms of distress, compared with 34% of those who live with emotional violence (Chart 6.10).

This is not surprising, since most women who experience physical or sexual violence are also subjected to emotional violence and controlling behaviours by their husbands/partners.
Table 6.10: Number of mental health symptoms for women with and without emotional violence (number and percentage of ever-partnered women reporting emotional distress according to their experience of emotional violence by a husband or intimate partner in their lifetime, N = 2061) Number of symptoms of emotional distress experienced in the past 4 weeks Emotional violence in their lifetime (N=1410) No emotional violence (N=651) P value* N 356 200 82 13 % 55% 31% 13% 2% 0-5 symptoms 6-10 symptoms 11-15 symptoms 16-20 symptoms Median number of symptoms Note: Percentages are the number in each mental health category, as a proportion of the number in the abuse category.
Median refers to the middle score or mid-point, after arranging all scores in numerical order, with half the scores falling above the median and half below.

* P value is based on a 2x2 chi-square test of the lifetime experience of emotional violence (experienced versus never experienced) and each category of mental health status.
<0.0001 <0.0001 <0.0001 <0.0001 - 5 8 % 32% 34% 23% 11% N 449 481 327 153 Associations between suicidal thoughts and actions and partner violence In addition to emotional distress symptoms in the past 4 weeks, women were also asked about suicidal thoughts and attempts to commit suicide in their lifetime in the health section at the beginning of the questionnaire.
Consistent with the findings on emotional distress symptoms, there is a highly significant association between women’s experience of any form of partner violence and suicidal thoughts; and between partner violence and suicide attempts (P values of less than 0.0001, Table 6.12).

In addition, the risk of suicide increases substantially for women who experience both physical and sexual violence.

Only 7% of women with no experience of partner violence have thought of suicide, and 3% have attempted it.
This compares 18% and 9% respectively for women who have experienced physical violence only; and 19% and 11% for women who have experienced sexual violence only.

One in 4 Page 120 of 249 Page 119 of 246 women (25%) who experienced both physical and sexual violence has thought of suicide and 14% have attempted to commit suicide (Table 6.11 and Chart 6.11).
Table 6.11: Suicidal thoughts and actions by women with and without physical and sexual violence (number and percentage of ever-partnered women reporting suicidal thoughts and actions according to their experience of violence by a husband or intimate partner in their lifetime, N = 2058) Ever thought or Physical only done the following (N=328) in her lifetime: Total ever- partnered women (N=2058) Sexual only (n=192) Physical and sexual violence (N=716) % N N % N % N % No violence (N=822) % N 60 Thought of committing suicide Attempted to commit suicide Note: Percentages are the number in each category (thought of or attempted suicide), as a proportion of the number in the abuse category.
18% 19% 25% 14% 11% 16% 177 102 331 180 9% 7% 3% 9% 58 28 28 36 22 Overall, more than 1 in 5 women (22%) who experienced physical and/or sexual violence have considered suicide, and more than 1 in 10 (12%) have actually attempted it.

Women who have experienced physical or sexual violence are about 3½ times more than likely to have suicidal thoughts than woman not living with violence; and they are about 4 times more likely to try to commit suicide (Table 6.12).
Table 6.12: Association between suicidal thoughts and actions by women with and without physical and/or sexual violence (number and percentage of ever-partnered women reporting suicidal thoughts and actions, N = 2058) Ever thought about or attempted to commit suicide in her lifetime: Thought of suicide Attempted suicide Note: Percentages are the number in each category (thought of or attempted suicide), as a proportion of the number in the abuse category.
* P value is based on a 2x2 chi-square test of the lifetime experience of physical and/or sexual violence (experienced versus never experienced) and each category of mental health status.

No violence (N=822) % N 7% 60 3% 28 95% confidence interval 2.65 - 4.79 2.64 - 6.03 Physical and/or sexual violence (N=1236) Crude odds ratio 3.57 3.99 < 0.0001 < 0.0001 % 22% 12% N 271 152 P value* The experience of emotional violence also significantly increases women’s risk of attempting suicide.
One in 5 women who have experienced emotional violence (20%) have thought of suicide and more than 1 in 10 (11%) have attempted it.

This compares with 8% and 4% respectively among those who have not experienced emotional violence.

Overall, those women who have experienced emotional Page 121 of 249 Page 120 of 246 violence are about 3 times more likely to consider suicide, and almost 3 times more likely to attempt it (P values of less than 0.0001, Table 6.13 and Chart 6.12).
Table 6.13: Association between suicidal thoughts and actions by women with and without emotional violence (number and percentage of ever-partnered women reporting suicidal thoughts and actions, N = 2055) Ever thought or attempted suicide in her lifetime P value* Crude odds ratio 95% confidence interval No emotional violence (N=651) % N 8% 49 4% 27 Emotional violence in their lifetime (N=1404) N 282 153 % 20% 11% 2.23-4.22 Thought of suicide Attempted suicide 1.85-4.28 Note: Percentages are the number in each category (thought of or attempted suicide), as a proportion of the number in the abuse category.
* P value is based on a 2x2 chi-square test of the lifetime experience of physical and/or sexual violence (experienced versus never experienced) and each category of mental health status.

<0.0001 <0.0001 3.07 2.81 Associations between partner violence and women’s smoking and drinking Women were also asked about their smoking and drinking of alcohol, home brew and kava.
The data on smoking is somewhat contradictory and difficult to interpret: 9% of women who did not experience partner violence were smoking at the time of the survey, compared with only 6% of those who experienced physical and/or sexual violence.

However, women who experienced physical and/or sexual violence appear to be more likely to smoke during their lifetime (16%) compared with those who have not experienced violence (10%).
Overall, 14% of ever-partnered women reported that they have smoked in their life, and 7% were smoking currently (Table 6.14).
Table 6.14: Drinking and smoking habits of women and their association with violence (number and percentage of ever-partnered women, N = 2061) Smoking and drinking No physical or sexual violence (N=822) Number % Experienced physical and/or sexual violence (N=1239) % Number Smoking or not Smoking currently Ever smoked in her lifetime Frequently drinking alcohol, home brew or kava Frequently drink alcohol or home brew Frequently drink kava Reported problems related to drinking in past 12 months 20 95 75 83 49 9.2% 10% 2% 12% 6% 76 200 48 163 158 6% 16% 4% 13% 13% Total ever- partnered women (N=2061) Number % 151 283 68 258 207 7% 14% 3% 13% 10% Page 122 of 249 Page 121 of 246 Significant associations were found between the experience of partner violence and women’s frequent consumption of alcohol or home brew using both uni-variable and multi-variable regression analysis (see chapter 10).
Frequent drinking was defined as more than one drink per week.

Women who experienced physical and/or sexual violence were more likely to drink alcohol or home brew frequently than those who had not experienced violence (4% compared with 2%); and they were also slightly more likely to drink kava frequently (12% for those who had not experienced violence compared with 13% for those who have experienced partner violence).
Overall, more than 1 in 10 ever-partnered women (13%) who participated in the survey reported that they drank kava more than once per week (Table 6.14 and Chart 6.13).

Of those women who had not experienced violence, 6% reported that they had some type of problem related to their drinking of alcohol, home brew or kava; this compares with 13% of those who experienced partner violence, and 10% for all ever-partnered women.
The type of problems included those related to money, health, conflict with relatives, friends or others (Table 6.14 and Chart 6.13).

It is not possible to say whether the significant association between women’s frequent drinking of alcohol or home brew and the experience of partner violence is a contributing factor or an effect of partner violence, or a mixture of the two.
On the one hand, very few women drink frequently and this is perceived as inappropriate behaviour for women – in this case, frequent drinking may be seen as a trigger for violence by the woman’s husband or intimate partner.

On the other hand, both smoking and drinking can also be seen as coping mechanisms to help deal with the intense emotional distress that is also associated with living with partner violence.
6.3 DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS The findings on the health impacts of partner violence challenge some commonly held assumptions:  The idea that domestic violence is usually “just a slap” is a myth.

The physical health impacts of domestic violence are widespread and serious.

Many women are experiencing a range of injuries that impact directly on their physical health, and on their ability to carry out their daily activities of caring for the family and earning income.
The impacts of emotional violence have been under-estimated.

The mental health impacts of all forms of violence by husbands/partners are extremely serious.

  Women generally do not over-state or exaggerate the impacts of domestic violence.

On the contrary, the findings indicate that most women tend to under-estimate the impacts on their health and emotional well-being, and this appears to be an important coping mechanism for women living with violence.
Page 123 of 249 Page 122 of 246 The findings illustrate enormous pain and suffering by individual women living with violence.

The high level of injury caused by partner violence in the total population of ever-partnered women has enormous costs for communities and the economy.

The data on the number of women losing consciousness in the previous 12 months before the survey means that 1 to 2 women are being The findings illustrate enormous pain and suffering by individual women living with violence.
The high knocked unconscious every week in Vanuatu; more than 2 women are being hurt badly enough every level of injury caused by partner violence in the total population of ever-partnered women has week to need health care (although some are not getting the health care they need); and more than 2 enormous costs for communities and the economy.
The data on the number of women losing are spending time in hospital every week as a result of direct or indirect health problems caused by consciousness in the previous 12 months before the survey means that 1 to 2 women are being partner violence.
The rates of serious injury and permanent disability due to partner violence are knocked unconscious every week in Vanuatu; more than 2 women are being hurt badly enough every extremely high, and the rates of women losing consciousness are among the highest in the world week to need health care (although some are not getting the health care they need); and more than 2 where the WHO methodology has been used (WHO 2005: 58; and SPC 2009: 113).
are spending time in hospital every week as a result of direct or indirect health problems caused by partner violence.
The rates of serious injury and permanent disability due to partner violence are The highly significant association between women’s experience of physical and/or sexual partner extremely high, and the rates of women losing consciousness are among the highest in the world violence and their use of medications and health services including hospitalisation is of great concern – where the WHO methodology has been used (WHO 2005: 58; and SPC 2009: 113).
because it means that women are suffering, and also because of the huge financial costs that this imposes on the health service.
One very clear implication is that health workers throughout the country The highly significant association between women’s experience of physical and/or sexual partner are treating women who are living with violence every week – both for their injuries, and for the ongoing violence and their use of medications and health services including hospitalisation is of great concern – general health problems that women living with violence are experiencing.
However in many cases the because it means that women are suffering, and also because of the huge financial costs that this health workers may not be aware of the cause of the health problems suffered by their patients, since imposes on the health service.

One very clear implication is that health workers throughout the country the majority of women do not tell health workers about the violence.
are treating women who are living with violence every week – both for their injuries, and for the ongoing general health problems that women living with violence are experiencing.

However in many cases the The findings on the mental health impacts of all forms of violence are alarming.
The high proportion of health workers may not be aware of the cause of the health problems suffered by their patients, since women who have more than 11 symptoms of emotional distress paints a devastating picture of life for the majority of women do not tell health workers about the violence.

many women who live with partner violence in Vanuatu.
It is clear that having some or all of these symptoms would have a negative impact on a woman’s ability to work at her full capacity, and thus on The findings on the mental health impacts of all forms of violence are alarming.

The high proportion of overall national social and economic development.
The fact that so many symptoms of emotional women who have more than 11 symptoms of emotional distress paints a devastating picture of life for distress were experienced by women in the 4 weeks prior to the survey also indicates that the mental many women who live with partner violence in Vanuatu.
It is clear that having some or all of these health impacts of physical, sexual and emotional violence last long after the violent event may have symptoms would have a negative impact on a woman’s ability to work at her full capacity, and thus on occurred.

overall national social and economic development.


The fact that so many symptoms of emotional distress were experienced by women in the 4 weeks prior to the survey also indicates that the mental The significantly increased suicide risk of women who experience physical, sexual or emotional partner health impacts of physical, sexual and emotional violence last long after the violent event may have violence also has enormous social and economic costs for individual women, their families, occurred.
communities, and the nation as a whole.

Since it is not possible to know how many women from the total sample of households have actually committed suicide, the strong association between violence The significantly increased suicide risk of women who experience physical, sexual or emotional partner and suicidal behaviour reported here is likely to be an underestimate.
A baseline survey conducted by violence also has enormous social and economic costs for individual women, their families, the Ministry of Health (MOH) found that women accounted for 56% of suicides in the period studied, but communities, and the nation as a whole.

Since it is not possible to know how many women from the there was no mention of domestic violence as a contributing factor to this loss of life (MOH 2009: 20).
total sample of households have actually committed suicide, the strong association between violence This is not surprising, given women’s reluctance to disclose their experience of violence, and the and suicidal behaviour reported here is likely to be an underestimate.
A baseline survey conducted by general tendency in the community to minimize the impacts of domestic violence on women’s physical the Ministry of Health (MOH) found that women accounted for 56% of suicides in the period studied, but and mental health.

there was no mention of domestic violence as a contributing factor to this loss of life (MOH 2009: 20).
This is not surprising, given women’s reluctance to disclose their experience of violence, and the The WHO concluded that mental health problems – such as the depression and high levels of anxiety general tendency in the community to minimize the impacts of domestic violence on women’s physical observed in the Vanuatu survey – are widely recognised as consequences of intimate partner violence and mental health.

around the world (WHO 2005: 61).


Currently, Vanuatu’s mental health policy has not identified violence against women by their husbands or partners as a significant risk or a priority area of focus (MOH 2009: The WHO concluded that mental health problems – such as the depression and high levels of anxiety 8-10).
There is one medical doctor assigned to address mental health problems at Port Vila hospital, observed in the Vanuatu survey – are widely recognised as consequences of intimate partner violence and 2 month-long trainings have been conducted for some rural staff in the last 5 years on basic mental around the world (WHO 2005: 61).
Currently, Vanuatu’s mental health policy has not identified violence health assessment and treatment, but there are no specialist mental health staff.25 against women by their husbands or partners as a significant risk or a priority area of focus (MOH 2009: 8-10).
There is one medical doctor assigned to address mental health problems at Port Vila hospital, and 2 month-long trainings have been conducted for some rural staff in the last 5 years on basic mental 25 Personal communication between Port Vila Hospital staff and Sonia Wasi, VWC Deputy Coordinator, 24 January 2011. health assessment and treatment, but there are no specialist mental health staff.25 Page 124 of 249 25 Personal communication between Port Vila Hospital staff and Sonia Wasi, VWC Deputy Coordinator, 24 January 2011.
Page 124 of 249 Page 123 of 246 VWC has long been aware of the serious physical and mental health impacts of domestic violence from counselling clients and other anecdotal evidence.

For the first time this survey provides hard data on the seriousness and extent of these impacts in Vanuatu.
In addition to the suffering of individual women, the data presented here demonstrate that there are substantial direct and indirect economic costs of domestic violence – these include the costs to health services, and the loss to women’s productivity due to injury, ongoing poor health, emotional distress and suicide attempts.
The findings point to the need for increased awareness-raising with all stakeholders about all forms of violence against women by husbands and partners, including the impacts on physical and mental health.

More focus is also needed on emotional violence and its severe impacts – with policy makers, service providers, community leaders, and particularly with men.
All health professionals in rural and urban areas will need training and support to detect violence against women, and to respond appropriately to women’s needs, including their mental health needs.

This study has not explored the relationship between non-partner violence and physical and mental health outcomes for women.
However, this is worthy of future research, keeping in mind that non- partner violence is a significant risk factor for women experiencing violence from their husbands or intimate partners.
Although this study has clearly shown that violence against women results in disability, it has not been possible to determine whether disabled women experience physical or sexual violence at higher rates than other women; nor is it possible to draw conclusions about the impact of violence on the health of disabled women and girls.
However, research from other countries indicates that women with disabilities experience physical and sexual violence at about twice the rate of non-disabled women (Women With Disabilities Australia 2007: 5; and International Network of Women with Disabilities 2010: 6-7).

The prevalence of partner and non-partner violence against disabled women and girls in Vanuatu, and its impacts on their health, is also worthy of future research.
Page 125 of 249 Page 124 of 246 CHAPTER 7: CONSEQUENCES OF VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN FOR REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH AND FOR CHILDREN Summary of main findings  15% of ever-pregnant women were physically assaulted during pregnancy by husbands/partners.

 1 in 10 ever-pregnant women were severely abused, including being hit or kicked in the stomach.
 Women who experienced physical or sexual violence were more likely to have a miscarriage than  those who have not experienced violence by a husband or intimate partner.

57% of children whose mothers experienced physical violence either saw or heard their mother being assaulted, and 17% of children were beaten during a violent incident.

 Violence against women has a range of negative impacts on children and their schooling.
This chapter presents findings on the prevalence and types of violence against women by husbands and intimate partners during pregnancy, and on associations between partner violence and family planning practices.

The prevalence of violence during pregnancy is calculated as the number of women who were physically assaulted during any pregnancy by a husband or intimate partner, as a percentage of the total number of ever-pregnant women in the sample.
Findings are also presented on whether children were present during the violence against their mothers, whether children were also beaten, and the types of effects that violence against women has on children’s well-being and their schooling.

7.1 WOMEN’S REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH AND VIOLENCE BY HUSBANDS OR PARTNERS Violence during pregnancy Of the 1891 women who have ever been pregnant, 279 or 15% were physically assaulted during at least one pregnancy.
Overall, urban areas have a lower rate of physical abuse during pregnancy (13%) compared with rural areas (15%).

However, as observed with other forms of violence, there are some substantial differences between provinces and towns: 8% of ever-pregnant women in Shefa were physically abused during pregnancy, 12% in Port Vila and Torba, and 11% in Malampa.
Tafea has the highest rates with almost 1 in 4 pregnant women assaulted (24%), followed by Sanma (19%), Penama (17%) and Luganville (14%) (Table 7.1 and Chart 7.1).
Table 7.1: Physical violence during pregnancy, by location (number and percentage of all women who have been pregnant, N = 1891) Location Number of ever- pregnant women Number of women who experienced physical violence during pregnancy 25 26 28 56 43 30 16 55 51 228 279 204 180 240 302 257 271 209 228 384 1507 1891 Port Vila Luganville Torba Sanma Penama Malampa Shefa Tafea Total Urban Total Rural Total Vanuatu Percentage of women who experienced physical violence during pregnancy 12% 14% 12% 19% 17% 11% 8% 24% 13% 15% 15% Page 126 of 249 Page 125 of 246 Among the 279 women who were abused in pregnancy, more than 2 in 3 (68%) were subjected to very severe abuse: 62% were punched or kicked in the stomach, or hit in the stomach with an object.
In addition, in 6% of cases, husbands or intimate partners penetrated the pregnant woman against her will, with the intention of harming either the woman or her baby.

In the vast majority of cases (84% or more than 4 in 5), the person who assaulted the pregnant woman was the father of the unborn child.
In 9 out of 10 cases (91%), the pregnant woman was living with the husband or intimate partner at the time of the abuse, and the same person had also beaten her before the pregnancy (Table 7.2 and Chart 7.2).

In 9% of cases (26 women in total) the violence actually began during pregnancy.

When we look at all 1891 ever-pregnant women in the survey, 1 in 10 (10%) have suffered from the most severe forms of abuse mentioned above (Table 7.2 and Chart 7.2).
Table 7.2: Forms of violence during pregnancy (number and percentage of women who experienced different types of violence during pregnancy, N=1891) Forms of violence Number % of ever- pregnant women (N=1891) 15% % of women who experienced physical vioelnce during pregnancy (N=279) 100% Any form of violence during pregnancy Punched or kicked in the stomach, or hit in the stomach with any object Penetrated with hand or object while pregnant, to harm the woman or baby Assaulted in the most recent pregnancy by the father of the child Living with the person who beat her while pregnant Same person had beaten her before pregnancy 279 173 18 234 255 253 9% 1% 12% 13% 13% 62% 6% 84% 91% 91% The majority of women who were abused both before and during pregnancy said that the violence got less during the pregnancy (67%).
However, for 28% of women, the violence stayed about the same before and during the pregnancy, and for 4%, the violence got worse (Table 7.3 and Chart 7.2).
Page 127 of 249 Page 126 of 246 Table 7.3: Changes in the pattern of violence during pregnancy (number and percentage of women who experienced violence both before and during pregnancy, N = 253) Violence was less during pregnancy % Number 67% 169 Violence stayed about the same during pregnancy Number 72 % 28% Violence got worse during pregnancy % Number 4% 11 No Answer Total Number 1 % 0.4% Number 253 Table 7.4 shows the reproductive history of ever-pregnant women according to whether or not they experienced violence by husbands or intimate partners in their lifetime, and whether they were physically abused during pregnancy.
Women who experience physical and/or sexual violence in their lifetime are signficiantly more likely to have a miscarriage (P value of 0.006): 6% of those who have not experienced partner violence had a miscarriage, compared with 9% of women who experienced partner violence in their lifetime, and 13% (more than 1 in 10) of those who were subjected to violence during pregnancy.
Assocations with other reproductive health outcomes, such as stillbirths, abortions or having a child die after birth were not signficant.

Women beaten during pregnancy were less likely than others to have stillbirths – but this may be because they have a much higher rate of miscarriage with the majority hit on the stomach during pregnancy.
Table 7.4: Women's reproductive history and its association with physical and/or sexual violence by a husband/partner (number and percentage of ever-pregnant women who have or have not experienced violence by a husband/partner, N = 1891) Reproductive history No physical or sexual violence (N=736) Number 44 25 0 70 736 %# 6% 3% 0% 9% 100% Experienced physical and/or sexual violence (N=1155) %# Number 9% 110 3% 31 0% 3 10% 112 100% 1155 Ever had miscarriage Ever had stillbirth Ever had abortion Ever had a child die after birth Total ever-pregnant women # Percentages are the number in the reproductive history category, as a proportion of the number in the abuse category.
* P value is based on a 2x2 chi-square test of the lifetime experience of physical and/or sexual violence (experienced versus never experienced) and each reproductive health category.
0.006 0.38 0.29 0.88 - Number 35 6 2 18 279 %# 13% 2% 1% 6% 100% P value * Physical violence during pregnancy (N=279) Page 128 of 249 Page 127 of 246 Associations between the use of family planning and physical or sexual violence % 50% 21% 19% % 50% 21% 19% Number 1033 427 393 Number 1033 427 393 All ever-partnered women (both married and those in intimate relationships) were asked a series of questions about their use of family planning methods in general, and their use of condoms.
Tables 7.5 Associations between the use of family planning and physical or sexual violence and 7.6 present the findings.

Among the 2058 ever-partnered women aged 15-49 who answered these questions, 1033 (50% or 1 in 2) have ever used any family planning method in their lifetime; and 393 All ever-partnered women (both married and those in intimate relationships) were asked a series of (19%) have ever used a condom.
Only 427 women (21% or about 1 in 5) were currently using any questions about their use of family planning methods in general, and their use of condoms.

Tables 7.5 method of contraception at the time of the survey (Table 7.5).26 and 7.6 present the findings.
Among the 2058 ever-partnered women aged 15-49 who answered these questions, 1033 (50% or 1 in 2) have ever used any family planning method in their lifetime; and 393 Table 7.5: Use of contraceptives among all ever-partnered women (N = 2058) (19%) have ever used a condom.
Only 427 women (21% or about 1 in 5) were currently using any Family planning practices method of contraception at the time of the survey (Table 7.5).26 Ever used family planning Currently using family planning Table 7.5: Use of contraceptives among all ever-partnered women (N = 2058) Ever used a condom Family planning practices Ever used family planning Women living with violence are significantly more likely to have ever used family planning in their Currently using family planning lifetime, compared with those who have not experienced violence (52% compared with 47%, P value of Ever used a condom 0.042).
Current use of contraceptives is slightly higher for women who have experienced partner violence: 19% of women who have not experienced violence are currently using contraception, Women living with violence are significantly more likely to have ever used family planning in their compared with 22% of those living with violence, but this difference is not significant.
Women living with lifetime, compared with those who have not experienced violence (52% compared with 47%, P value of violence are also significantly more likely to have been prevented from using family planning by their 0.042).
Current use of contraceptives is slightly higher for women who have experienced partner husbands and intimate partners: 14% of women living with violence have been prevented from using violence: 19% of women who have not experienced violence are currently using contraception, contraception (174 women), compared with only 5% of those not experiencing violence (P value of less compared with 22% of those living with violence, but this difference is not significant.

Women living with than 0.0001).


Among those 174 women living with violence who have been prevented by their violence are also significantly more likely to have been prevented from using family planning by their husbands from using contraception, 7% were fearful that their husbands would use violence if she tried husbands and intimate partners: 14% of women living with violence have been prevented from using to use contraception (Table 7.6 and Chart 7.3).
contraception (174 women), compared with only 5% of those not experiencing violence (P value of less than 0.0001).
Among those 174 women living with violence who have been prevented by their Significant associations are also observed between partner violence and the use of condoms: 22% of husbands from using contraception, 7% were fearful that their husbands would use violence if she tried women living with violence have ever used a condom, compared with only 14% among those who have to use contraception (Table 7.6 and Chart 7.3).

not experienced violence.


Women living with violence are significantly more likely to have asked their husband or intimate partner to use a condom than women who have not experienced partner violence Significant associations are also observed between partner violence and the use of condoms: 22% of (23% compared with 16%).
Women living with violence are also more likely to have had their husband women living with violence have ever used a condom, compared with only 14% among those who have or partner refuse to use a condom: 74% of women living with violence asked their husband/partner to not experienced violence.

Women living with violence are significantly more likely to have asked their use a condom and were refused, compared with 63% of women who have not experienced violence).
husband or intimate partner to use a condom than women who have not experienced partner violence Of the 216 women living with violence whose husband has refused to use a condom, 4% feared that he (23% compared with 16%).

Women living with violence are also more likely to have had their husband would use violence if she asked him to use a condom (Table 7.6 and Chart 7.3).
or partner refuse to use a condom: 74% of women living with violence asked their husband/partner to use a condom and were refused, compared with 63% of women who have not experienced violence).
These findings are consistent with the fact that women living with violence are more likely to be Of the 216 women living with violence whose husband has refused to use a condom, 4% feared that he subjected to controlling behaviour by their husbands/partners, including control over their reproductive would use violence if she asked him to use a condom (Table 7.6 and Chart 7.3).

decision-making.
decision-making.

Qualitative analysis based on anecdotal evidence also suggests that this is the case, even though more women living with violence have ever used family planning methods including These findings are consistent with the fact that women living with violence are more likely to be condoms.
The use of family planning methods and particularly condoms is still quite controversial and subjected to controlling behaviour by their husbands/partners, including control over their reproductive many church and community leaders remain opposed to condom use.

VWC’s experience with clients is decision-making.


Qualitative analysis based on anecdotal evidence also suggests that this is the case, that if a woman asks her husband or intimate partner to use a condom, this may indeed be a trigger for even though more women living with violence have ever used family planning methods including violence.

Trying to negotiate sex and even talking about sex is seen as shameful and women who do condoms.
The use of family planning methods and particularly condoms is still quite controversial and this are clearly stepping outside their traditional role.

Furthermore, if women ask their husband or many church and community leaders remain opposed to condom use.
VWC’s experience with clients is partner to use a condom, this is frequently because she knows or suspects that he has other sexual that if a woman asks her husband or intimate partner to use a condom, this may indeed be a trigger for partners, or because she fears that she will contract a sexually transmitted infection because of his violence.

Trying to negotiate sex and even talking about sex is seen as shameful and women who do sexual behaviour.
In these circumstances, men are often likely to respond with violence.

It is also 26 This is a lower rate of contraceptive used than was found in the Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey (MICS), which reported this are clearly stepping outside their traditional role.

Furthermore, if women ask their husband or possible that women living with violence are more likely to try to use contraception to avoid pregnancy, that 38% of women were currently using family planning methods (MOH 2007: 74-75).
partner to use a condom, this is frequently because she knows or suspects that he has other sexual precisely because they are often subjected to sexual and physical abuse.
In summary, the data indicate Page 129 of 249 two features relating to the reproductive decision-making of women living with violence: that they are 26 This is a lower rate of contraceptive used than was found in the Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey (MICS), which reported more likely to initiate decision-making over their reproductive choices; and also that their husbands are that 38% of women were currently using family planning methods (MOH 2007: 74-75).
more likely to try to control that choice and decision-making, including with violence and threats.
Page 129 of 249 Conversely, those women who have not experienced violence appear to be somewhat less likely to Page 128 of 246 initiate control over their own reproductive decision-making – either because they are not comfortable with trying to step outside their traditional role, and/or because they are more trusting and confident that their husbands are faithful and not likely to transfer sexually transmitted infections.
There are nevertheless some women who have not experienced violence (16%) who have asked their partner to use a condom for whatever reason – in the majority of these cases (68%) their husbands have refused (demonstrating again a very high level of male control over women’s reproductive options), but in none of these cases has the woman feared that he will use violence to enforce his decision.
Table 7.6: Use of contraceptives and its association with physical and/or sexual violence (number and percentage of ever-partnered women, N = 2058) Family planning practices No physical or sexual Experienced physical P value violence and/or sexual violence * Number Number Never used any family planning Ever used family planning Not currently using family planning Currently using family planning Total Total Husband/partner has ever stopped her using Husband/partner has never stopped her using family planning family planning Total Fears violence by husband/partner if she uses contraception (among those whose husband/partner stopped her using contraception: N=174) Use of condoms Never used a condom Have used a condom Total Total Never asked partner to use a condom Have asked partner to use a condom Husband/partner refused to use a condom (percentages are of 128 and 290 respectively) Fears violence by husband/partner if she asks partner to use condom (percentage is of 216) 431 389 820 662 158 820 41 779 820 705 115 820 692 128 820 81 %# # Percentages are based on the number in contraceptive use category, as a proportion of the number in the abuse category.
Total number (2058) excludes those who did not answer these questions.

0 0% 9 4% - 0.042 0.718 <0.0001 %# 48% 52% 100% 78% 22% 100% 14% 86% 100% 78% 22% 100% 77% 23% 100% <0.0001 <0.0001 74% <0.0001 Page 130 of 249 0 0% 12 7% - partners, or because she fears that she will contract a sexually transmitted infection because of his sexual behaviour.

In these circumstances, men are often likely to respond with violence.
It is also possible that women living with violence are more likely to try to use contraception to avoid pregnancy, precisely because they are often subjected to sexual and physical abuse.
In summary, the data indicate two features relating to the reproductive decision-making of women living with violence: that they are more likely to initiate decision-making over their reproductive choices; and also that their husbands are more likely to try to control that choice and decision-making, including with violence and threats.
Conversely, those women who have not experienced violence appear to be somewhat less likely to initiate control over their own reproductive decision-making – either because they are not comfortable with trying to step outside their traditional role, and/or because they are more trusting and confident that their husbands are faithful and not likely to transfer sexually transmitted infections.
There are nevertheless some women who have not experienced violence (16%) who have asked their partner to use a condom for whatever reason – in the majority of these cases (68%) their husbands have refused (demonstrating again a very high level of male control over women’s reproductive options), but in none of these cases has the woman feared that he will use violence to enforce his decision.
Table 7.6: Use of contraceptives and its association with physical and/or sexual violence (number and percentage of ever-partnered women, N = 2058) Family planning practices No physical or sexual violence Experienced physical and/or sexual violence P value * Never used any family planning Ever used family planning Total Not currently using family planning Currently using family planning Total Husband/partner has ever stopped her using family planning Husband/partner has never stopped her using family planning Total Fears violence by husband/partner if she uses contraception (among those whose husband/partner stopped her using contraception: N=174) Number 431 389 820 662 158 820 41 779 820 %# 53% 47% 100% 81% 19% 100% 5% 95% 100% Number 594 644 1238 969 269 1238 174 1064 1238 %# 48% 52% 100% 78% 22% 100% 14% 86% 100% 0.042 0.718 <0.0001 0 0% 12 7% - <0.0001 705 115 820 692 128 820 86% 14% 100% 84% 16% 100% Use of condoms Never used a condom Have used a condom Total Never asked partner to use a condom Have asked partner to use a condom Total Husband/partner refused to use a condom (percentages are of 128 and 290 respectively) Fears violence by husband/partner if she asks partner to use condom (percentage is of 216) # Percentages are based on the number in contraceptive use category, as a proportion of the number in the abuse category.
Total number (2058) excludes those who did not answer these questions.

* P value is based on a 2x2 chi-square test of the lifetime experience of physical and/or sexual violence (experienced versus never experienced) and each family planning category.
78% 22% 100% 77% 23% 100% 960 278 1238 948 290 1238 <0.0001 <0.0001 63% 74% 216 0% 4% 81 0 9 - Page 130 of 249 Page 129 of 246 Women who said that their husband/partner had stopped her from using family planning methods or refused to use condoms were asked how he let her know that he disapproved of using contraception.

In most cases (80% for family planning methods in general and 89% for condoms) he told her that he did not approve.
In some cases husbands/partners also showed their disapproval in other ways, such as by saying that condoms were not necessary (22%), by shouting or getting angry (13% for general family planning methods and 5% for condoms), by destroying the method of contraception (5% and 3% of cases respectively), by using or threatening violence as discussed above27, and in a small number of cases by threatening to leave her, throw her out or get another woman (Table 7.7).
Table 7.7: How husbands/partners showed disapproval and refusal to use contraception (number and percentage of ever-partnered women whose husband/partner disapproved of contraception [N = 215], and who refused to use a condom [N = 297]) How husbands expressed refusal or disapproval of General contraception Condoms contraception and condoms Told her he did not approve Said it was not necessary Shouted/got angry Took or destroyed contraception/condom Threatened to beat her Accused her of being unfaithful or of not being a good woman Threatened to get another woman Got another woman Threatened to desert her or deserted her Left the home temporarily Threatened to leave or throw her out Beat or physically assaulted her Told his or her relatives Told the chief Laughed at her or did not take her seriously Other Number 171 - 27 11 9 - 6 4 4 3 3 3 3 1 - 53 80% % - 13% 5% 4% - 3% 2% 2% 1% 1% 1% 1% 0.5% - 25% Number 263 65 15 9 3 8 5 5 1 2 3 6 1 - 1 32 % 89% 22% 5% 3% 1% 3% 2% 2% 0% 1% 1% 2% 0.3% - 0.3% 11% 27 The percentages used above to calculate the fear of violence include those who were actually beaten, and those where the husband threatened to beat her.
Page 131 of 249 * P value is based on a 2x2 chi-square test of the lifetime experience of physical and/or sexual violence (experienced versus never experienced) and each family planning category.

* P value is based on a 2x2 chi-square test of the lifetime experience of physical and/or sexual violence (experienced versus never experienced) and each family planning category.
Condoms General contraception Women who said that their husband/partner had stopped her from using family planning methods or refused to use condoms were asked how he let her know that he disapproved of using contraception.

In most cases (80% for family planning methods in general and 89% for condoms) he told her that he did not approve.
In some cases husbands/partners also showed their disapproval in other ways, such as by saying that condoms were not necessary (22%), by shouting or getting angry (13% for general family Women who said that their husband/partner had stopped her from using family planning methods or planning methods and 5% for condoms), by destroying the method of contraception (5% and 3% of refused to use condoms were asked how he let her know that he disapproved of using contraception.
In cases respectively), by using or threatening violence as discussed above27, and in a small number of most cases (80% for family planning methods in general and 89% for condoms) he told her that he did cases by threatening to leave her, throw her out or get another woman (Table 7.7).

not approve.
not approve.

In some cases husbands/partners also showed their disapproval in other ways, such as by saying that condoms were not necessary (22%), by shouting or getting angry (13% for general family planning methods and 5% for condoms), by destroying the method of contraception (5% and 3% of cases respectively), by using or threatening violence as discussed above27, and in a small number of cases by threatening to leave her, throw her out or get another woman (Table 7.7).
Table 7.7: How husbands/partners showed disapproval and refusal to use contraception (number and percentage of ever-partnered women whose husband/partner disapproved of contraception [N = 215], and who refused to use a condom [N = 297]) How husbands expressed refusal or disapproval of contraception and condoms Number % Told her he did not approve 263 89% Table 7.7: How husbands/partners showed disapproval and refusal to use contraception (number and Said it was not necessary 65 22% percentage of ever-partnered women whose husband/partner disapproved of contraception [N = 215], Shouted/got angry 15 5% and who refused to use a condom [N = 297]) Took or destroyed contraception/condom 9 3% How husbands expressed refusal or disapproval of Condoms Threatened to beat her 3 1% contraception and condoms Number % Accused her of being unfaithful or of not being a good woman 8 3% Told her he did not approve 263 89% Threatened to get another woman 5 2% Said it was not necessary 65 22% Got another woman 5 2% Shouted/got angry 15 5% Threatened to desert her or deserted her 1 0% Took or destroyed contraception/condom 9 3% Left the home temporarily 2 1% Threatened to beat her 3 1% Threatened to leave or throw her out 3 1% Accused her of being unfaithful or of not being a good woman 8 3% Beat or physically assaulted her 6 2% Threatened to get another woman 5 2% Told his or her relatives 1 0.3% Got another woman 5 2% Told the chief - - Threatened to desert her or deserted her 1 0% Laughed at her or did not take her seriously 1 0.3% Left the home temporarily 2 1% 11% 32 Other Threatened to leave or throw her out 3 1% 100% 297 Total Beat or physically assaulted her 6 2% Number and percentages do not add up to the total because respondents could give multiple responses.
Told his or her relatives 1 0.3% 27 The percentages used above to calculate the fear of violence include those who were actually beaten, and those where Told the chief - - the husband threatened to beat her.

Women living with violence are more likely to have 1-2 children compared with women who have not Laughed at her or did not take her seriously 0.3% 1 experienced violence.
However, the association is not strong (P value of 0.026 comparing those who Other 11% 32 Page 131 of 249 had less than 2 children, with those who had more than 2 children), and the same percentage of women (23%) have 5 or more children regardless of their experience of partner violence (Table 7.8).
Number 171 - 27 11 9 Number - 171 6 - 4 27 4 11 3 9 3 - 3 6 3 4 1 4 - 3 53 3 215 3 3 1 - 53 % 80% - 13% 5% 4% % - 80% 3% - 2% 13% 2% 5% 1% 4% 1% - 1% 3% 1% 2% 0.5% 2% - 1% 25% 1% 100% 1% 1% 0.5% - 25% 27 The percentages used above to calculate the fear of violence include those who were actually beaten, and those where the husband threatened to beat her.
General contraception Table 7.8: Number of children alive and its association with physical and/or sexual violence by a husband/partner (number and percentage of women with children alive, N = 1840) Number of children currently alive 1-2 children 3-4 children No physical or sexual violence (N=719) %# 36% 41% Experienced physical and/or sexual violence (N=1121) Number 721 693 Number 462 397 Number 259 296 Page 131 of 249 Page 130 of 246 %# 41% 35% %# 39% 38% P value* Total women 0.026 0.013 5 or more children Total 164 719 23% 100% 262 1121 23% 100% 426 1840 23% 100% - - # Percentages are the number in each category (live children), as a proportion of the number in the abuse category.
* P value is based on a 2x2 chi-square test of the lifetime experience of physical and/or sexual violence (experienced versus never experienced) and each category (live children), compared with the sum in all other categories.

7.2 IMPACTS ON CHILDREN OF VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN Women who had been subjected to physical violence during their lifetime were asked whether their children were present during any of the violent incidents, or whether their children overhead the violence, and how often this occurred.
Among the 1045 women who were physically abused in their lifetime, children were either present or overhead the violence in 57% of cases (almost 3 in 5); for 10% of women who have been physically abused, their children were present most of the time; for 15%, their children were present sometimes; and for the remaining 32%, their children were present or overhead the violence 1-2 times (Table 7.9 and Chart 7.4).
Table 7.9: How often children were present during physical violence towards their mothers or heard the violence (number and percentage of women who report that their children were present during any incident of physical violence by her husband or partner, N = 1045) How often children were present during the violence towards their mother, or overheard it Never 1-2 times Sometimes No answer Total Many/most of the times Sub-total where children were present Number 408 304 141 91 536 101 1045 % 43% 32% 15% 10% 57% 100% Women were asked whether their children were also beaten during any of the violent incidents where the women were physically abused by their husband/partner.
Among the 1045 women who were subjected to violence, in 17% of cases (156 women) their children Page 132 of 249 Total Number and percentages do not add up to the total because respondents could give multiple responses.

100% 215 297 100% Women living with violence are more likely to have 1-2 children compared with women who have not experienced violence.
However, the association is not strong (P value of 0.026 comparing those who had less than 2 children, with those who had more than 2 children), and the same percentage of women (23%) have 5 or more children regardless of their experience of partner violence (Table 7.8).
Experienced physical and/or sexual violence (N=1121) Table 7.8: Number of children alive and its association with physical and/or sexual violence by a husband/partner (number and percentage of women with children alive, N = 1840) Number of children currently alive 1-2 children 3-4 children 5 or more children Total # Percentages are the number in each category (live children), as a proportion of the number in the abuse category.
* P value is based on a 2x2 chi-square test of the lifetime experience of physical and/or sexual violence (experienced versus never experienced) and each category (live children), compared with the sum in all other categories.
No physical or sexual violence (N=719) %# 36% 41% 23% 100% Number 259 296 164 719 Number 462 397 262 1121 Number 721 693 426 1840 %# 41% 35% 23% 100% %# 39% 38% 23% 100% 0.026 0.013 - - P value* Total women 7.2 IMPACTS ON CHILDREN OF VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN Women who had been subjected to physical violence during their lifetime were asked whether their children were present during any of the violent incidents, or whether their children overhead the violence, and how often this occurred.
Among the 1045 women who were physically abused in their lifetime, children were either present or overhead the violence in 57% of cases (almost 3 in 5); for 10% of women who have been physically abused, their children were present most of the time; for 15%, their children were present sometimes; and for the remaining 32%, their children were present or overhead the violence 1-2 times (Table 7.9 and Chart 7.4).
Table 7.9: How often children were present during physical violence towards their mothers or heard the violence (number and percentage of women who report that their children were present during any incident of physical violence by her husband or partner, N = 1045) Never How often children were present during the violence towards their mother, or overheard it 1-2 times Sometimes Many/most of the times Sub-total where children were present No answer Total 304 141 91 536 101 1045 Number 408 % 43% 32% 15% 10% 57% 100% Women were asked whether their children were also beaten during any of the violent incidents where the women were physically abused by their husband/partner.
Among the 1045 women who were subjected to violence, in 17% of cases (156 women) their children Page 132 of 249 Page 131 of 246 were also beaten: in most of these cases (11% of all the women who were physically abused), the children were beaten once or twice, in 4% of cases the children were beaten sometimes, and in 2% of cases they were beaten most of the time (Table 7.10 and Chart 7.5).
Table 7.10: How often children were also beaten during intimate partner violence (number and percentage of women who report that their children were also beaten during any incident of physical violence by her husband or partner, N = 1045) Never How often children were also beaten during the violence towards their mother 1-2 times Sometimes Many/most of the times Sub-total where children were also beaten No answer Total 100 37 19 156 101 1045 Number 788 % 83% 11% 4% 2% 17% 100% A series of questions were asked about children’s well-being early in the questionnaire, before women were asked about their experiences of physical and/or sexual violence by husbands and intimate partners.
questions The on emotional behavioural and problems of children aged 6 to 14 years who were currently living with frequent the mother, such as: thumbs or nightmares; sucking fingers; wetting the bed often; very quiet socially withdrawn behaviour with other children, including difficulty talking or playing with other children; aggressive behaviour to either the mother or other children; and whether any children in this age group had run away from home (see section 4 of Annex 2).
focused and Women’s responses to these questions provide a robust indication of the very serious effects that violence against women has on children, regardless of whether the children were present during the beating of their mothers, or whether the children were beaten themselves.

Among those mothers who had experienced physical and/or sexual violence by the husband/partner, in 88% of cases one or more of their children had experienced at least one of the emotional or behavioural problems listed above.
This compared with 79% of cases where the mother had not been subjected to partner violence.

Overall, children with mothers who experienced partner violence were almost twice as likely to experience one or more of these symptoms (P value of less than 0.0001, Table 7.11 and Chart 7.6).
For each of the behavioural and emotional problems listed, children with mothers subjected to violence by husbands/partners demonstrated a higher rate of emotional distress than those whose mothers had not experienced partner violence.

However, the associations were highly significant for the following emotional distress symptoms (P values less than 0.0001 in all cases).
 Children with mothers subjected to violence were almost twice more likely to have frequent nightmares than children whose mothers were not living with violence (53% compared to 37% with a crude odds ratio of 1.94).

Page 133 of 249  Children with mothers subjected to violence were about 2½ times more likely to wet the bed often than children whose mothers were not living with violence (26% compared to 12% with a crude odds ratio of 2.55).
 Children with mothers subjected to violence were more than twice as likely to be aggressive Page 132 of 246 towards their mother or other children (73% compared to 54% with a crude odds ratio of 2.36) (Table 7.11 and Chart 7.6).

Questions were also asked about children repeating years at school, stopping school for a while and dropping out of school altogether.
There was a highly significant association between children having either or both of these problems and their mothers’ experience of physical and/or sexual violence (with P values of less than 0.0001, and a crude odds ratio of 2.72).

 Children whose mothers were subjected to violence by husbands/partners were about twice as likely to repeat a year at school (38% compared with 26% for children whose mothers were not living with partner violence with a crude odds ratio of 2.06).
 Children whose mothers were subjected to violence by husbands/partners were almost twice as likely to stop school for a while or drop out (22% compared with 8% for children whose mothers were not living with partner violence, with a crude odds ratio of 1.77) (Table 7.11 and Chart 7.6).
Table 7.11: Effects of violence against women on children's well-being (number and percentage of women with children living at home aged 6 to 14 years, by type of emotional problem) Type of behavioural and Mother had no Mother experienced P value Crude 95% emotional problem physical or sexual physical and/or * violence by her husband/partner sexual violence by her husband/partner Number %# Number %# odds ratio confidence interval for the odds ratio 170 37% 53% <0.0001 1.94 1.52 - 2.48 Child has nightmares (N=1097) Child sucks thumb (N=1103) Child wets bed often (N=1102) Child withdrawn (N=1105) Child aggressive (N=1110) One or more child run away from home (N=1116) (N=1024) Total (any of above) Child had to repeat year at school (N=1024) Child stopped school (N=963) (N=1028) Total (either of above) - 1.83 26% <0.0001 2.55 1.83 - 3.55 42% 0.15 1.20 0.94 - 1.53 73% <0.0001 2.36 1.83 - 3.04 11% 0.35 1.21 0.81 - 1.81 88% <0.0001 1.94 1.40 - 2.69 38% <0.0001 2.06 1.59 - 2.68 22% <0.0001 1.77 1.35 - 2.32 Page 134 of 249 128 30% 47% < .0001 2.72 1.82 - 4.06 # Percentages based on the number of women with children living at home in this age range, and who provided a response to each behavioural or emotional problem.
 Children with mothers subjected to violence were almost twice more likely to have frequent nightmares than children whose mothers were not living with violence (53% compared to 37% with a crude odds ratio of 1.94).

 Children with mothers subjected to violence were about 2½ times more likely to wet the bed often than children whose mothers were not living with violence (26% compared to 12% with a crude odds ratio of 2.55).
 Children with mothers subjected to violence were more than twice as likely to be aggressive towards their mother or other children (73% compared to 54% with a crude odds ratio of 2.36) (Table 7.11 and Chart 7.6).

Questions were also asked about children repeating years at school, stopping school for a while and dropping out of school altogether.
There was a highly significant association between children having either or both of these problems and their mothers’ experience of physical and/or sexual violence (with P values of less than 0.0001, and a crude odds ratio of 2.72).

 Children whose mothers were subjected to violence by husbands/partners were about twice as likely to repeat a year at school (38% compared with 26% for children whose mothers were not living with partner violence with a crude odds ratio of 2.06).
 Children whose mothers were subjected to violence by husbands/partners were almost twice as likely to stop school for a while or drop out (22% compared with 8% for children whose mothers were not living with partner violence, with a crude odds ratio of 1.77) (Table 7.11 and Chart 7.6).
Table 7.11: Effects of violence against women on children's well-being (number and percentage of women with children living at home aged 6 to 14 years, by type of emotional problem) Type of behavioural and emotional problem P value * Mother had no physical or sexual violence by her husband/partner %# Number Mother experienced physical and/or sexual violence by her husband/partner Number %# Crude odds ratio 95% confidence interval for the odds ratio 56 56 35 9% 8% 250 166 170 337 266 174 1.94 2.55 0.47 1.18 1.20 0.15 12% 54% 37% 26% 53% 42% 37% <0.0001 <0.0001 0.76 - 1.83 1.52 - 2.48 1.83 - 3.55 Child has nightmares (N=1097) Child sucks thumb (N=1103) Child wets bed often (N=1102) Child withdrawn (N=1105) Child aggressive (N=1110) One or more child run away from home (N=1116) Total (any of above) (N=1024) Child had to repeat year at school (N=1024) Child stopped school (N=963) Total (either of above) (N=1028) # Percentages based on the number of women with children living at home in this age range, and who provided a response to each behavioural or emotional problem.
* P value is based on a 2x2 chi-square test of the lifetime experience of physical and/or sexual violence (experienced versus never experienced) and each category of child’s emotional or behavioural problem.
1.83 - 3.04 1.40 - 2.69 1.59 - 2.68 1.82 - 4.06 1.35 - 2.32 0.81 - 1.81 0.94 - 1.53 <0.0001 <0.0001 <0.0001 <0.0001 < .0001 88% 79% 30% 47% 11% 73% 22% 26% 38% 1.21 0.35 2.36 1.94 2.06 1.77 2.72 370 569 468 117 227 111 128 279 9% 8% 69 42 35 Page 134 of 249 Page 133 of 246 7.3 DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS The high prevalence of physical violence during pregnancy and its severity are some of the most shocking findings to come from this survey.
Thankfully, for many of the women who are physically abused by their husband/partner, pregnancy is a time of relative protection from the abuse.

However, for about one-third of women beaten during pregnancy, the violence started during pregnancy, continued at about the same level or even got worse.
Overall, regardless of whether the violence stops or continues at some level during pregnancy, women who have been physically and/or sexually abused during their life have a significantly higher rate of miscarriage; for those who are abused during pregnancy, the miscarriage rate is alarmingly high.

The findings again pose a serious challenge to the view that Vanuatu is a country that values family and children and protects family members.
The prevalence of physical violence during pregnancy and the percentage of women who were attacked in the stomach is among the highest in the world where the WHO methodology has been used, including in the Pacific (WHO 2005: 67; SPC 2003:15; SPC 2009: 115; SPC 2010: 136).

Currently, violence during pregnancy is not highlighted as an aggravating factor for conviction or for the issuing of protection orders in the Family Protection Act (Republic of Vanuatu 2008).
The findings clearly demonstrate that more legal protection is needed during pregnancy for women suffering from physical abuse.

Health service providers, chiefs, church and other community leaders need to be aware of the fact that physical abuse by husbands/partners often continues during pregnancy, that it affects more than 1 in 10 pregnant women, and the serious risks that this poses to the health of the mother and her baby.
With 50% of women aged 15-49 having ever used family planning and only 21% using it now, the current take-up of women using contraception is somewhat lower than was found in the MICS (MOH 2007: 74-75).

These findings suggest that access to and availability of contraception may not be meeting current demands.
Women living with violence are more likely to have initiated contraception by asking their husbands/partners to use condoms; they are also significantly more likely to have been prevented from using condoms and other family planning methods than women not experiencing partner violence.
This Page 135 of 249 * P value is based on a 2x2 chi-square test of the lifetime experience of physical and/or sexual violence (experienced versus never experienced) and each category of child’s emotional or behavioural problem.

7.3 DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS The high prevalence of physical violence during pregnancy and its severity are some of the most shocking findings to come from this survey.
Thankfully, for many of the women who are physically abused by their husband/partner, pregnancy is a time of relative protection from the abuse.

However, for about one-third of women beaten during pregnancy, the violence started during pregnancy, continued at about the same level or even got worse.
Overall, regardless of whether the violence stops or continues at some level during pregnancy, women who have been physically and/or sexually abused during their life have a significantly higher rate of miscarriage; for those who are abused during pregnancy, the miscarriage rate is alarmingly high.

The findings again pose a serious challenge to the view that Vanuatu is a country that values family and children and protects family members.
The prevalence of physical violence during pregnancy and the percentage of women who were attacked in the stomach is among the highest in the world where the WHO methodology has been used, including in the Pacific (WHO 2005: 67; SPC 2003:15; SPC 2009: 115; SPC 2010: 136).

Currently, violence during pregnancy is not highlighted as an aggravating factor for conviction or for the issuing of protection orders in the Family Protection Act (Republic of Vanuatu 2008).
The findings clearly demonstrate that more legal protection is needed during pregnancy for women suffering from physical abuse.

Health service providers, chiefs, church and other community leaders need to be aware of the fact that physical abuse by husbands/partners often continues during pregnancy, that it affects more than 1 in 10 pregnant women, and the serious risks that this poses to the health of the mother and her baby.
With 50% of women aged 15-49 having ever used family planning and only 21% using it now, the current take-up of women using contraception is somewhat lower than was found in the MICS (MOH 2007: 74-75).

These findings suggest that access to and availability of contraception may not be meeting current demands.
Women living with violence are more likely to have initiated contraception by asking their husbands/partners to use condoms; they are also significantly more likely to have been prevented from using condoms and other family planning methods than women not experiencing partner violence.

This is a common finding from international research on violence against women (WHO 2005: 70).
Studies in other countries have also found that men who are violent towards their intimate partners are also Page 135 of 249 more likely to have multiple sexual partners (WHO 2005: 69), which increases women’s risk of contracting sexually transmitted infections including HIV/AIDS.

This is also a finding from the Vanuatu survey (see the analysis of risk factors in chapter 10).
Where women are aware of their husband’s/partner’s infidelity, it suggests that women living with violence may have other reasons for initiating condom use, in addition to the need for family planning.

Page 134 of 246 The findings demonstrate that violence against women has direct and long-term negative impacts on children.

Direct effects are the risk of them being beaten, which affects children from almost 2 in 5 families where domestic violence occurs.
However the long-term effects are just as damaging both for the individual children affected, and for national social and economic development.

This study has shown that children living in families where mothers are subjected to domestic violence are far more likely to have a range of emotional and behavioural problems, including aggressive behaviour towards their mothers and other children.
These are very worrying findings, particularly when we consider the evidence already discussed about the higher likelihood of girl children experiencing partner violence in later life if they have also experienced non-partner violence, most of which also occurs within the family.
International evidence now indicates that children who grow up in families where there is intimate partner violence learn to accept this behaviour as normal; it increases the likelihood that girl children will be subjected to violence in their intimate relationships as adults, and that boy children will become perpetrators of violence (WHO 2010: 20).
Of course, this is certainly not always the case; both boys and girls can learn other ways of managing relationships based on gender equality and respect for the rights of all people.

Children whose mothers are subjected to physical and/or sexual violence are about twice as likely to repeat years of schooling, and to stop school altogether.

These are worrying findings and are consistent with other international evidence that children from such families have poorer educational outcomes (WHO 2010: 17).
These long-term consequences for children need to be considered as part of the overall economic cost of violence against women by their husbands and intimate partners.

Children whose mothers are subjected to violence clearly also need emotional support to address the emotional and behavioural problems that they experience, and that are likely to affect them throughout their lives; but what they need most is for the violence to stop.
Page 136 of 249 is a common finding from international research on violence against women (WHO 2005: 70).

Studies in other countries have also found that men who are violent towards their intimate partners are also more likely to have multiple sexual partners (WHO 2005: 69), which increases women’s risk of contracting sexually transmitted infections including HIV/AIDS.

This is also a finding from the Vanuatu survey (see the analysis of risk factors in chapter 10).
Where women are aware of their husband’s/partner’s infidelity, it suggests that women living with violence may have other reasons for initiating condom use, in addition to the need for family planning.

The findings demonstrate that violence against women has direct and long-term negative impacts on children.

Direct effects are the risk of them being beaten, which affects children from almost 2 in 5 families where domestic violence occurs.
However the long-term effects are just as damaging both for the individual children affected, and for national social and economic development.

This study has shown that children living in families where mothers are subjected to domestic violence are far more likely to have a range of emotional and behavioural problems, including aggressive behaviour towards their mothers and other children.
These are very worrying findings, particularly when we consider the evidence already discussed about the higher likelihood of girl children experiencing partner violence in later life if they have also experienced non-partner violence, most of which also occurs within the family.
International evidence now indicates that children who grow up in families where there is intimate partner violence learn to accept this behaviour as normal; it increases the likelihood that girl children will be subjected to violence in their intimate relationships as adults, and that boy children will become perpetrators of violence (WHO 2010: 20).
Of course, this is certainly not always the case; both boys and girls can learn other ways of managing relationships based on gender equality and respect for the rights of all people.

Children whose mothers are subjected to physical and/or sexual violence are about twice as likely to repeat years of schooling, and to stop school altogether.

These are worrying findings and are consistent with other international evidence that children from such families have poorer educational outcomes (WHO 2010: 17).
These long-term consequences for children need to be considered as part of the overall economic cost of violence against women by their husbands and intimate partners.

Children whose mothers are subjected to violence clearly also need emotional support to address the emotional and behavioural problems that they experience, and that are likely to affect them throughout their lives; but what they need most is for the violence to stop.
Page 136 of 249 Page 135 of 246 CHAPTER 8: OTHER IMPACTS OF VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN Summary of main findings  Women make a substantial contribution to family income; over half (53%) of those currently earning an income earn about the same or more than their husband/partner.

However very few women own any major assets; less than 1 in 5 (18%) has savings in the bank and 1 in 3 (31%) has other savings.

 Almost 1 in 3 women (30%) have had their work disrupted due to violence by their husband/partner.
 Women living with physical and/or sexual violence are more likely to have their husband/partner take their savings or refuse to give them money for household expenses.

 Women living with physical and/or sexual violence are more likely to have had restrictions placed on their mobility, participation in organisations, and their access to education.
This section presents findings on women’s financial autonomy including ownership of assets and the impact of physical and/or sexual violence by husbands or intimate partners on women’s ability to earn, save and spend income.

(Data on the number of women earning an income [80% of the total sample and 83% of ever-partnered women] and their source of income is included in chapter 3.)
Findings are also presented on the association between intimate partner violence and women’s rights to freedom of association, mobility and access to education.

8.1 IMPACTS OF PARTNER VIOLENCE ON WOMEN’S WORK AND FINANCIAL AUTONOMY Women’s financial autonomy A series of questions were asked of all women at the end of the questionnaire to assess the rates of asset ownership by women in Vanuatu and other aspects of financial autonomy (see section 11 of Annex 2).
Overall, few women own key assets such as land and housing in Vanuatu.

Only 13% of women own land by themselves, 72% own it with others, and the remaining 15% do not own land.

Similarly 17% of women own their own house, 69% own their house with others in the family, and 14% do not own a house.
The highest rates of asset ownership by women on their own account include the following:  Handicrafts, such as mats and baskets are wholly owned by 47% of respondents, with 28% sharing ownership of these products with others.

 Vegetables and fruit from gardens and trees are owned by 36% of women on their own, and 55% share ownership of these products with others.

 Savings that are not in a bank account were owned by 31% of women on their own, and 18% own other non-bank savings with others.
This is probably the savings that women have in micro-credit schemes such as the Vanuatu Women Development Scheme (VANWODS).

 Small animals such as chickens are wholly owned by 30% of women, and 39% own them with others (Table 8.1).
Page 137 of 249 Page 136 of 246 Table 8.1: Percentage of women owning assets by themselves or with others (number and percentage of all respondents, N = 2337) Asset Owned with others Not owned Owned by the woman by herself Land House Company or business Large animals (cows, horses, pigs etc) Small animals (chickens, goats etc) Vegetables/fruits from gardens or trees Handicrafts (mats, baskets etc) Large household items (TV, bed, cooker) Jewellery, gold, other valuables Water tank/well Lawn mower Car/truck/bus/4-wheel drive Bicycle Canoe Boat with motor Savings in the bank Other savings Other property Number 300 403 163 367 708 843 1092 326 395 91 53 30 55 88 6 415 734 163 % 13% 17% 7% 16% 30% 36% 47% 14% 17% 4% 2% 1% 2% 4% 0% 18% 31% 7% Number 1687 1604 452 1010 1150 1278 650 686 52 693 238 158 267 324 82 393 411 56 % 72% 69% 19% 43% 49% 55% 28% 29% 2% 30% 10% 7% 11% 14% 4% 17% 18% 2% Number 350 330 1721 960 479 214 594 1325 1890 1553 2045 2149 2015 1923 2248 1529 1191 2113 % 15% 14% 74% 41% 20% 9% 25% 57% 81% 66% 88% 92% 86% 82% 96% 65% 51% 91% Few women own large animals, major household items, businesses or any form of transport on their own account.
Not surprisingly, those assets that women do tend to own by themselves are closely related to the gender division of labour – in other words, women tend to own items that they make or work at themselves (such as mats, baskets and the produce from gardens).

Less than 1 in 5 (18%) have their own savings in the bank; 17% have some bank savings shared with others, and 65% have no savings at all (Table 8.1).
Other measures of financial autonomy are whether women earn more than their husbands/partners, and the degree of decision-making that women have over spending their own income.

Among 1572 women who were currently married or living with a man, and who were also earning an income, 31% generally earn more than their husband or partner, 22% earn about the same, and almost half (47%) earn less than her husband or intimate partner (Table 8.2 and Chart 8.1).
Table 8.2: Proportion of family income earned by women (number and percentage women who are currently married or living with a man, and who reported that they earned an income, N = 1572) Women's earns more than husband/partner Women's earns less than husband/partner Women's earns about the same as husband/partner Total Number 488 745 339 1572 % 31% 47% 22% 100% Page 138 of 249 Page 137 of 246 just over half of Respondents were asked whether they were able to spend the money they earn how they chose, or whether they had to give all or a part of their earnings to their husband or partner.
Although the respondents earn about the same or more their husband/partner (Chart 8.1), 29% said that they make their own choices about spending; 70% said that they give part of their earnings their husband/partner, and 1% give all their earnings to their husband/partner (Table 8.3 and Chart 8.2).
than to Table 8.3: Decision-making on spending of women's earning (number and percentage of women who are currently married or living with a man, and who reported that they earn an income, N = 1569) Who decides on spending respondent’s income Number Self/own choice Give part to husband or intimate partner Give all to husband or intimate partner Total % 29% 70% 1% 100% 455 1093 21 1569 final measure of women’s The financial autonomy, and the one that is most critical for women living in violent relationships with husbands or de facto partners, is whether they have enough money to support themselves for a short time in case they need to leave the home in a crisis due to a violent incident or because they fear for their lives.
Although less than half of respondents (44%) said that they would be able to raise enough money feed and house themselves and their children for 4 weeks, this is a positive finding considering that less than 1 in 5 women have liquid assets such as bank savings.

Given the high amounts of bride price paid in most custom marriages, it is not surprising that only 1 in 5 women (22%) thought they could afford to raise enough money pay back the bride price by themselves (Table 8.4 and Chart 8.3).
to Page 139 of 249 Page 138 of 246 Table 8.4: Percentage of women who have enough money to leave a violent relationship if they choose (number and percentage women who are currently married or living with a man) Could raise enough money to feed/house family for 4 weeks Could raise enough money by herself to pay back bride price * Total includes those currently living with a man or married including some unions that did not involve bride price.
No Number 1081 1260 Yes % 56% 78% Number 857 362 % 44% 22% Total Number 1938 1622* Impacts of physical and/or sexual violence on women’s work and financial autonomy Women who disclosed that they had been physically and/or sexually abused by their husband or intimate partner were asked their view of the impact that the violence had on their work or other income-generating activities.
Of the 1033 women who experienced violence and who were also currently earning an income, 30% had their work disrupted in some way due to violence by a husband/partner.

For the majority of these women, her husband/partner actually interrupted her work; this occurred for 94% of those whose work was disrupted.

This amounts to 28% of the total number of women who experienced violence and were currently working (more than 1 in 4).
This is consistent with anecdotal evidence; many community members would have witnessed such incidents, when men have followed their wives or girlfriends to the workplace to continue the physical or verbal abuse, or to demand money (Table 8.5).
Table 8.5: Women's view of impact of partner violence on her work and income generation activities (number and percentage of ever-partnered women who experienced physical or sexual violence by a husband or partner and who also worked for money, N = 1033) % 70% Work not disrupted 30% Work was disrupted Total 100% Ways that work and income-generation were disrupted (percentage of 311 whose work was disrupted) 94% Husband/partner interrupted work 14% Unable to concentrate 13% Unable to work / sick leave 13% Lost confidence in own ability 11% Husband/partner stopped her from working 1% Other 100% Sub-total where women reported that their work was disrupted Number 722 311 1033 291 44 41 39 33 4 311 Note: 206 of the 1239 women who experienced physical or sexual violence in their lifetime reported that they did not work Page 140 of 249 for money.
Figures for ways that work was disrupted do not add to 311 or percentages to 100% because women could give multiple responses.

Some women said that they were unable to concentrate (14%), or that they lost confidence in their own ability (13%).

Surprisingly, only 13% of those whose work was disrupted said that they had to stop work Page 139 of 246 or take sick leave (this represents 4% of the total women who experienced violence and were currently working).
Given the range of injuries and mental health problems identified in chapter 6 and other evidence that that women tend to minimise the impact of violence, it is likely that this under-estimates the impact on women’s work.

Of those whose work was disrupted, 11% said that the husband/partner stopped them from working; this corresponds to 3% of the total women who experienced violence and were currently working (Table 8.5).
However, this self-assessment also appears be an under-estimate, considering the further evidence presented below (Table 8.6).

All women who were currently married or living together at the time of the survey were asked 3 questions regarding financial matters and financial control by husbands/partners, regardless of whether they were currently earning income, and regardless of whether they had disclosed intimate partner violence.
This series of questions give robust measures of financially controlling behaviour by husbands/partners.

Women who have experienced physical violence are far more likely to also be controlled financially by their husbands than those who have not, and the association between these variables is highly significant (P values of less than 0.0001, see Table 8.6).
First, respondents were asked if they had ever given up or refused a job because their husband or partner did not want them to work: 8% of women who have never experienced physical violence by a husband/partner had done so, compared with 16% of women who have experienced physical violence.
Women who experienced physical violence were also more likely to have their husband/partner take their earnings or savings against their will: 11% of women who have not experienced physical violence have had this occur, compared to 22% of women living with physical violence.
Finally, husbands or partners have refused to give money for household expenses to 20% of women who have not experienced physical violence; compared with more than 2 in 5 (41%) for those who were living with physical violence (Table 8.6 and Chart 8.4).
Table 8.6: Types of financial control by husbands/partners, for women who have and have not experienced physical violence from their current husband or partner (number and percentage of women currently married or living in a de facto relationship) Types of financial control Given up/refused job because of husband/partner (N=940; 1011) will (N=894; 947) Husband/partner taken earnings/savings against her Husband/partner refuses to give money for household expenses (N=927; 987) Never experienced Experienced P physical violence physical violence value* by husband or by husband or partner partner Number %# Number %# 71 94 8% 11% 16% <0.0001 22% <0.0001 182 20% 41% <0.0001 166 206 400 * P value is based on a 2x2 chi-square test of the lifetime experience of physical violence (experienced versus never experienced) and each type of financially controlling behaviour by the husband or partner (yes versus no).
# Percentages are of currently-partnered women who have or have not experience physical partner violence, minus those cases where no answer was given.

Page 141 of 249 Note: 206 of the 1239 women who experienced physical or sexual violence in their lifetime reported that they did not work for money.

Figures for ways that work was disrupted do not add to 311 or percentages to 100% because women could give multiple responses.
Some women said that they were unable to concentrate (14%), or that they lost confidence in their own ability (13%).

Surprisingly, only 13% of those whose work was disrupted said that they had to stop work or take sick leave (this represents 4% of the total women who experienced violence and were currently working).
Given the range of injuries and mental health problems identified in chapter 6 and other evidence that that women tend to minimise the impact of violence, it is likely that this under-estimates the impact on women’s work.

Of those whose work was disrupted, 11% said that the husband/partner stopped them from working; this corresponds to 3% of the total women who experienced violence and were currently working (Table 8.5).
However, this self-assessment also appears be an under-estimate, considering the further evidence presented below (Table 8.6).

All women who were currently married or living together at the time of the survey were asked 3 questions regarding financial matters and financial control by husbands/partners, regardless of whether they were currently earning income, and regardless of whether they had disclosed intimate partner violence.
This series of questions give robust measures of financially controlling behaviour by husbands/partners.

Women who have experienced physical violence are far more likely to also be controlled financially by their husbands than those who have not, and the association between these variables is highly significant (P values of less than 0.0001, see Table 8.6).
First, respondents were asked if they had ever given up or refused a job because their husband or partner did not want them to work: 8% of women who have never experienced physical violence by a husband/partner had done so, compared with 16% of women who have experienced physical violence.
Women who experienced physical violence were also more likely to have their husband/partner take their earnings or savings against their will: 11% of women who have not experienced physical violence have had this occur, compared to 22% of women living with physical violence.
Finally, husbands or partners have refused to give money for household expenses to 20% of women who have not experienced physical violence; compared with more than 2 in 5 (41%) for those who were living with physical violence (Table 8.6 and Chart 8.4).
Table 8.6: Types of financial control by husbands/partners, for women who have and have not experienced physical violence from their current husband or partner (number and percentage of women currently married or living in a de facto relationship) Types of financial control Never experienced physical violence by husband or partner Experienced physical violence by husband or partner P value* Number %# Number %# 71 Given up/refused job because of husband/partner (N=940; 1011) Husband/partner taken earnings/savings against her will (N=894; 947) Husband/partner refuses to give money for household expenses (N=927; 987) <0.0001 * P value is based on a 2x2 chi-square test of the lifetime experience of physical violence (experienced versus never experienced) and each type of financially controlling behaviour by the husband or partner (yes versus no).
# Percentages are of currently-partnered women who have or have not experience physical partner violence, minus those cases where no answer was given.

<0.0001 <0.0001 22% 41% 20% 11% 16% 166 206 182 400 8% 94 Page 141 of 249 Page 140 of 246 Table 8.7 compares the number of ever-partnered women who were working at the time of the survey, according to their experience of physical and/or sexual violence by a husband or intimate partner.
Women who experienced physical and/or sexual partner violence in their lifetime were significantly more likely to work for an income (83%), compared to those who never experienced violence (77%, P value of less than 0.001 using uni-variable analysis).

This is despite the fact that women living with violence were also significantly more likely to have to give up or refuse a job because of their husband/partner (see Table 8.6 above).
Earning an income emerged as one of the factors associated with women’s experience of violence – women who earn their own income are about 1½ times more likely to experience physical and/or sexual violence than those who do not earn an income (P value or 0.011 using multi-variable analysis, see chapter 10).
Table 8.7: Percentage of women earning an income, according to their experience of physical and/or sexual violence by a husband/partner (number and percentage of ever-partnered women, N = 2061) Work status P value* Never experienced partner violence (N=822) Working for money Not working for money Work status not known * P value is based on a 2x2 chi-square test of the lifetime experience of physical and/or sexual violence (experienced versus never experienced) and whether women were currently earning an income at the time of the survey or not.
<0.001 - Number 632 167 23 % 77% 20% 3% Experienced physical and/or sexual partner violence (N=1239) % Number 83% 1033 17% 206 - - 8.2 OTHER ASPECTS OF WOMEN’S RIGHTS Freedom of association, mobility and access to education Several questions were posed on women’s enjoyment of human rights, to explore links between freedom of association, mobility and access to education, and their association with women’s experience of intimate partner violence.
Overall, 10% of the total 2337 respondents were prevented from attending a meeting or participating in an organisation; 12% were prevented from travelling to another village, community or island; and sadly 23% (almost 1 in 4) were prevented from accessing or continuing with their education.

Among those women who were prevented from enjoying their right to freedom of association and mobility, most were prevented by their husbands and or partners.
Parents were the main people who prevented women from attending education, although husbands/partners also did so (Table 8.8 and Chart 8.5).
Page 142 of 249 Page 141 of 246 Table 8.8: Women's freedom of association, mobility and access to education (number and percentage of all respondents, N = 2337) Who prevented the respondent Prevented from travelling to another village, community or island Prevented from accessing or continuing with education Prevented from attending a meeting or participating in an organisation %* Number 64% 150 18% 42 6% 15 1% 3 0% 1 4% 10 0% 0 11% 26 Husband/partner Her parents Parents of husband/partner Son Daughter Other relative Government officer or community leader Other Total women prevented from enjoying each human right * Percentages for the people who prevented each activity are based on the total number of women prevented from doing each activity.
Percentages do not total 100% because respondents could identify multiple people who had prevented them from doing each activity.

# Percentages for the total prevented from enjoying each human right is based on the total number of respondents (2337).
12%# 10%# 23%# 233 545 274 Number 57 395 10 0 0 36 9 107 %* 10% 72% 2% 0% 0% 7% 2% 20% Number 168 83 17 2 1 18 6 12 %* 61% 30% 6% 1% 0% 7% 2% 4% When we compare women who experienced physical and/or sexual violence by their husbands/partners with those who did not, highly significant associations are observed (P values all less than 0.001).

Women who experienced partner violence were substantially more likely to have been prevented from enjoying each of the 3 rights (Table 8.9 and Chart 8.6).
These associations are significant regardless of who prevented the women from associating with others, travelling, or continuing with their education.

The second part of Table 8.9 shows the associations when husbands were the ones who prevented women from enjoying their rights.
Page 143 of 249 Page 142 of 246 Table 8.9: Women's freedom of association, mobility and access to education and violence against women (number and percentage of ever-partnered women who did or did not experience physical and/or sexual partner violence, N = 2061) Women’s human right Never partner violence (N=822) Number % Experienced physical and/or sexual partner violence (N=1239) % Number P value* 31 4% Woman prevented from enjoying this right by any person Prevented from attending a meeting or participating in an organisation Prevented from travelling to another village, community or island Prevented from accessing or continuing with education Woman prevented from enjoying this right by the husband or intimate partner Prevented from attending a meeting or participating in an organisation Prevented from travelling to another village, community or island Prevented from accessing or continuing with education 20% 164 2% 3% 5% 3% 40 26 20 22 168 185 333 128 141 36 14% <0.001 15% <0.001 27% <0.001 10% <0.001 11% <0.001 3% <0.001 These findings are consistent with those presented earlier on controlling behaviours (see chapter 4); and they have similar implications for national development.
Women who are prevented from exercising these 3 rights would be less likely to know their rights, including their right to live without violence and the fear of violence.

Because of the restrictions placed on their education and freedom of association, they would also be far less likely to be able to take up development opportunities.
Choice of husband Married women were asked whether they chose their husband or whether someone else chose for them, the reason why the husband was chosen for them, and whether they were forced to marry their husband.

Among 1418 currently married women, about 1 in 3 (32%) did not choose her husband; in the remaining 68% of cases, either she chose the husband herself, or the choice was mutual (Table 8.10).
This is a positive finding; anecdotal evidence indicates that far fewer women from older generations chose their own husband due to customary practices such as arranged marriages and “swapping” Page 144 of 249 Page 143 of 246 arrangements between families.28 However, more than 1 in 10 currently married women (11%) were forced to marry their current husband (Table 8.10 and Chart 8.7).
the the latter % 68% 32% % 100% 68% 11% 32% 100% 11% Number 966 452 Number 1418 966 159 452 1418 159 arrangements between families.28 However, more than 1 in 10 currently married women (11%) were Table 8.10: Number and percentage of currently married women who chose their own husband (number forced to marry their current husband (Table 8.10 and Chart 8.7).
and percentage of women who are currently married, N = 1418) Women’s choice of husband Table 8.10: Number and percentage of currently married women who chose their own husband (number Either the woman chose her husband, or the choice was mutual and percentage of women who are currently married, N = 1418) She did not choose her husband Women’s choice of husband Total Either the woman chose her husband, or the choice was mutual Forced to marry current husband (% of 1418) She did not choose her husband Total Forced to marry current husband (% of 1418) Of the 452 women who did not choose their own husbands, almost half were arranged Of the 452 women who did not marriages (46%) and 13% were their own husbands, choose “swapping” arrangements.
almost half were arranged Anecdotal evidence suggests marriages (46%) and 13% were is an under- that arrangements.
“swapping” estimate, since many girls know Anecdotal evidence suggests from a very young age that they is an under- that will be exchanged in this way estimate, since many girls know with another family; some go to from a very young age that they live with their in-laws before will be exchanged in this way puberty and in some cases, it is with another family; some go to likely that these women may live with their in-laws before have indicated that they chose puberty and in some cases, it is their husband, or that both she and her husband chose.
A total of 5% were married as part of a likely that these women may compensation arrangement, as settlement for a land dispute, or were passed on to a man in her have indicated that they chose previous husband’s family after his death (Table 8.11).

Although the proportion married for these their husband, or that both she and her husband chose.
A total of 5% were married as part of a reasons is small, it is nevertheless a vivid illustration of the treatment of women as “property” with no compensation arrangement, as settlement for a land dispute, or were passed on to a man in her right to decide their husband according some customary practices.

previous husband’s family after his death (Table 8.11).
Although the proportion married for these reasons is small, it is nevertheless a vivid illustration of the treatment of women as “property” with no Table 8.11: Reason why women’s husbands were chosen for them (number and percentage of women right to decide their husband according some customary practices.
who did not choose their own husband, N = 452) Reasons why husbands were chosen for women Table 8.11: Reason why women’s husbands were chosen for them (number and percentage of women Arranged marriage who did not choose their own husband, N = 452) Swapping arrangement Reasons why husbands were chosen for women Compensation payment Arranged marriage Bride price was paid Swapping arrangement Passed on to a man in her husband's family after his death Compensation payment Married man who raped her Bride price was paid Settlement for land dispute Passed on to a man in her husband's family after his death Other reasons Married man who raped her Total who did not choose their own husband Settlement for land dispute Other reasons Preferences regarding the sex of children Total who did not choose their own husband Number 210 60 Number 5 210 3 60 10 5 2 3 10 10 152 2 452 10 152 452 % 46% 13% % 1% 46% 1% 13% 2% 1% 0.4% 1% 2% 2% 34% 0.4% 100% 2% 34% 100% latter Respondents who had live children were asked about their last pregnancy, and whether their husband Preferences regarding the sex of children or partner had a preference for a son or daughter.
Of 1153 respondents, more than 1 in 3 (38%) said Respondents who had live children were asked about their last pregnancy, and whether their husband 28 If a man from family A marries into family B, then family B is obliged by custom to provide a girl or woman to marry a man or partner had a preference for a son or daughter.

Of 1153 respondents, more than 1 in 3 (38%) said in family A.

This is a traditional practice in Tafea province and part of Sanma province.
28 If a man from family A marries into family B, then family B is obliged by custom to provide a girl or woman to marry a man Page 145 of 249 in family A.

This is a traditional practice in Tafea province and part of Sanma province.

Page 145 of 249 Page 144 of 246 that their husband preferred a son, about 1 in 3 (31%) said that he preferred a daughter, and 31% said that their husband or partner had no preference for either a son or daughter (Table 8.12).
In general, the cultural preference is for the first child to be a boy; if this does not occur, a woman is expected to keep trying until at least one child is a boy.
Table 8.12: Men's preference for a boy or girl child (number and percentage of women who reported that their husband/partner had a preference for a boy or girl for their last pregnancy, N = 1153) Number Preference regarding the sex of the most recent child 437 Husband/partner preferred a son 363 Husband/partner preferred a daughter 353 Husband/partner had no preference for either a son or daughter 1153 Total % 38% 31% 31% 100% 8.3 DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS The relationship between women earning income and the experience of partner violence is complex, as is the relationship between violence against women and poverty.
On the one hand, the findings show that women living with violence have an even greater need to earn money than other women, since their husbands and intimate partners are significantly more likely to refuse to provide money for household expenses, and to take women’s money without their permission.

VWC’s experience with clients indicates that often, when a woman has money, her husband or partner will harass her for it.

If she refuses to provide it or is reluctant, this can trigger violence.
However, if she is not earning an income, there is no opportunity for him to ask her for money or for this to trigger a violent incident.
VWC and the branches in Tafea and Sanma provinces have several examples of the ways that husbands/partners take women’s earnings: by forging the woman’s signature to withdraw her savings from the bank, forcing her to change her account name to his name, holding the bank card for her savings account so that he controls the withdrawals, forcing her to show him her bankbook so that he knows how much money she has, simply taking the money that many women keep in the house in rural areas where access to banks is very difficult, and various ways of coercing money from women with either threats or violence.
For some men, the sense that they “own” women – whether due to the payment of bride price or because this reflects a sense of entitlement based on other aspects of gender inequality in Vanuatu society – means that they also own her money.

The widespread attitude that the man is the decision- maker who is to be obeyed is consistent with the finding that more than 1 in 5 women living with violence have their money taken by husbands/partners.
On the other hand, in some cases men may find it hard to accept that women are income-earners, especially where the woman earns more than her husband.

The power and status that may accompany earning money and making decisions about spending challenge men’s higher status, their traditional role as the household head and their view of themselves as providers.

At the same time, most types of economic activity will take a woman out of the house, where she is not available to fulfil her husband’s needs.
There are many occasions where clients have told VWC that the trigger for a violent incident was that the food was not ready on time, due partly to women’s income generation activities.

This occurs in both rural and urban areas, where women work long hours, regardless of whether the income is earned from gardening, fishing, small trading or formal salaried employment.
Women’s increased mobility due to the need to earn an income means they interact with a range of men, and this also challenges traditional views of appropriate gender roles.

The range of controlling behaviours imposed on women, regardless of whether they experience partner violence, demonstrates Page 146 of 249 Page 145 of 246 the extreme control that some men exercise over women (see chapter 4).
The fact that about 1 in 10 women also have restrictions placed on what meetings they can attend, what organisations they can join, and where they can travel provides further evidence of the power that some men seek to have over their wives, yet earning an income is difficult to do without mobility, and access to organisations that can build capacity, provide support and resources.
The fact that women living with violence are more likely to have given up a job because their husband did not want them to work is another example of this pattern of intense controlling behaviour.

The response of some community leaders and development workers to these scenarios is that women should not work, or that they should avoid violence by putting men’s needs first and acknowledging that he is “the boss”.
However, many families depend on women’s earnings for basic needs and especially for school fees and will continue to do so; the development of the country depends on both women and men earning income; and both women and men have a right to seek and undertake work.
The problem here is not women’s work, but men’s lack of understanding of the time burdens that women live with daily, including the time needed to generate income; and lack of respect for women’s right to earn and make their own decisions regarding spending.

Development agencies and government programs need to continue to support both women and men to earn an income – but it is also important for these agencies to understand how gender inequality impacts on women’s lives.
These issues need to be discussed with both women and men; there is enormous potential for microfinance and income generation activities to empower women and advance social and economic development, but for this to occur gender equality needs to be firmly on the agenda in these programs to ensure that women are supported to earn an income by their husbands/partners and that they can control their income and savings (WHO 2010: 47-49: Kabeer 2001: 19; and Hunt 2009: 44-46).
Women’s ownership of property and other assets provides another insight into women’s low status, especially when we compare asset ownership with the fact that 83% of women work and 57% of these earn as much or more than their husbands.
Although ownership of house and land do not by themselves protect women from intimate partner violence, the lack of ownership of these vital assets makes it more difficult for women to escape from violent relationships temporarily or permanently, because it means that in most cases they must rely on family members to take them in.

The fact that women also have very few savings or other liquid assets to support themselves if they need to leave only compounds this problem.
VWC’s experience is that the majority of women strive to maintain their relationships – in most cases they minimise the impact of the violence and hope it will stop (see also chapter 9).
However, if they do make the very difficult decision to end the relationship – because their life is threatened, they cannot take any more, or due to concern about the impact of the violence on their children – these findings underline the enormous difficulties of doing so, with only 1 in 5 indicating that they could pay back the bride price.
This raises the challenging question of whether bride price contributes to keeping some women and children in violent relationships that damage the family and the community, and cost the nation dearly.

Government, chiefs and other community leaders need to engage in a national debate on these questions and issues.

The very high number of women who were prevented from accessing or continuing with their education (almost 1 in 4) by their parents or husband/partner is a very important finding.
Preventing women and girls from accessing education is a first step towards poverty because it cuts off so many opportunities; the findings in this chapter show that it also significantly increases their risk of experiencing violence from their husband/partner.
Although education levels are not a straightforward predictor of women’s attitudes to unequal gender roles and women’s rights, it is true that women with higher levels of education were less likely to experience some forms of intimate partner violence (see chapter 4 and 5).

Page 147 of 249 Page 146 of 246 A gender analysis conducted by the Ministry of Education shows that Vanuatu has made a lot of progress towards closing the gender gap between boys’ and girls’ education.
This suggests that the high numbers of women prevented from continuing their education in the VWC survey may be due to the representation of older women (up to the age of 49) in the sample.

However Ministry of Education A gender analysis conducted by the Ministry of Education shows that Vanuatu has made a lot of data indicates drop-out rates for girls in senior secondary school remain high, and women continue to progress towards closing the gender gap between boys’ and girls’ education.
This suggests that the be under-represented in vocational, technical and other tertiary education and in the Rural Training high numbers of women prevented from continuing their education in the VWC survey may be due to Centres (Strachan and Jimmy 2010: 5-9).

The same trends are observed in the 2009 census data.29 the representation of older women (up to the age of 49) in the sample.
However Ministry of Education Although young women are now allowed to go back to school following pregnancy and many more data indicates drop-out rates for girls in senior secondary school remain high, and women continue to families now recognise the importance of continuing with girls’ education, anecdotal evidence from be under-represented in vocational, technical and other tertiary education and in the Rural Training VWC’s experience with clients indicates that some parents still prioritise boys for higher secondary and Centres (Strachan and Jimmy 2010: 5-9).
The same trends are observed in the 2009 census data.29 tertiary education, where fees need to be paid.
Although young women are now allowed to go back to school following pregnancy and many more families now recognise the importance of continuing with girls’ education, anecdotal evidence from All these findings highlight the vital importance of ensuring that girls continue their education, by raising VWC’s experience with clients indicates that some parents still prioritise boys for higher secondary and awareness of the negative impacts of discontinuing girls schooling; by highlighting boys’ and girls’ equal tertiary education, where fees need to be paid.
rights to higher education; and by highlighting the benefits of education with parents, community members and leaders.

All these findings highlight the vital importance of ensuring that girls continue their education, by raising awareness of the negative impacts of discontinuing girls schooling; by highlighting boys’ and girls’ equal rights to higher education; and by highlighting the benefits of education with parents, community members and leaders.
29 Data provided by the Vanuatu National Statistics Office to VWC, 10th February 2011.

29 Data provided by the Vanuatu National Statistics Office to VWC, 10th February 2011.

Page 148 of 249 Page 148 of 249 Page 147 of 246 CHAPTER 9: COPING STRATEGIES Summary of main findings  More than 2 in 5 women (43%) living with partner violence have never told anyone about the violence, and almost 3 in 5 (57%) have never sought help from any agency to deal with it.
 When women told someone about the violence, they most often told their birth family, friends, and their husband’s/partner’s family.

 Almost 1 in 4 asked chiefs (24%) and church leaders (23%) for help, 15% asked health agencies, and 1 in 10 asked police.

 About half (49%) have left home temporarily due to violence, but less than 1% left permanently.

 When women asked for help or left temporarily, the most common reason given was that they   couldn’t take any more of the violence.
The most common reasons for returning home, and for never leaving at all, were that she forgave him, didn’t want to leave the children, and her belief in the sanctity of marriage.

Less than 1 in 3 women (30%) who experienced partner violence have ever defended themselves by fighting back, and most only did so 1 or 2 times.
This section presents findings on who women have told about the violence committed by their husband/partner; the agencies that were asked for help, why they asked for help, and how satisfied women were with the help that they received; and why some women have never told anyone or asked for help.

It presents findings on the number of women who have left home due to violence, where they went, why they left, and why they returned home; and the reasons why some women have never left.
All women who experienced physical and/or sexual violence by their husband or partner (1239 respondents) were asked questions about these coping strategies (see section 9 of Annex 2).

Responses on whether women ever defended themselves by fighting back are also presented.
9.1 STRATEGIES WOMEN USE FOR DEALING WITH PARTNER VIOLENCE Who women tell about the violence Women living with physical and/or sexual partner violence were asked who they told about their husband’s behaviour, and whether anyone ever tried to help them.

More than 2 in 5 women (43%) had never told anyone before about the violence, and 56% had told someone.
Among the 695 women who told someone about their husband’s/partner’s behaviour, the people most frequently confided in were family members: her parents (42%); other members of her family (32%) including brothers or sisters (30%), and uncles or aunts (11%); her friends (31%); her husband’s/partner’s family (30%); chiefs (18%); and church leaders (11%) (Table 9.1 and Chart 9.1).
The range of relatives mentioned reflects the different responsibilities of specific relatives according to custom – in some islands and provinces, parents or people appointed by parents are responsible to help someone facing difficulties in their life or with their relationship; whereas in other islands uncles or aunts may have this responsibility.

Overall, just over half of the women living with partner violence had been helped by someone at some time in their lifetime (53%).
Sadly, some of the people who were told about the violence did not help the women, including their own family members in some cases.

For example, even though 42% of women had told their parents, 34% had actually been helped by them.

Although 31% had told friends, they had only helped 12% of the women (Table 9.1 and Chart 9.1).
Page 149 of 249 Page 148 of 246 Table 9.1: People whom women told about the violence, and who helped women living with violence (number and percentage of women who ever experienced physical and/or sexual partner violence who reported that they had told someone, or that someone had helped them, N = 1239) Who helped the women Number 567 659 13 1239 % 46% 53% 1% 100% Who women told Number 532 695 12 1239 % 43% 56% 1% 100% Told no-one, or was helped by no-one Told someone, or was helped by someone No Answer Total People who were told and who helped* (% of 695 who told someone; and % of 659 who helped) Parents Her family Friends Brother or sister Husband/partner's family Chief Church leader Uncle or aunt Neighbours Police Doctor/health worker Counsellor from Vanuatu Women’s Centre network Children Other NGO/ women's organisation Other community leader Other counsellor Others * Percentages do not add to 100% because respondents could give multiple answers.
Chiefs were responsive when women requested help (18% were asked for help and 18% did help).

In a few cases the findings indicate that some people helped the woman, even if she had not explicitly told Page 150 of 249 Page 149 of 246 them about it.
For example, 25% of women said they had told the husband’s/partner’s family, but his family actually helped 31% of the women living with violence (Table 9.1 and Chart 9.1).

It is interesting to compare the findings above with women’s views about community support and cooperation in general.

Several questions were posed at the beginning of the questionnaire and answered by all 2337 respondents (see section 1 of Annex 2).

Table 9.2 summarises responses to these questions.


Ninety percent of women said that neighbours know each well, and 88% thought that neighbours would stop a street fight – yet only 8% of women living with violence asked their neighbours for help and neighbours only helped in 8% of cases (Table 9.1 and Chart 9.1).

This contrast is not surprising given the widespread belief (by 82% of respondents, see chapter 4) that family problems should only be discussed within the family.
Most women think that people in their communities are trustworthy (71%), that they would contribute money for a community project (73%), and that they would help in cases of illness or accident (80%).

As observed from the findings in chapter 4, the majority (74%) also believe that people outside the family should intervene if a man mistreats his wife/partner.

These findings are very positive and they indicate that most communities are generally cohesive and supportive.
Nevertheless, only about half of the women living with domestic violence have been helped by someone.
Table 9.2: Women's view of community safety and cooperation (number and percentage of all women respondents, N = 2337) Indicators of community safety and cooperation Neighbours know each other well People would stop a street fight People would contribute money for a community project People trust each other for lending and borrowing things People would help in case of illness or accident Number 2095 2066 1715 1649 1863 % 90% 88% 73% 71% 80% Several questions in the survey explored whether the degree of a woman’s contact with her birth family or the strength of her social and community networks helps her to protect herself from or cope with intimate partner violence (see section 1 of Annex 2).
Two indicators significantly increased women’s likelihood of experiencing intimate partner violence.

If a woman lives with her husband’s/partner’s parents or any of his relatives she is about 1½ times more likely to experience physical or sexual intimate partner violence (P value highly significant at less than 0.0001): 54% of the women who have experienced violence in their lifetimes lived with their husband’s/partner’s relatives, compared with 43% of those who had never experienced violence.
Similarly, if a women rarely sees a member of her birth family she is also about 1½ times more likely to experience violence, although the association is not as significant (P value of less than 0.0225) and few women were in this position: 8% of the women who have experienced violence rarely saw a birth family member, compared with 5% for those who had not experienced violence (Table 9.3).
However, living with her own relatives did not protect a woman from violence: overall 15% of women lived with her relatives, and they experienced intimate partner violence at the same rates as those not living with relatives from the woman’s birth family.

Most women (73%) did not grow up in the community where they are now living.
Nevertheless, the majority live close enough to a birth family member so that they can easily visit them (89%), and most (86%) do actually see members of their birth family more than once a month.

Moreover, 91% of respondents said that they could ask a birth family member for support if they needed help, or if they had a problem.
Although women with violence were slightly less likely to feel that they could ask for support (90% of women living with violence compared with 92% who had never experienced violence), this difference is not significant.

About 2 in 3 women (67%) regularly attend a group or organisation, and more than half (56%) regularly attend a women’s organisation or Page 151 of 249 Page 150 of 246 group.
None of these indicators significantly affected women’s likelihood of experiencing intimate partner violence (Table 9.3).

Yet, despite these very positive indicators, only 56% of women had ever told anyone about the violence, including their own family members (Table 9.1).

group.

None of these indicators significantly affected women’s likelihood of experiencing intimate partner violence (Table 9.3).
Yet, despite these very positive indicators, only 56% of women had ever Table 9.3: Women's experience of violence and contact with her birth family (number and percentage of told anyone about the violence, including their own family members (Table 9.1).
ever-partnered women who experienced physical and/or sexual partner violence, by closeness to family members and social networks, N = 2061) Table 9.3: Women's experience of violence and contact with her birth family (number and percentage of Type of contact with birth family ever-partnered women who experienced physical and/or sexual partner violence, by closeness to family and social networks members and social networks, N = 2061) Type of contact with birth family and social networks P value * P value * Experienced physical and/or sexual violence Experienced (N=1239) physical and/or N % sexual violence 27% 334 (N=1239) Total ever- partnered women (N=2061) Total ever- partnered N % women (N=2061) 27% 548 No partner violence (N=822) No partner violence N % (N=822) 26% 213 609 N 213 741 609 74% % 26% 90% 74% 716 741 42 716 757 42 565 757 Grew up in this community Grew up in another community/island/town Grew up in this community Live close to someone in birth family Grew up in another so can easily see/visit them community/island/town See a birth family member more than Live close to someone in birth family once a month so can easily see/visit them Rarely see a birth family member See a birth family member more than Can ask birth family for support if she once a month needs help or for a problem Rarely see a birth family member Regularly attend a group, Can ask birth family for support if she organisation or association needs help or for a problem Regularly attend a women's group, Regularly attend a group, organisation or association organisation or association Lived with husband/partner's parents Regularly attend a women's group, or other relatives (current or most organisation or association recent relationship) Lived with husband/partner's parents Lived with her parents or other or other relatives (current or most relatives (current or most recent recent relationship) relationship) Lived with her parents or other relatives (current or most recent Agencies and authorities that women asked for help relationship)
 87% 90% 5% 87% 92% 5% 69% 92% 56% 69% 43% 15% 459 565 355 123 43% 56% 15% 355 459 123 903 N 334 1103 903 1062 1103 95 1062 1113 95 815 1113 692 815 666 692 666 186 186 73% % 27% 89% 73% 86% 89% 8% 86% 90% 8% 66% 90% 56% 66% 54% 56% 1512 N 548 1844 1512 1778 1844 137 1778 1870 137 1380 1870 1151 1380 73% % 27% 89% 73% 86% 89% 7% 86% 91% 7% 67% 91% 56% 67% <0.5839 <0.4166 <0.5839 <0.3681 <0.4166 <0.0225 <0.3681 <0.0828 <0.0225 <0.1626 <0.0828 1.0 <0.1626 1021 1151 50% 56% <0.001 1.0 54% 15% 1021 309 50% 15% <0.001 1.0 15% 309 15% 1.0 In addition to asking whether they had told anyone about the violence, women who experienced Agencies and authorities that women asked for help physical and/or sexual violence were specifically asked whether they ever went to a range of different agencies for help, whether they were satisfied with the help given, and the reasons that prompted them In addition to asking whether they had told anyone about the violence, women who experienced to seek help.
All women living with violence were asked if there was anyone they would have liked to physical and/or sexual violence were specifically asked whether they ever went to a range of different receive more help from.

agencies for help, whether they were satisfied with the help given, and the reasons that prompted them to seek help.
All women living with violence were asked if there was anyone they would have liked to Of the 1239 women who experienced intimate partner violence, 530 women (43%) have approached an receive more help from.

agency for help at some time in their life, and the remaining 57% have never asked any agency for help.

On average, women sought help from 2 different agencies.
Table 9.4 presents the findings on the Of the 1239 women who experienced intimate partner violence, 530 women (43%) have approached an agencies that women sought help from, and whether they were satisfied with the help they received.30 agency for help at some time in their life, and the remaining 57% have never asked any agency for About 1 in 4 women approached chiefs (24%) and church leaders (23%), and 15% sought help from help.

On average, women sought help from 2 different agencies.
Table 9.4 presents the findings on the health agencies.

One in 10 (10%) have approached the Police; this is consistent with other studies agencies that women sought help from, and whether they were satisfied with the help they received.30 About 1 in 4 women approached chiefs (24%) and church leaders (23%), and 15% sought help from 30 If we compare the responses in Table 9.1 (question 908 of the questionnaire, see Annex 2) with those in Table 9.4 health agencies.
One in 10 (10%) have approached the Police; this is consistent with other studies (question 910a), more women reported going to specific agencies to ask for help in question 910a.
This is because question 908 was open-ended (with no prompts by interviewers) and focused on who women told about their husband’s/partner’s 30 If we compare the responses in Table 9.1 (question 908 of the questionnaire, see Annex 2) with those in Table 9.4 behaviour; whereas question 910a asked a separate sub-question for each agency.

Therefore, Table 9.4 gives the most (question 910a), more women reported going to specific agencies to ask for help in question 910a.
This is because question accurate findings regarding agencies that have been approached for help.

908 was open-ended (with no prompts by interviewers) and focused on who women told about their husband’s/partner’s behaviour; whereas question 910a asked a separate sub-question for each agency.

Therefore, Table 9.4 gives the most Page 152 of 249 accurate findings regarding agencies that have been approached for help.
Page 152 of 249 Page 151 of 246 internationally – the women who report intimate partner violence to authorities such as police are merely the tip of the iceberg among those actually experiencing this problem (WHO 2005: 73-75, 190; SPC 2009: 126; SPC 2010: 148).

A positive finding is that there were high levels of satisfaction with all the agencies that women went to for help.
Table 9.4: Support from agencies (number and percentage of women who ever experienced physical and/or sexual partner violence who went to an agency for help, N = 1239) Agencies Agencies asked for help Chief Church leader Hospital/health centre Police Other community leader VWC network Other women's organisations Court Public solicitor/lawyers Other agencies Total who asked any agency for help Total who never asked any agency for help * Percentages are of the 1239 women who experienced physical and/or sexual violence.
Percentages do not add to 100% because respondents could give multiple answers.

# Percentages are based on the number that went to each agency.
Satisfied with the help given by each agency Number 253 264 183 101 69 51 52 32 21 4 - - %# 86% 94% 97% 81% 92% 81% 91% 94% 100% 21% - - Number 294 282 188 124 75 63 57 34 21 19 530 709 %* 24% 23% 15% 10% 6% 5% 5% 3% 2% 2% 43% 57% The most common reason for seeking help was that the women couldn’t take any more of the violence: 45% of those who sought help gave this as a reason.
One in 4 women (25%) sought help because they had information about where to go, and almost as many got help because they knew their rights (24%) (Table 9.5 and Chart 9.2).

The high number of women who gave these 2 reasons is unusual compared with other international studies (WHO 2005: 190-191; SPC 2009: 127; SPC 2010: 149).

This is a very positive finding and is a good foundation for further awareness-raising on women’s rights.
For almost 1 in 5 women (19%), the main reason for seeking help was that she was badly injured; about the same number got help either because they were afraid that their husband/partner would kill them (14%), or because he threatened to do so (5%).

Encouragement by her friends or family was mentioned by 17% of the women who sought help, and encouragement by his family was mentioned by 15% (Table 9.5 and Chart 9.2).
Table 9.5: Reasons given by women for seeking help from an agency (number and percentage of women who experienced partner violence who ever asked for help from any agency, N = 530) Reasons for seeking help from an agency Could not take any more Had information about where to go Aware of her rights Badly injured Encouraged by her friends or family Encouraged by his family Afraid he would kill her Knew other women who had benefited He threatened to kill her or tried to kill her Saw that children were suffering She was thrown out of home Number 236 131 125 102 92 77 72 38 24 17 16 %* 45% 25% 24% 19% 17% 15% 14% 7% 5% 3% 3% Page 153 of 249 Page 152 of 246 Reasons for seeking help from an agency Afraid she would kill him He threatened or hit the children Other * Percentages do not add to 100% because respondents could give multiple answers.
Number 15 4 95 %* 3% 1% 18% Women who had not asked for help from any agencies were asked why they had not sought help.

Almost 1 in 4 (23%) said they didn’t know, or could not answer this question; it is reasonable to assume that many of these women had never told anyone else about the violence before the survey.
Overall, the fear of further violence and the husband/partner preventing her from getting help were the most common reasons mentioned by about 1 in 3 women; this includes 18% who feared further violent abuse if they asked anyone for help, 3% whose husbands threatened to kill them if they went to any agency, and 12% who actually stopped their wives/partners from getting help (Table 9.6 and Chart 9.3).
Table 9.6: Reasons given by women for not seeking help from an agency (number and percentage of women who experienced partner violence who never asked for help from any agency, N = 709) Reasons for not seeking help from an agency Don't know/no answer Fear of threats, consequences or more violence Violence was normal/not serious He stopped her from going to get help Believed that it would not help/knew other women who had not been helped Embarrassed/ashamed/afraid she was not be believed or that she would be blamed Afraid she would lose her children Afraid it would end her relationship with her husband/partner Did not want to bring a bad name to the family He threatened to kill her Other reasons * Percentages do not add to 100% because respondents could give multiple answers.
Number 165 128 96 87 77 50 40 40 37 19 205 %* 23% 18% 14% 12% 11% 7% 6% 6% 5% 3% 29% The view that the violence was normal or not serious was mentioned by 14% of women; this is further evidence that women tend to minimise the violence and its effects, and that they generally don’t make frivolous complaints about their husbands/partners.
For about 12%, shame was the major reason that prevented them from asking for help: this includes 7% who were afraid they would not be believed or that they would be blamed for the violence, and 5% who did not want to bring a bad name to the family.

Some (6%) had not sought help because they were afraid of losing their children, and others (also 6%) Page 154 of 249 Page 153 of 246 because they were afraid that it would end the relationship with their husband/partner (Table 9.6 and Chart 9.3).
All women who experienced physical or sexual partner violence were asked if there was anyone they would like to receive more help from, regardless of whether they had ever sought help from any agency.

Although over half of the respondents did not mention anyone (57%), the responses from the remaining 43% reinforce the findings above about the most important social networks to help women deal with intimate partner violence.
More than one in 5 (22%) said that they would like more help from their birth family; more than 1 in 10 mentioned chiefs (11%) and church leaders (12%); and 10% wanted more help from their husband’s/partner’s family (Table 9.7 and Chart 9.4).

Few women mentioned that they would like more help from agencies, but those who did mentioned the VWC network, the police, health services and the public solicitor.

Of these, 6% said they would like more help from the VWC network (Table 9.7 and Chart 9.4).
This may be because interviewers identified themselves as being from both VWC and the VNSO.

However it is noteworthy that most of the enumeration areas visited during the survey did not have CAVAWs established by VWC; in rural areas, women would have to travel very long distances at significant expense to reach a CAVAW if there is not one in their local area.
Table 9.7: Who women would like to get more help from (number and percentage of women who ever experienced partner violence, N = 1239) Who women would like to get more help from No one mentioned Her family Church leader Chief His family VWC network Police Health centre/ Aid post/ Hospital Public solicitor / lawyers Other community leader Other Sub-total of women who would like to get more help from someone * Percentages do not add to 100% (or 43%, sub-total who wanted more help) because respondents could give multiple answers.
Number 709 267 149 132 127 70 44 13 8 5 202 530 %* 57% 22% 12% 11% 10% 6% 4% 1% 1% 0.4% 16% 43% Page 155 of 249 Page 154 of 246 Leaving temporarily Of the 1239 women who experienced physical and/or sexual violence by husbands/partners, almost half (572 women or 49%) have ever left home due the violence.

Of these, only 5 women left permanently – this is less than 1% (0.4%) of the 1239 women who ever experienced partner violence.
Among those women who have ever left, most (74%) left between 1 and 3 times; 17% left between 4 and 6 times, and the remainder left more than 6 times (Table 9.8 and Chart 9.5).
Table 9.8: Number and percentage of women who ever left for at least a night due to physical or sexual violence by husbands/partners (N = 1239) Whether women have left due to violence Never left Ever left Not applicable (not living together) No answer Total Number 604 572 41 22 1239 % 51% 49% - - 100% Number of times woman has left due to the partner violence (percentage of 1239 women) left 1-3 times left 4-6 times left 7-10 times left more than 10 times 426 96 40 10 Median number of days away from home last time 2 36% 8% 3% 1% - that From its work with clients all country, VWC’s the over experience leaving is home for any length of time is a very difficult decision for most women, and one that they only take when they are faced with serious and repeated violence.
The this and anecdotal suggest that women often tend to leave at a time of crisis or evidence findings confirm Page 156 of 249 Page 155 of 246 extreme danger.

The most common reasons given by more than 2 in 5 women who left (42%) was the extent of her injuries or fear that the husband/partner would kill her: 14% left because they were badly injured, 19% were afraid that he would kill her, and in 9% of cases the husband/partner had either threatened or actually tried to kill her.
For 41% of respondents, the main reason that they left was because they could not take any more of the violence.

Six percent were actually thrown out of their home (Table 9.9 and Chart 9.6).
Table 9.9: Reasons for leaving (number and percentage of women who ever left home due to partner violence, N = 572) Reasons for leaving temporarily due to partner violence Could not take any more Afraid he would kill her Had information about where to go Badly injured Aware of her rights Encouraged by her friends/family He threatened or tried to kill her Encouraged by his family She was thrown out of home Knew other women who benefited Saw that the children were suffering Afraid she would kill him He threatened or hit the children No particular incident Encouraged by organization to leave Other * Percentages do not add to 100% because respondents could give multiple answers.
Number 236 108 90 81 74 62 49 39 32 19 15 13 8 4 2 166 %* 41% 19% 16% 14% 13% 11% 9% 7% 6% 3% 3% 2% 1% 1% 0.3% 29% An encouraging finding is that 16% left because they had information about where to go, and 13% because they were aware of their rights.
The views of family and friends were also important for some women in coming to a decision to leave temporarily: more than 1 in 10 (11%) were encouraged to leave by her family or friends, and in 7% of cases his family encouraged her to leave (Table 9.9 and Chart 9.6).

This contrasts with less than 1% of cases (2 women in total) who were encouraged to leave by an organisation.
Contrary to what some community leaders believe and assert, VWC’s approach has never been to encourage women to leave their homes – rather, information and counselling is provided with the aim of empowering women to know their rights and to come to their own decisions.
The findings show that it is family and friends who encourage women to leave rather than any organisation, and this is not surprising given that so many of those who left were either badly injured or fearful of being killed (Table 9.9 and Chart 9.6).
Page 157 of 249 Page 156 of 246 Most women left for 1 to 2 days (52%), 25% left for 3 to 5 days, 22% left for between 1 and 3 weeks, and the remainder left for more than a month.31 Most women (83%) went to their own relatives when they left home, but some stayed with the husband’s/partner’s relatives (4%), friends or neighbours Most women left for 1 to 2 days (52%), 25% left for 3 to 5 days, 22% left for between 1 and 3 weeks, (3%), chiefs (3%) or church leaders (1%).
About 2% of women had nowhere to go and stayed on the and the remainder left for more than a month.31 Most women (83%) went to their own relatives when street (Table 9.10).

they left home, but some stayed with the husband’s/partner’s relatives (4%), friends or neighbours (3%), chiefs (3%) or church leaders (1%).

About 2% of women had nowhere to go and stayed on the Table 9.10: Where respondents went the last time they left home (number and percentage of women who street (Table 9.10).
left due to partner violence, N = 572) Where respondents went when they left home last time Number Table 9.10: Where respondents went the last time they left home (number and percentage of women who Her relatives left due to partner violence, N = 572) His relatives Where respondents went when they left home last time Number Her friends/neighbours Her relatives Chief His relatives Street Her friends/neighbours Church leader Chief Other Street No answer Church leader Total Other No answer It was not always possible for women to take their children with them when they left.
Of the 485 women Total who left home temporarily and had children living with them at the time, less than half (46%) were able to take all their children with them, more than 1 in 3 (37%) were unable to take any of their children, and It was not always possible for women to take their children with them when they left.

Of the 485 women 17% took some of their children (Table 9.11 and Chart 9.7).
who left home temporarily and had children living with them at the time, less than half (46%) were able to take all their children with them, more than 1 in 3 (37%) were unable to take any of their children, and Of the 260 women who were unable to take all their children with them last time they left, almost 2 in 5 17% took some of their children (Table 9.11 and Chart 9.7).

(38%) were prevented from doing so by their husband/partner.
In 16% of cases, children were not at home when the woman left, in 10% of cases the children refused to go with her, and in 7% of cases she Of the 260 women who were unable to take all their children with them last time they left, almost 2 in 5 had no transport to take them with her (Table 9.11).

(38%) were prevented from doing so by their husband/partner.
In 16% of cases, children were not at home when the woman left, in 10% of cases the children refused to go with her, and in 7% of cases she had no transport to take them with her (Table 9.11).

% 83% 4% % The breakdown of the number of days away from home is not shown on a table – the median number of days is shown on Table 9.8.
31 The breakdown of the number of days away from home is not shown on a table – the median number of days is shown on Page 158 of 249 Table 9.8.
Page 158 of 249 Page 157 of 246 Table 9.11: Number and percentage of women who took, or did not take, the children when they left home last time due to partner violence (N = 485 women who had left at least once and had children living with them at that time) Number of children taken All children Some children No children Reasons for not taking all the children the last time the respondent left home* (percentage of 260) 16% Children were not at home at the time 38% Prevented from taking the children 10% Children refused to leave 7% No transport to take the children 38% Other reasons Total who did not take all the children when they left home last time 100% * Percentages do not add to 100% for the reasons for not taking the children because respondents could give multiple answers to this question.
Number 225 82 178 41 99 26 17 100 260 % 46% 17% 37% As noted above, all but 5 returned home women after their leaving husband.

In about 1 in 5 reasons the cases, women gave for returning that she were either forgave husband her (23%), or she didn’t want the children to (19%).

Considering that most women stayed with their relatives when they left, it is important to note that in 16% of cases they returned to the husband/partner because their family told them to do so.
Almost 1 in 5 also mentioned reasons related to the sanctity of marriage (14%) and family honour (4%).

Other main reasons given were that she loved him (13%), and that she thought he would change (10%).

Although bride price was only mentioned by 7% of women as a reason for returning, bride price is connected to several of the reasons already mentioned: the fact that the family told her to return; not wanting to leave the children; the belief in the sanctity of marriage and family honour.
No women mentioned any legal actions, such as obtaining a domestic violence order or restraining order (Table 9.12).
leave Table 9.12: Reasons women gave for returning after leaving home temporarily, among those who reported having left and returned at least once (N = 572) Reasons for returning home after leaving temporarily Forgave him Didn't want to leave the children Family said to return Belief in the sanctity of marriage Love him Thought he would change Bride price was paid Couldn't support the children For the sake of the family/children (family honour) Fear of black magic/sorcery Number 130 108 91 78 73 56 42 27 21 10 %* 23% 19% 16% 14% 13% 10% 7% 5% 4% 2% Page 159 of 249 Page 158 of 246 Reasons for returning home after leaving temporarily Violence was normal/not serious Received counselling He used a love spell Couldn't stay there (the place where she went when she left home) He threatened her/children/her family He asked her to go back Other reasons * Percentages do not add to 100% because respondents could give multiple answers to this question.
Number 7 4 4 3 2 1 100 %* 1% 1% 1% 1% 0.3% 0.2% 17% The 604 women who have never left home despite living with physical and/or sexual violence were asked why they had stayed with their husband/partner.

Not wanting to leave the children was the main reason for 41% of women and another 6% mentioned that they could not support the children if they left.

Forgiveness of her husband and love for him were also important reasons mentioned by 27% and 25% of women respectively, and 9% thought he would change.
Belief in the sanctity of marriage was the main reason for almost 1 in 4 women (23%), and family honour was mentioned by 11% (Table 9.13).
Table 9.13: Reasons for never leaving despite violence from their husband/partner (number and percentage of women experiencing partner violence who never left home temporarily, N = 604) Reasons for never leaving Didn't want to leave the children Forgave him Love him Belief in the sanctity of marriage Didn’t want to bring shame on the family (family honour) Bride price was paid Thought he would change Family said to stay Violence was normal/not serious Couldn't support the children Nowhere to go Fear of black magic/sorcery Didn't want to be single He threatened her/children/her family He used a love spell Got a domestic violence court order or restraining order Other reasons * Percentages do not add to 100% because respondents could give multiple answers to this question.
Number 247 162 148 138 67 58 56 39 37 36 24 16 10 8 4 1 147 %* 41% 27% 25% 23% 11% 10% 9% 6% 6% 6% 4% 3% 2% 1% 1% 0.2% 24% Sadly, 4% said that they had not left because they had nowhere to go.

This is consistent with the finding above (Table 9.10) that about 2% of women had nowhere to go but the street.

Only 1 woman mentioned that she had stayed because she obtained a domestic violence or restraining order.
Although VWC and the 2 branches in Sanma and Tafea facilitated about 500 domestic violence court orders from July 2002 until they were phased out in early 2010 following the gazetting of the Family Protection Order Bill, the vast majority of these were issued to women in the urban areas of Luganville and Port Vila; it was very difficult for women in remote areas to obtain a domestic violence court order, since these could only be issued by travelling magistrates.
As noted above, although 10% mentioned bride price, several reasons mentioned by respondents can be linked to bride price.

These include: not wanting to leave the children, belief in the sanctity of marriage and family honour, and being told to stay with the husband by the family (6%).
Page 160 of 249 Page 159 of 246 Self-defence Women who experienced only physical partner violence (1045) were asked about whether they ever defended themselves by fighting back, or whether they ever initiated violence against their husband/partner.

Only 3 in 10 women (30%) ever tried to defend themselves during a physical attack.
Most of these women fought back 1 or 2 times (17% of the 1045 women who have ever been physically abused); 8% fought back sometimes and 5% fought back many times or most of the time (Table 9.14 and Chart 9.8).
Table 9.14: Self-defence by women (number and percentage of women who fought back in response physical violence by their husband/partner, N = 1045) Self-defence Never fought back How often women defended themselves by fighting back 1-2 times Sometimes Many/most of the times Sub-total where women reported that they defended themselves No answer Total 178 83 49 310 10 1045 17% 8% 5% 30% Number 725 % 70% 100% Women were more likely to defend themselves by fighting back when the physical abuse was most severe and likely to injury.
them serious cause Chart the shows percentages of women who ever fought back, by the type of physical violence they experienced.

Among those women who were ever slapped, 31% ever fought back.

This compares with 42% of those women who had a weapon used against them, such as iron bar, a piece of wood, a knife or an axe; 38% who were threatened with a weapon, 38% who were choked or burned, and 35% who were kicked, dragged or beaten up.
However, the majority (58%) did not defend themselves even when threatened with a weapon (Chart 9.9).

that 9.9 Page 161 of 249 Page 160 of 246 Slapped/threw something Pushed/shoved Hit with fist or something else Kicked, dragged, beaten Chocked/burnt Threatened to use weapon Used a weapon For 59% of those women who defended themselves, the violent incident either became less or stopped.
For 34%, the violence became worse when they fought back, and for the remaining 7% there was no change in the level of physical abuse by the husband or partner (Table 9.15 and Chart 9.10).
Table 9.15: Women’s views of the impact of self-defence, among women who reported fighting back (number and percentage of women who reported fighting back, N = 310) Impact of self-defence during incidents of physical abuse No change Violence became worse Violence became less Violence stopped No answer Total Number 23 106 116 64 1 310 % 7% 34% 38% 21% 100% The 1045 women who had ever been physically abused were asked whether they had ever hit or physically mistreated the husband/partner when he was not hitting or physically mistreating her.
The majority (77%) had never done so; 23% or 241 women had been physically violent when he was not physically abusing her.

In only 2% of cases did women hit or physically mistreat their husband/partner many times; in 6% of cases this occurred sometimes; and in 15% of cases it happened 1 or 2 times (Table 9.16).

If we consider the total population of 2061 ever-partnered women in the sample, those who ever hit their husband when he was not physically abusing them would be less than 12%.
The study did not assess the prevalence of physical violence by women towards men and these findings Page 162 of 249 Page 161 of 246 should not be seen as an accurate estimate of that behaviour.

VWC, its branches and CAVAWs have never had a case where a woman has initiated violence towards her partner.
Table 9.16: Women's violence towards their husbands/partners when they were not being beaten (number and percentage of women who ever experienced physical partner violence, N = 1045) Women’s violence towards husbands/partners Never hit or physically mistreated her husband or partner How often women mistreated or hit husbands or partners 1-2 times Sometimes Many times Sub-total of women who hit or physically mistreated their husbands or partners when he was not hitting or physically mistreating her No answer Total Women who hit their husbands as a percentage of the total of 2061 ever-partnered women 241 11 1045 Number 793 15% 6% 2% 156 65 20 % 77% 100% 23% 12% 241 9.2 DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS Despite the control that many men exercise over their wives and partners, and despite the severe and ongoing violence that so many experience, women in Vanuatu have found ways to survive.
Some have heard the messages about women’s rights that VWC and other organisations have talked about over the past 15-20 years; they have taken these messages to heart, and tried to claim their right to live without violence.

They have got information about where to go for help, they have asked for help, and some have gone to agencies and sought help several times.
Most of those who have asked for help or left their husbands temporarily have done so because they couldn’t take any more, they were badly injured, or they feared for their lives.

The findings show that women do not seek help or leave home temporarily for frivolous or minor reasons – they do so because their lives are in crisis.

Most need to leave home several times during their lives due to their husband’s/partner’s behaviour.
They return because they forgive their husbands, because they need to care for their children, because their families tell them to do so, and because they believe in the sanctity of marriage.

These reasons are all inherently related to the custom of bride price.

The women who ask for help show great courage and strength, particularly when we consider that several attitudes that condone or tolerate violence against women are widespread in the community.
These women seek help because the violence and its consequences are serious.

Their experiences reinforce the importance of ensuring that, when women do ask for help or leave their home, family members, chiefs, church leaders, friends and service-providers take their requests for help very seriously, and respond appropriately to ensure that their lives and their rights are protected.
Although it is positive that about half of the women who live with intimate partner violence have asked for help, it is important to emphasise that about half have not done so: 43% had never told anyone about the violence before the survey (Table 9.1), and 43% said that they would like more help to deal with the violence (Table 9.7).
Furthermore, the number of women who have asked an agency for help (43%, Table 9.4) is considerably lower than the 56% who have ever told anyone about their husband’s/partner’s behaviour (Table 9.1).

This was also the case in the WHO multi-country study (WHO 2005: 75-7).

The lack of accessible services in most rural areas and islands is one possible explanation for the smaller numbers of women seeking help from an agency.
However, there are other key barriers: the WHO concludes that “women living in violent relationships often experience feelings of extreme isolation, hopelessness and powerlessness that make it particularly difficult for them to seek Page 163 of 249 Page 162 of 246 help” (WHO 2005: 79).
In addition this study has shown that violent partners, through various controlling behaviours including restrictions on women’s mobility and participation in organisations, often keep women isolated from potential sources of help.

The fear and threat of more violence is help” (WHO 2005: 79).
In addition this study has shown that violent partners, through various another serious barrier to women seeking help, along with the belief that violence is “normal” or not controlling behaviours including restrictions on women’s mobility and participation in organisations, serious.

often keep women isolated from potential sources of help.
The fear and threat of more violence is another serious barrier to women seeking help, along with the belief that violence is “normal” or not Family members are usually the first people whom women tell about the violence, and the first ones serious.

they ask for help; family members are also the ones that many women would like more help from.
This is not surprising and it highlights how important it is for the family to respond in a sensitive and Family members are usually the first people whom women tell about the violence, and the first ones supportive manner that respects women’s rights, when they finally make the very difficult decision to tell they ask for help; family members are also the ones that many women would like more help from.

This someone, ask for help, or leave their home during crisis.
According to the WHO multi-country study, is not surprising and it highlights how important it is for the family to respond in a sensitive and women who have support from family and friends suffer fewer negative effects on their mental health, supportive manner that respects women’s rights, when they finally make the very difficult decision to tell and are better able to cope with the violence (WHO 2005: 79).

someone, ask for help, or leave their home during crisis.
According to the WHO multi-country study, women who have support from family and friends suffer fewer negative effects on their mental health, For VWC, the important role that the woman’s relatives play points to the need to increase awareness and are better able to cope with the violence (WHO 2005: 79).

to clans of the causes and consequences of violence against women, and to strengthen the capacity of family members to provide the support that is needed.
It also demonstrates the need for mass For VWC, the important role that the woman’s relatives play points to the need to increase awareness campaigns to ensure that everyone knows about the services that the VWC network can provide, and to clans of the causes and consequences of violence against women, and to strengthen the capacity of the best steps to take to help women living in violent relationships, particularly those in crisis.

Although family members to provide the support that is needed.
It also demonstrates the need for mass it is very positive that some women ask for help and leave temporarily because they know their rights campaigns to ensure that everyone knows about the services that the VWC network can provide, and and have information about where to go, there is also a need to build on this understanding and the best steps to take to help women living in violent relationships, particularly those in crisis.
Although knowledge through both mass campaigns and face-to-face community education.

It is important to it is very positive that some women ask for help and leave temporarily because they know their rights remember that over half of abused women have lived with the parents or relatives of her husband or and have information about where to go, there is also a need to build on this understanding and partner – these family members also need help to ensure that they support women living with violence.
knowledge through both mass campaigns and face-to-face community education.

It is important to remember that over half of abused women have lived with the parents or relatives of her husband or There is strong evidence of high levels of social capital32 in Vanuatu, and this is a good foundation for partner – these family members also need help to ensure that they support women living with violence.
further work to strengthen women’s coping strategies – both for those who have already told someone and asked for help, and those who haven’t yet taken that first step.

This social capital is demonstrated There is strong evidence of high levels of social capital32 in Vanuatu, and this is a good foundation for by women’s positive views of community safety, trust and cooperation, and their strong social networks.
further work to strengthen women’s coping strategies – both for those who have already told someone In addition, the rate at which women seek help from chiefs and church leaders is quite high in Vanuatu and asked for help, and those who haven’t yet taken that first step.

This social capital is demonstrated compared with other countries where the WHO methodology has been used (WHO 2005: 190-191; by women’s positive views of community safety, trust and cooperation, and their strong social networks.
SPC 2009: 126; SPC 2010: 148).

This is an indication of the trust that women place in these leaders, In addition, the rate at which women seek help from chiefs and church leaders is quite high in Vanuatu and the importance of their roles in the community.
It underscores the need for chiefs and church compared with other countries where the WHO methodology has been used (WHO 2005: 190-191; leaders to fully understand the causes and consequences of violence against women, and to respond SPC 2009: 126; SPC 2010: 148).

This is an indication of the trust that women place in these leaders, in ways which will protect women and their rights rather than increase their risk of further harm from and the importance of their roles in the community.
It underscores the need for chiefs and church violent husbands and partners.
Chiefs and church leaders have enormous potential to challenge leaders to fully understand the causes and consequences of violence against women, and to respond prevailing attitudes that condone violence, and to send a clear message that physical and sexual in ways which will protect women and their rights rather than increase their risk of further harm from violence in intimate relationships is never acceptable, and not part of Vanuatu custom.

violent husbands and partners.


Chiefs and church leaders have enormous potential to challenge prevailing attitudes that condone violence, and to send a clear message that physical and sexual Unfortunately there is considerable anecdotal evidence from VWC’s work with clients that some family violence in intimate relationships is never acceptable, and not part of Vanuatu custom.
members, chiefs, church and other community leaders and service-providers condone men’s violence, or respond to women in a way that places a greater priority on the marriage or the wider family unit at Unfortunately there is considerable anecdotal evidence from VWC’s work with clients that some family the expense of women’s safety and their rights.
Sometimes, the fact that bride price has been paid members, chiefs, church and other community leaders and service-providers condone men’s violence, reinforces the idea that women are men’s property, which in turn reinforces the view that women must or respond to women in a way that places a greater priority on the marriage or the wider family unit at simply put up with the violence.

In some cases, the Bible has even been used to justify this view.

While the expense of women’s safety and their rights.
Sometimes, the fact that bride price has been paid most women do not want to leave their husbands and partners – they simply want the violence to stop reinforces the idea that women are men’s property, which in turn reinforces the view that women must – counselling women to reconcile regardless of the violence and threats has proved to be very simply put up with the violence.

In some cases, the Bible has even been used to justify this view.
While damaging to women’s health and to the overall functioning of the family unit as a whole.

most women do not want to leave their husbands and partners – they simply want the violence to stop – counselling women to reconcile regardless of the violence and threats has proved to be very 32 Social capital describes social networks characterised by trust and reciprocity, which enable people to act for mutual damaging to women’s health and to the overall functioning of the family unit as a whole.
benefit, resolve problems, and act collectively to promote well-being (Stone 2001).

32 Social capital describes social networks characterised by trust and reciprocity, which enable people to act for mutual Page 164 of 249 benefit, resolve problems, and act collectively to promote well-being (Stone 2001).

Page 164 of 249 Page 163 of 246 In some cases health services may be the only agency that a woman approaches for assistance, because she is injured.
Given the extensive and serious health impacts of intimate partner violence documented in previous chapters, health workers need to be able to respond appropriately when intimate partner violence is disclosed by their patients.

They need to be able to refer women to the VWC network and the police if the women give permission to do so, and they need to ensure confidentiality and the safety of women living with violence.

Legal remedies appear to be used only as a last resort by women.
As women’s responses in this chapter have shown, seeking help is often triggered by severe violence and injury.

In addition, men’s response to women breaking out of the web of violence and control is sometimes to threaten her life, or to attempt to kill her.

This makes it even more important for police to respond quickly and effectively to ensure that women are protected from further violence, in a manner that supports women’s rights and their choices.
The duty of care that this places on all police officers cannot be over-estimated.

Finally, the findings underscore the need for the Family Protection Act to be implemented urgently throughout the country, to provide women with an additional coping strategy.

This is particularly important for areas that do not have police posts nearby.
Implementation of the Family Protection Act by itself will send a clear message to all those who are in a position to support and help women that family violence is never acceptable; it will help to change and mould attitudes, and it will send the clear message to women that they do not have to live with violence.

In particular, registered counsellors and authorised persons need to be recruited urgently in rural and remote areas, so that family protection orders can be issued to those women who need them.
Page 165 of 249 Page 164 of 246 CHAPTER 10: TRIGGERS, RISKS AND FACTORS THAT HELP TO PROTECT WOMEN FROM VIOLENCE BY HUSBANDS AND INTIMATE PARTNERS Summary of main findings  The most significant risk factors associated with women experiencing physical and/or sexual partner violence in their lifetime are the characteristics of her husband or partner.
A woman is significantly more likely to experience violence if her husband/partner controls her behaviour, drinks alcohol or home brew, has affairs with other women, is violent with other men, or is unemployed.

 Women who grew up in violent families, were sexually abused as children, or agree with at least 1 justification for a man to beat his wife are more likely to experience intimate partner violence.
This section begins by presenting women’s views of the situations that tend to trigger violence by their husbands/partners, in the context of their communication patterns.

This is followed by a description of the method for the statistical analysis of risk and protective factors associated with violence by husbands and intimate partners.
The factors that were found to be the strongest predictors of a woman experiencing partner violence are discussed, in addition to those characteristics that protect women from violence.

(See Annex 6 for a glossary of statistical terms used in this chapter.)

10.1 SITUATIONS THAT TRIGGER VIOLENCE BY HUSBANDS AND INTIMATE PARTNERS Women who have been subjected to physical partner violence were asked what types of situations tend to lead to violent behaviour by their husband/partner.
On average, each woman gave 2 responses.

Counsellors from the VWC network often hear women say that their husband or partner “hit me for no reason” and this anecdotal evidence is supported by the findings from the survey: for almost 1 in 3 respondents (30%) there was no specific trigger or reason for the man’s violent behaviour (Table 10.1 and Chart 10.1).
Other triggers or situations that were commonly mentioned by women were: the man’s jealousy of his wife or partner (mentioned by more than 1 in 4 women); no food at home (mentioned by 1 in 5 women); when he is drunk on alcohol (mentioned by 17% of women); and when she refuses sex (mentioned by 15%).
Disobedience by the woman and the husband’s desire to discipline her was also a common trigger mentioned by 23% of women in total (almost 1 in 4) including 19% where she was disobedient, and 5% where the man wanted to teach her a lesson (Table 10.1 and Chart 10.1).

These findings confirm VWC’s experience with counselling women who are living in violent relationships.
Other situations mentioned by almost 1 in 10 women (9%) were when he had been drinking kava, and when there were problems with his or her family (9%).

Festivities such as national holidays and religious events were also mentioned by 9% of women as a time when physical violence occurs.

Money problems were mentioned by 8% of women.

While simply being pregnant was a trigger for a few men (mentioned by 2% of women), not being able to get pregnant triggered violence for others (0.5%).
The husband’s/partner’s unemployment and difficulties at his work were also mentioned by 2% and 1% of women respectively (Table 10.1 and Chart 10.1).

There were few differences in the types of situations that triggered violence between rural and urban areas.

However, refusing sex and having no food ready at home were somewhat more likely to trigger violence in rural areas than urban areas, and drunkenness by the husband/partner was more likely to trigger it in urban areas than rural areas.
Women with higher education were a little less likely to mention disobedience, refusal of sex and having no food at home as triggers for violence, whereas jealousy was mentioned slightly more often by higher educated women.
Page 166 of 249 Page 165 of 246 Table 10.1: Women’s views of situations that tend to lead to physical violence (number and percentage of women who mention each reason, among those who experienced physical violence from their husband or partner, N=1029) Situations that women think trigger physical violence by husbands/partners No particular reason He is jealous of her No food at home She is disobedient When he is drunk on alcohol When she refuses sex When he has had kava Problems with his or her family During festivities Money problems He wants to teach her a lesson, educate or discipline her She is pregnant When her husband/partner is unemployed Difficulties at his work She is unable to get pregnant Other Note: Percentages are of 1029 because 16 women who experienced physical violence by their husband/partner did not answer this question.
Percentages do not add to 100% because respondents could give multiple answers to this question.

Number 308 275 202 191 174 157 97 96 91 85 56 20 18 13 5 173 % 30% 27% 20% 19% 17% 15% 9% 9% 9% 8% 5% 2% 2% 1% 0.5% 17% It is interesting to compare the findings above with women’s views about communication with their husbands/partners.
Table 10.2 shows that most women have positive views about the discussions that take place daily with their husbands/partners, and almost 3 in 5 women (57%) said that they quarrel rarely with them.

Only 6% of respondents said that they quarrel often, and 27% said that they quarrel sometimes with their husband/partner.

Sometimes, community leaders assert that if women did not quarrel so much, domestic violence would not occur.
This view is not supported by any of the findings from the study, including those about quarrelling.

One in 3 women (33%) admits to quarrelling sometimes or often, yet almost 60% have experienced physical and/or sexual violence in their lifetime.

VWC’s experience with clients is that women are frequently told they should not quarrel with men.

This view reflects and reinforces unequal gender power relations.

Women may be ashamed to admit that they quarrel.


However, even if shame has caused them to under-estimate the quarrelling that does occur, the findings indicate that advising Page 167 of 249 women not to quarrel with husbands/partners is highly unlikely to help them avoid or prevent violence – particularly when one considers the triggers for violence, where women generally have limited or no control over the situations identified.
Table 10.2: Topics discussed and quarrels with current or most recent husband/partner (number and percentage of ever-partnered women, N = 2058) Page 166 of 246 Things that the respondent and her husband/partner generally discuss Yes No Number % Number % Things that happened to him in the day Things that happened to her in the day Her worries or feelings His worries or feelings Quarrel rarely Quarrel sometimes Quarrel often Don’t know/no answer How often the respondent and her husband/partner quarrel 226 164 187 220 11% 8% 9% 11% 1827 1894 1871 1838 1171 551 131 205 89% 92% 91% 89% 57% 27% 6% 10% 10.2 METHOD FOR STATISTICAL ANALYSIS OF RISK AND PROTECTIVE FACTORS By exploring the factors that increase or reduce women’s risk of experiencing intimate partner violence, VWC hopes to identify the most effective approaches for preventing and responding to this serious problem.
The sample group for the statistical analysis was ever-partnered women with known status regarding their experience of physical and/or sexual violence by an intimate husband or partner, and with known relationship status.

The outcome variable was whether ever-partnered women experienced physical and/or sexual violence over their lifetime.
Table 10.3 shows the breakdown of the sample included in the risk analysis.33 Table 10.3: Sample for risk and protective factor analysis Never experienced physical or sexual violence from a husband or partner in her lifetime Experienced physical and/or sexual violence from a husband or partner in her lifetime Number 817 1233 2050 Total    The list of risk and protective factors included in the statistical analysis included factors relating to both the woman and her husband or intimate partner, and was based on the following considerations: existing models of risk analysis in other published studies of the prevalence of violence against women that used the WHO methodology, such as the recent studies in the Solomon Islands and Kiribati (SPC 2009; and SPC 2010); qualitative analysis based on long-term counselling experience by VWC of the risk factors associated with violence against women; and factors that appeared worthy of investigation, based on the descriptive tables included in earlier chapters, such as region (urban versus rural), location (province and island), education, age group, socio-economic status, women’s income-generation, and women’s attitudes to physical violence by partners.
33 The figures for ever experienced physical and/or sexual violence by an intimate partner are slightly less than in Table 4.1, as is the total for ever-partnered women.

Eleven respondents (from the sample of 2061 ever-partnered women used for most tables in earlier chapters) were excluded from the statistical analysis due to missing data across a range of variables.

Page 168 of 249 gender power relations.

Women may be ashamed to admit that they quarrel.


However, even if shame has caused them to under-estimate the quarrelling that does occur, the findings indicate that advising women not to quarrel with husbands/partners is highly unlikely to help them avoid or prevent violence – particularly when one considers the triggers for violence, where women generally have limited or no gender power relations.

Women may be ashamed to admit that they quarrel.


However, even if shame control over the situations identified.
has caused them to under-estimate the quarrelling that does occur, the findings indicate that advising women not to quarrel with husbands/partners is highly unlikely to help them avoid or prevent violence – Table 10.2: Topics discussed and quarrels with current or most recent husband/partner (number and particularly when one considers the triggers for violence, where women generally have limited or no percentage of ever-partnered women, N = 2058) control over the situations identified.
Things that the respondent and her husband/partner generally discuss Yes No Number % Number % No Yes Number % Number % Table 10.2: Topics discussed and quarrels with current or most recent husband/partner (number and Things that happened to him in the day 89% percentage of ever-partnered women, N = 2058) 92% Things that happened to her in the day Things that the respondent and her husband/partner generally discuss Her worries or feelings 91% 89% His worries or feelings 89% Things that happened to him in the day How often the respondent and her husband/partner quarrel 92% Things that happened to her in the day 57% Quarrel rarely 91% Her worries or feelings 27% Quarrel sometimes 89% His worries or feelings Quarrel often 6% How often the respondent and her husband/partner quarrel 10% Don’t know/no answer 57% Quarrel rarely 27% Quarrel sometimes 10.2 METHOD FOR STATISTICAL ANALYSIS OF RISK AND PROTECTIVE FACTORS 6% Quarrel often 10% Don’t know/no answer By exploring the factors that increase or reduce women’s risk of experiencing intimate partner violence, VWC hopes to identify the most effective approaches for preventing and responding to this serious 10.2 METHOD FOR STATISTICAL ANALYSIS OF RISK AND PROTECTIVE FACTORS problem.
The sample group for the statistical analysis was ever-partnered women with known status regarding their experience of physical and/or sexual violence by an intimate husband or partner, and By exploring the factors that increase or reduce women’s risk of experiencing intimate partner violence, with known relationship status.
The outcome variable was whether ever-partnered women experienced VWC hopes to identify the most effective approaches for preventing and responding to this serious physical and/or sexual violence over their lifetime.

Table 10.3 shows the breakdown of the sample problem.
The sample group for the statistical analysis was ever-partnered women with known status included in the risk analysis.33 regarding their experience of physical and/or sexual violence by an intimate husband or partner, and with known relationship status.

The outcome variable was whether ever-partnered women experienced Table 10.3: Sample for risk and protective factor analysis physical and/or sexual violence over their lifetime.
Table 10.3 shows the breakdown of the sample included in the risk analysis.33 Never experienced physical or sexual violence from a husband or partner in her lifetime Experienced physical and/or sexual violence from a husband or partner in her lifetime Table 10.3: Sample for risk and protective factor analysis Total Never experienced physical or sexual violence from a husband or partner in her lifetime The list of risk and protective factors included in the statistical analysis included factors relating to both Experienced physical and/or sexual violence from a husband or partner in her lifetime the woman and her husband or intimate partner, and was based on the following considerations: Total  existing models of risk analysis in other published studies of the prevalence of violence against women that used the WHO methodology, such as the recent studies in the Solomon Islands and The list of risk and protective factors included in the statistical analysis included factors relating to both Kiribati (SPC 2009; and SPC 2010); the woman and her husband or intimate partner, and was based on the following considerations:  qualitative analysis based on long-term counselling experience by VWC of the risk factors  existing models of risk analysis in other published studies of the prevalence of violence against associated with violence against women; and women that used the WHO methodology, such as the recent studies in the Solomon Islands and factors that appeared worthy of investigation, based on the descriptive tables included in earlier Kiribati (SPC 2009; and SPC 2010); chapters, such as region (urban versus rural), location (province and island), education, age group, qualitative analysis based on long-term counselling experience by VWC of the risk factors socio-economic status, women’s income-generation, and women’s attitudes to physical violence by associated with violence against women; and partners.
factors that appeared worthy of investigation, based on the descriptive tables included in earlier chapters, such as region (urban versus rural), location (province and island), education, age group, socio-economic status, women’s income-generation, and women’s attitudes to physical violence by 33 The figures for ever experienced physical and/or sexual violence by an intimate partner are slightly less than in Table 4.1, partners.

as is the total for ever-partnered women.


Eleven respondents (from the sample of 2061 ever-partnered women used for most tables in earlier chapters) were excluded from the statistical analysis due to missing data across a range of variables.

   Number 817 1233 2050 Number 817 1233 2050 33 The figures for ever experienced physical and/or sexual violence by an intimate partner are slightly less than in Table 4.1, Page 168 of 249 as is the total for ever-partnered women.
Eleven respondents (from the sample of 2061 ever-partnered women used for most tables in earlier chapters) were excluded from the statistical analysis due to missing data across a range of variables.

Page 168 of 249 Page 167 of 246 Logistic regression analysis was used to assess the significance of the association between intimate partner violence and each potential risk or protective factor.
Because the data was collected in clusters (province and island/enumeration area), the model used to analyse the data included a random province effect and a random island/enumeration area effect.

The statistical analysis was done in 2 Logistic regression analysis was used to assess the significance of the association between intimate stages (Thomson and Helby 2011): partner violence and each potential risk or protective factor.

Because the data was collected in clusters 1.


Uni-variable analyses: Each factor was assessed in isolation and was therefore the only variable to (province and island/enumeration area), the model used to analyse the data included a random be specified in the model.

For each variable, its statistical significance was calculated (P value), province effect and a random island/enumeration area effect.
The statistical analysis was done in 2 and the effects of each variable were identified in terms of odds ratios, relative to a reference stages (Thomson and Helby 2011): category.

Table 10.4 shows the statistical significance of each variable; many have a significant 1.

Uni-variable analyses: Each factor was assessed in isolation and was therefore the only variable to association with the experience of intimate partner violence in this first stage of the analysis.

be specified in the model.


For each variable, its statistical significance was calculated (P value), 2.

Multi-variable analysis: These uni-variable models were then used to select candidate variables to and the effects of each variable were identified in terms of odds ratios, relative to a reference construct a multi-variable model, to identify the factors which show the strongest association with category.
Table 10.4 shows the statistical significance of each variable; many have a significant the experience of physical and/or sexual violence by a husband or partner.

The aim was to identify association with the experience of intimate partner violence in this first stage of the analysis.

those factors that most significantly affect the likelihood of partner violence, after controlling for all 2.
Multi-variable analysis: These uni-variable models were then used to select candidate variables to other variables that were hypothesised as relevant.

Variables with P values of more than 0.1 (P > construct a multi-variable model, to identify the factors which show the strongest association with 0.1) were excluded from further analysis, as were variables where 10% or more of the data were the experience of physical and/or sexual violence by a husband or partner.
The aim was to identify missing.34 This resulted in 23 independent variables that were included in the model, in addition to those factors that most significantly affect the likelihood of partner violence, after controlling for all two random variables (province and island/enumeration area).

Typically, many variables become other variables that were hypothesised as relevant.
Variables with P values of more than 0.1 (P > redundant in any multi-variable model, primarily because several risk factor variables are highly 0.1) were excluded from further analysis, as were variables where 10% or more of the data were correlated; including one key risk factor may then account for variability explained by one or more missing.34 This resulted in 23 independent variables that were included in the model, in addition to other potential risk factors (for example, education level is highly correlated with socio-economic two random variables (province and island/enumeration area).
Typically, many variables become status).

The strategy used to select the final model was one of backward elimination.

That is, redundant in any multi-variable model, primarily because several risk factor variables are highly variables were sequentially dropped from the model, based on their P values.

This was continued correlated; including one key risk factor may then account for variability explained by one or more until all remaining variables were significant.
Table 10.9 shows the results from this analysis.

other potential risk factors (for example, education level is highly correlated with socio-economic status).

The strategy used to select the final model was one of backward elimination.

That is, variables were sequentially dropped from the model, based on their P values.

This was continued until all remaining variables were significant.

Table 10.9 shows the results from this analysis.


10.3 FINDINGS FROM THE UNI-VARIABLE STATISTICAL ANALYSIS Several observations can be made on the findings from the uni-variable analysis (Table 10.4).

Even though the prevalence of intimate partner violence was consistently lower in urban versus rural areas, 10.3 FINDINGS FROM THE UNI-VARIABLE STATISTICAL ANALYSIS these differences were not significant.
However, differences in prevalence between provinces and specific islands were significant and this was investigated further with location included in the multi- Several observations can be made on the findings from the uni-variable analysis (Table 10.4).

Even variable analysis.

though the prevalence of intimate partner violence was consistently lower in urban versus rural areas, these differences were not significant.
However, differences in prevalence between provinces and Most factors in the women’s background were found to be significant in this first round of analysis specific islands were significant and this was investigated further with location included in the multi- (Table 10.4).

Although most of these are risk factors, education level and socio-economic status tend to variable analysis.

protect women from experiencing violence.


However, as the analysis of the findings on education level demonstrated in earlier chapters, the association between educational achievement and the experience Most factors in the women’s background were found to be significant in this first round of analysis of violence is not always straightforward, and applies most consistently to those women with higher (Table 10.4).
Although most of these are risk factors, education level and socio-economic status tend to education.

The association between age and the experience of violence is also complex: while overall it protect women from experiencing violence.
However, as the analysis of the findings on education level appears that younger women aged 15-29 are at somewhat greater risk than those aged 30 to 49; on demonstrated in earlier chapters, the association between educational achievement and the experience the other hand mature age cannot be seen as a protective factor since women in older age groups of violence is not always straightforward, and applies most consistently to those women with higher consistently experience intimate partner violence at very high rates.
Overall, no single age group or education.

The association between age and the experience of violence is also complex: while overall it cluster of age groups was any more or less likely to experience intimate partner violence than the total appears that younger women aged 15-29 are at somewhat greater risk than those aged 30 to 49; on sample of ever-partnered women.
the other hand mature age cannot be seen as a protective factor since women in older age groups consistently experience intimate partner violence at very high rates.
Overall, no single age group or Similarly, the type of marriage ceremony appeared to be significant using uni-variable analysis, but the cluster of age groups was any more or less likely to experience intimate partner violence than the total findings were complex; women who only have a religious ceremony (and not a custom or civil sample of ever-partnered women.
ceremony) were significantly less likely to experience violence in their relationship, as were those who had multiple ceremonies, including a combination of religious, custom and civil ceremonies.

Having only Similarly, the type of marriage ceremony appeared to be significant using uni-variable analysis, but the 34 Missing data refers to questions that respondents did not answer, or answered “don’t know”.
a custom ceremony does not protect women from violence, and nor is it a risk factor – this group findings were complex; women who only have a religious ceremony (and not a custom or civil experiences violence at about the same rate as the whole population of ever-partnered women.
ceremony) were significantly less likely to experience violence in their relationship, as were those who Page 169 of 249 Inter-generational factors emerge strongly from the uni-variable analysis as increasing women’s risk of 34 Missing data refers to questions that respondents did not answer, or answered “don’t know”.
experiencing violence in their intimate relationships, with each of the following variables showing a Page 169 of 249 highly significant association with intimate partner violence:     the woman’s mother being hit when the respondent was a child; Page 168 of 246 the experience of physical violence since the age of 15 by people other than husbands or intimate partners, and in most cases this violence is inflicted by family members; the experience of sexual abuse since the age of 15; and the experience of child sexual abuse under the age of 15.
Attitudinal factors are also highly significant: agreeing with a least one justification for a husband hitting his wife increases the risk of experiencing violence.

On the other hand, agreeing with at least one reason for a wife refusing sex also increases the risk of violence, even though the vast majority of women have a strong sense of their sexual autonomy and their right to refuse sex if they don’t want it (96% of women agreed with at least 1 reason for refusing sex, see chapter 4).
It is interesting to note the factors that were not significant for increasing women’s risk of violence, or protecting them from it.

Women’s relationship status was not significant – that is, women are just as likely to be subjected to physical and/or sexual violence by an intimate partner, regardless of whether they are married, living together, dating, or living apart.

It also makes no difference whether bride price has been fully or partly paid.
Although living with the husband’s/partner’s relatives significantly increases women’s likelihood of experiencing violence, living with her own relatives does not protect her from violence (see Table 9.3); consequently, the variable of living with any relatives (either his or hers) was not significant and it neither protected women nor increased their risk of experiencing violence (Table 10.4).
Table 10.4: Uni-variable analysis of the association between ever-partnered women’s experience of physical and/or sexual violence by husbands/partners, and the characteristics and risk factors of the woman and her husband/partner (P values) Characteristics, risk and protective factors Random variables Region (urban versus rural areas) Location (province, Port Vila and Luganville) Enumeration area/island Characteristics relating to the woman Woman’s age group Woman’s education level Woman’s socio-economic status Relationship status (whether married, living together, dating or living apart) 0.033 (not significant) Marriage ceremony Living with either her relatives or the husband’s/partner’s relatives Woman chose her partner/husband Bride price fully paid, partly paid Number of children Woman earns own income Woman’s mother was hit by husband/partner when respondent was a child Woman experienced non-partner physical abuse over the age of 15 years P value* ** *** (and % of missing data) 0.354 (not significant) 0.051 0.015* 0.005** 0.002** <0.001*** <0.001*** <0.001*** <0.001*** <0.001*** 0.828 (not significant) 0.015 (more than 10% missing) 0.101 (not significant) 0.077 (not significant) Page 170 of 249 had multiple ceremonies, including a combination of religious, custom and civil ceremonies.
Having only a custom ceremony does not protect women from violence, and nor is it a risk factor – this group experiences violence at about the same rate as the whole population of ever-partnered women.
Inter-generational factors emerge strongly from the uni-variable analysis as increasing women’s risk of experiencing violence in their intimate relationships, with each of the following variables showing a highly significant association with intimate partner violence:     the woman’s mother being hit when the respondent was a child; the experience of physical violence since the age of 15 by people other than husbands or intimate partners, and in most cases this violence is inflicted by family members; the experience of sexual abuse since the age of 15; and the experience of child sexual abuse under the age of 15.
Attitudinal factors are also highly significant: agreeing with a least one justification for a husband hitting his wife increases the risk of experiencing violence.

On the other hand, agreeing with at least one reason for a wife refusing sex also increases the risk of violence, even though the vast majority of women have a strong sense of their sexual autonomy and their right to refuse sex if they don’t want it (96% of women agreed with at least 1 reason for refusing sex, see chapter 4).
It is interesting to note the factors that were not significant for increasing women’s risk of violence, or protecting them from it.

Women’s relationship status was not significant – that is, women are just as likely to be subjected to physical and/or sexual violence by an intimate partner, regardless of whether they are married, living together, dating, or living apart.

It also makes no difference whether bride price has been fully or partly paid.
Although living with the husband’s/partner’s relatives significantly increases women’s likelihood of experiencing violence, living with her own relatives does not protect her from violence (see Table 9.3); consequently, the variable of living with any relatives (either his or hers) was not significant and it neither protected women nor increased their risk of experiencing violence (Table 10.4).
Table 10.4: Uni-variable analysis of the association between ever-partnered women’s experience of physical and/or sexual violence by husbands/partners, and the characteristics and risk factors of the woman and her husband/partner (P values) Characteristics, risk and protective factors P value* ** *** (and % of missing data) Random variables Region (urban versus rural areas) Location (province, Port Vila and Luganville) Enumeration area/island Characteristics relating to the woman Woman’s age group Woman’s education level Woman’s socio-economic status Relationship status (whether married, living together, dating or living apart) Marriage ceremony Living with either her relatives or the husband’s/partner’s relatives Woman chose her partner/husband Bride price fully paid, partly paid Number of children Woman earns own income Woman’s mother was hit by husband/partner when respondent was a child Woman experienced non-partner physical abuse over the age of 15 years 0.354 (not significant) 0.051 0.015* 0.005** 0.002** <0.001*** 0.033 (not significant) <0.001*** 0.828 (not significant) 0.015 (more than 10% missing) 0.101 (not significant) 0.077 (not significant) <0.001*** <0.001*** <0.001*** Page 170 of 249 Page 169 of 246 Characteristics, risk and protective factors P value* ** *** (and % of missing data) <0.001*** <0.001*** <0.001*** <0.001*** 0.016* 0.025* Woman experienced non-partner sexual abuse over the age of 15 years Woman experienced child sexual abuse under the age of 15 years Woman agrees with at least 1 justification for a husband hitting his wife Woman agrees with at least 1 reason for refusing sex with husband/partner Woman’s alcohol or home brew consumption Woman’s kava consumption Characteristics relating to the husband or partner Husband’s/partner’s age group Husband’s/partner’s education level Husband’s/partner’s employment status Husband’s/partner’s alcohol or home brew consumption Husband’s/partner’s kava consumption Husband’s/partner’s drug use Husband’s/partner’s gambling behaviour Husband’s/
 partner’s mother was beaten when he was a child Husband/partner saw/heard his mother being beaten when he was a child Husband/partner was beaten regularly by someone in his family Husband/partner has been violent with other men Frequency of husband’s/partner’s violence with other men Husband/partner had another relationship while with the respondent Husband/partner had a child from another relationship while with the respondent Husband/partner had at least 1 controlling behaviour towards the respondent P values are based on a 2x2 chi-square test of the lifetime experience of physical and/or sexual violence (experienced versus never experienced) and each variable, and are not adjusted to take other variables into account.
The lower the P value, the stronger the association between the variable and the experience of intimate partner violence: * indicates significant; ** indicates very significant; and *** indicates extremely significant.
0.002 (more than 10% missing) 0.005 (more than 10% missing) 0.004** <0.001*** <0.001*** <0.001*** 0.001 <0.001 (more than 10% missing) <0.001 (more than 10% missing) <0.001 (more than 10% missing) <0.001*** <0.001*** <0.001*** <0.001*** <0.001*** All factors relating to characteristics of the husband or partner were also found to be significant during the uni-variable analysis, but the associations were not always straightforward (Table 10.4).
Unemployed men are more likely to be physically violent to their wives/partners, as are those who drink alcohol, home brew or kava more than once a month, those who use drugs weekly or occasionally, and those who gamble occasionally.

However, it is important to recognise that not all men with these characteristics abuse their wives and partners, and men without these characteristics may also do so.
Overall, women reported that almost half of the husbands/partners (46%) never drink alcohol or home brew, and 9 in 10 (91%) never gamble.

Yet 60% of women have experienced violence in their relationships.

On the other hand, 72% of men drink kava, and the majority drink it daily or weekly (Table 10.5), and some of these men have never hit or beaten their wives.
Table 10.5: Husband’s use of alcohol or home brew, kava and gambling in the past 12 months (number and percentage of ever-partnered respondents, N = 2058, 2060) Frequency of drinking or gambling Alcohol or home brew Gambling Kava Every day Once or twice a week Once or twice a month Occasionally, about once or twice a year Don’t know/don’t remember Sub-total who drink or gamble Sub-total who never drink or gamble Frequency of drinking or gambling Total Number 50 204 270 556 25 1105 953 % 2% 10% 13% 27% 1% 54% 46% Alcohol or home brew Number 800 501 154 19 17 1491 569 % 39% 24% 7% 1% 1% 72% 28% Number 20 57 50 22 29 178 1882 % 1% 3% 2% 1% 1% 9% 91% Kava Number 2058 % 100% Number 2060 % 100% Gambling % Number Page 171 of 249 100% 2060 Table 10.6 and Chart 10.2 show the percentages of husbands/partners in the total sample of ever- Page 170 of 246 partnered respondents where women reported that there are money, family or other problems due to their drinking of alcohol, home brew or kava, or due to their gambling behaviour.
Almost 1 in 3 ever- partnered women (31%) report that there are money problems due to their husband’s/partner’s drinking of kava, and more than 1 in 5 (22%) report family problems due to kava-drinking.

More than 1 in 5 women (22%) also report money problems due to drinking alcohol or home brew, and 16% report family problems.

These are worrying figures, regardless of the links with violence against women.
Table 10.6: Problems due to husband’s/partner's use of alcohol or home brew, kava and gambling in the past 12 months (number and percentage of all ever-partnered respondents, N = 2058, 2060) Type of problem from drinking or Alcohol or home brew (N=2058) Number 453 335 40 Kava (N=2060) Gambling (N=2060) Number Number % 22% 16% 2% 645 459 38 % 31% 22% 2% % 4% 3% 0.2% 85 67 4 gambling Money problems Family problems Other problems If we consider only those families where husbands/partners drink or gamble, the scale of the problems experienced is even more alarming, with almost 1 in 3 women reporting family problems due to drinking alcohol, home brew or kava, and more than 2 in 5 reporting money problems due to these behaviours.
Although the number of men who gamble is relatively small, those families are even more likely to experience money and family problems (Table 10.7).
Table 10.7: Problems due to husband’s/partner's use of alcohol or home brew, kava and gambling in the past 12 months (number and percentage of respondents who reported that their husband/partner drinks or gambles, N = 1105 [alcohol/home brew], 1491 [kava] and 178 [gambling]) Type of problem from drinking or Alcohol or home brew (N=1105) Number 453 335 40 Kava (N=1491) Gambling (N=178) Number Number %* 41% 30% 4% 645 459 38 %* 43% 31% 3% 85 67 4 %* 48% 38% 2% Page 172 of 249 gambling Money problems Family problems Other problems Frequency of drinking or gambling Alcohol or home brew Kava Gambling Total Number 2058 % 100% Number 2060 % 100% Number 2060 % 100% Table 10.6 and Chart 10.2 show the percentages of husbands/partners in the total sample of ever- partnered respondents where women reported that there are money, family or other problems due to their drinking of alcohol, home brew or kava, or due to their gambling behaviour.
Almost 1 in 3 ever- partnered women (31%) report that there are money problems due to their husband’s/partner’s drinking of kava, and more than 1 in 5 (22%) report family problems due to kava-drinking.

More than 1 in 5 women (22%) also report money problems due to drinking alcohol or home brew, and 16% report family problems.

These are worrying figures, regardless of the links with violence against women.
Table 10.6: Problems due to husband’s/partner's use of alcohol or home brew, kava and gambling in the past 12 months (number and percentage of all ever-partnered respondents, N = 2058, 2060) Type of problem from drinking or gambling Alcohol or home brew (N=2058) Gambling (N=2060) Kava (N=2060) Money problems Family problems Other problems Number 453 335 40 % 22% 16% 2% Number 645 459 38 % 31% 22% 2% Number 85 67 4 % 4% 3% 0.2% If we consider only those families where husbands/partners drink or gamble, the scale of the problems experienced is even more alarming, with almost 1 in 3 women reporting family problems due to drinking alcohol, home brew or kava, and more than 2 in 5 reporting money problems due to these behaviours.
Although the number of men who gamble is relatively small, those families are even more likely to experience money and family problems (Table 10.7).
Table 10.7: Problems due to husband’s/partner's use of alcohol or home brew, kava and gambling in the past 12 months (number and percentage of respondents who reported that their husband/partner drinks or gambles, N = 1105 [alcohol/home brew], 1491 [kava] and 178 [gambling]) Type of problem from drinking or gambling Alcohol or home brew (N=1105) Gambling (N=178) Kava (N=1491) Money problems Family problems Other problems Number 453 335 40 %* 41% 30% 4% Number 645 459 38 %* 43% 31% 3% Number 85 67 4 %* 48% 38% 2% * Percentages are based on the number who use alcohol/home brew or kava, or who gamble, reported in Table 10.5.
Page 172 of 249 Inter-generational factors are also important predictors of whether or not men will be violent in their relationships: a man is more likely to beat his own wife/partner if his mother was beaten when he was a child; and if he was beaten regularly as a child by someone in his own family (Table 10.4).

These findings – and those noted above on inter-generational factors for women – suggest that violence is learned behaviour.
However, it is important to remember that some of those men whose mothers were beaten and who were beaten themselves are not physically abusing their wives and partners.

Conversely, some of those who were not beaten as children, and whose mother was not beaten, are Page 171 of 246 now physically abusing their wives and partners – in these cases, the violent behaviour has also been learned, based on pervasive gender inequality and a more general tolerance for violence in Vanuatu society.
In more than 1 in 4 cases, respondents knew that their husbands’/partners’ mothers were beaten (23%), and in 29% of cases they knew that he had also been regularly beaten as a child (Table 10.8).
Table 10.8: Characteristics of husbands/partners (number and percentage of ever-partnered respondents, N = 2050) Characteristics relating to the husband or partner Yes No Husband’s/partner’s mother was beaten* Husband/partner saw or heard mother beaten* Husband/partner regularly beaten as a child Husband/partner violent towards other men Husband/partner had a relationship with another woman while being with respondent with respondent Husband/partner had children with another woman while being Not sure/no answer N % N % 481 23% 1141 56% 443 22% 1167 57% 597 29% 1204 59% 524 26% 1446 71% 551 27% 1436 70% 200 10% 345 87% N 428 440 249 80 63 69 % 21% 21% 12% 4% 3% 3% * In 23 cases the husband’s/partner’s parents did not live together – these are included in “not sure/no answer”.
Men are also more likely to be violent towards their wives and partners if they are violent towards other men, and if they have affairs with other women (Table 10.4).

Among the total population of ever- partnered women, more than 1 in 4 husbands/partners (26%) had been violent towards other men.
In addition, respondents said more than 1 in 4 husbands/partners (27%) had relationships with another woman while they were still with her, and in 10% of cases the respondent also knew that he had children with another woman while being with her (Table 10.8).

One interesting finding to emerge from the uni-variable analysis is that some women do not know about some key characteristics of their husbands/partners.
For example, more than 1 in 5 women (21%) did not know whether their husband/partner had seen or heard his own mother being beaten as a child, and more than 1 in 10 (12%) did not know whether her husband had been beaten regularly by someone in his family.

Due to these high percentages of missing data (because women did not know these things about their husbands) these factors were not able to be included in the multi-variable analysis.
However, they have been found to be strongly associated with intimate partner violence in a range of other countries, including in the Pacific (SPC 2009: 148; SPC 2010: 169).
10.4 FINDINGS FROM THE MULTI-VARIABLE STATISTICAL ANALYSIS OF RISK AND PROTECTIVE FACTORS The multi-variable analysis resulted in 14 factors or variables that are the strongest predictors of women experiencing physical or sexual violence from a husband or partner in her lifetime, after controlling for Page 173 of 249 * Percentages are based on the number who use alcohol/home brew or kava, or who gamble, reported in Table 10.5.
Inter-generational factors are also important predictors of whether or not men will be violent in their relationships: a man is more likely to beat his own wife/partner if his mother was beaten when he was a child; and if he was beaten regularly as a child by someone in his own family (Table 10.4).

These findings – and those noted above on inter-generational factors for women – suggest that violence is learned behaviour.
However, it is important to remember that some of those men whose mothers were beaten and who were beaten themselves are not physically abusing their wives and partners.

Conversely, some of those who were not beaten as children, and whose mother was not beaten, are now physically abusing their wives and partners – in these cases, the violent behaviour has also been learned, based on pervasive gender inequality and a more general tolerance for violence in Vanuatu society.
In more than 1 in 4 cases, respondents knew that their husbands’/partners’ mothers were beaten (23%), and in 29% of cases they knew that he had also been regularly beaten as a child (Table 10.8).
Table 10.8: Characteristics of husbands/partners respondents, N = 2050) Characteristics relating to the husband or partner Yes No (number and percentage of ever-partnered N % Husband’s/partner’s mother was beaten* Husband/partner saw or heard mother beaten* Husband/partner regularly beaten as a child Husband/partner violent towards other men Husband/partner had a relationship with another woman while being with respondent Husband/partner had children with another woman while being with respondent * In 23 cases the husband’s/partner’s parents did not live together – these are included in “not sure/no answer”.
N 481 23% 1141 56% 443 22% 1167 57% 597 29% 1204 59% 524 26% 1446 71% 551 27% 1436 70% N 428 440 249 80 200 10% 87% 345 69 63 % Not sure/no answer % 21% 21% 12% 4% 3% 3% Men are also more likely to be violent towards their wives and partners if they are violent towards other men, and if they have affairs with other women (Table 10.4).

Among the total population of ever- partnered women, more than 1 in 4 husbands/partners (26%) had been violent towards other men.
In addition, respondents said more than 1 in 4 husbands/partners (27%) had relationships with another woman while they were still with her, and in 10% of cases the respondent also knew that he had children with another woman while being with her (Table 10.8).

One interesting finding to emerge from the uni-variable analysis is that some women do not know about some key characteristics of their husbands/partners.
For example, more than 1 in 5 women (21%) did not know whether their husband/partner had seen or heard his own mother being beaten as a child, and more than 1 in 10 (12%) did not know whether her husband had been beaten regularly by someone in his family.

Due to these high percentages of missing data (because women did not know these things about their husbands) these factors were not able to be included in the multi-variable analysis.
However, they have been found to be strongly associated with intimate partner violence in a range of other countries, including in the Pacific (SPC 2009: 148; SPC 2010: 169).
10.4 FINDINGS FROM THE MULTI-VARIABLE STATISTICAL ANALYSIS OF RISK AND PROTECTIVE FACTORS The multi-variable analysis resulted in 14 factors or variables that are the strongest predictors of women experiencing physical or sexual violence from a husband or partner in her lifetime, after controlling for all other for developing conclusions and recommendations for future prevention strategies.

These 14 factors are of three different types: factors.

These all have a robust evidence base Page 173 of 249 1.
Five variables relate to risk factors in the partner’s/husband’s behaviour.

2.

Seven variables relate to the background characteristics of the woman respondent.

3.

Two variables relate to location (province and island/enumeration area).

For each of these factors, Table 10.9 shows both the P value (a measure of statistical significance), Page 172 of 246 and the adjusted odds ratio for each variable.
The odds ratio gives an estimate of the likelihood that any woman who has that particular characteristic will experience partner violence in her lifetime, compared with a reference group.

Odd ratio values of more than 1 indicate that the factor or characteristic (independent variable) is associated with a greater risk of violence compared to the reference category; values less than 1 indicate less risk of experiencing violence and these variables are protective factors.
A 95% confidence interval that includes an odds ratio of 1 indicates the risk is not significantly different to that in the reference group.
Table 10.9: Multivariable analysis of ever-partnered women’s likelihood of experiencing physical or sexual violence by their husband/partner in their lifetime, by background characteristics and risk factors (P values and adjusted odds ratios using logistic regression analysis) Characteristics, risk factors Odds ratio (adjusted for 95% confidence interval for the all other risk factors) odds ratio Lower Upper P value * ** *** Characteristics relating to the husband or partner Husband/partner had at least one controlling behaviour towards the respondent <0.001*** Husband’s/partner’s alcohol or home brew consumption <0.001*** Never drinks Drinks rarely or never (less than once per month) Drinks once or twice per month Drinks every day or once or twice per week May have done No Yes No Yes No Yes Working Disabled Retired Student Husband/partner has been violent with other men Employment status of husband or partner Unemployed/looking for work Characteristics relating to the woman Woman’s alcohol or home brew consumption Drinks rarely or never (less than once per month) Drinks every day or once or twice a week 1.00 4.30 1.00 1.55 2.02 1.82 1.00 2.22 2.44 1.00 1.39 1.00 2.58 0.39 1.22 1.21 1.00 2.35 4.16 4.45 Reference group 1.50 1.84 1.67 0.18 2.34 1.33 0.15 0.30 0.59 1.17 1.62 2.22 1.98 27.28 2.55 1.44 43.33 0.52 2.52 1.25 Reference group Reference group Reference group Reference group 2.04 2.71 0.024* 0.047* 0.002** Page 174 of 249 Husband/partner had another relationship while with the respondent <0.001*** all other recommendations for future prevention strategies.
These 14 factors are of three different types: factors.

These all have a robust evidence base for developing conclusions and 1.

Five variables relate to risk factors in the partner’s/husband’s behaviour.

2.

Seven variables relate to the background characteristics of the woman respondent.

3.

Two variables relate to location (province and island/enumeration area).
For each of these factors, Table 10.9 shows both the P value (a measure of statistical significance), and the adjusted odds ratio for each variable.

The odds ratio gives an estimate of the likelihood that any woman who has that particular characteristic will experience partner violence in her lifetime, compared with a reference group.
Odd ratio values of more than 1 indicate that the factor or characteristic (independent variable) is associated with a greater risk of violence compared to the reference category; values less than 1 indicate less risk of experiencing violence and these variables are protective factors.

A 95% confidence interval that includes an odds ratio of 1 indicates the risk is not significantly different to that in the reference group.
Table 10.9: Multivariable analysis of ever-partnered women’s likelihood of experiencing physical or sexual violence by their husband/partner in their lifetime, by background characteristics and risk factors (P values and adjusted odds ratios using logistic regression analysis) Characteristics, risk factors Odds ratio (adjusted for all other risk factors) 95% confidence interval for the odds ratio P value * ** *** Lower Upper Reference group 1.50 4.16 2.02 1.00 1.55 1.00 4.30 Characteristics relating to the husband or partner Husband/partner had at least one controlling behaviour towards the respondent No Yes Husband’s/partner’s alcohol or home brew consumption Never drinks Drinks rarely or never (less than once per month) Drinks once or twice per month Drinks every day or once or twice per week Husband/partner had another relationship while with the respondent No May have done Yes Husband/partner has been violent with other men No Yes Employment status of husband or partner Working Disabled Retired Student Unemployed/looking for work 1.00 2.58 0.39 1.22 1.21 0.15 0.30 0.59 1.17 1.00 2.22 2.44 0.18 2.34 1.00 1.39 1.82 1.84 1.67 1.33 Reference group Reference group Reference group Reference group 95% confidence interval for the odds ratio 2.04 Lower Characteristics relating to the woman Woman’s alcohol or home brew consumption Drinks rarely or never (less 1.00 than once per month) Odds ratio (adjusted for Characteristics, risk factors all other risk factors) 2.35 Drinks every day or once or twice a week Woman experienced non-partner physical abuse over the age of 15 years No Yes Woman’s mother was hit by a husband/partner when the respondent was a child No Yes Yes and woman saw or heard the violence Earning her own income No Yes 1.00 0.99 1.48 0.89 1.44 1.00 1.53 1.00 1.52 1.46 Reference group Reference group Reference group Woman agrees with at least one justification for a husband hitting his wife 0.063 Woman experienced child sexual abuse Socio-economic status Random variable: location No Yes Low Medium High No Yes Location Port Vila Luganville Torba Sanma Penama Malampa Shefa Tafea 1.00 1.51 1.00 0.82 0.53 1.00 1.28 0.41 0.81 0.67 2.02 1.64 2.44 0.33 1.65 Reference group Reference group Reference group 1.45 1.41 0.79 0.48 1.23 0.21 0.41 0.35 1.08 0.87 1.29 0.18 0.87 1.61 1.61 0.85 0.60 1.32 0.80 1.59 1.30 3.78 3.07 4.60 0.64 3.12 Enumeration area/island Numbers too small to identify specific islands 0.035* P values are adjusted for all other variables using multi-variable logistic regression analysis: * indicates significant; ** indicates very significant; and *** indicates extremely significant.
Factors relating to the husband’s/partner’s behaviour Three of the 5 factors relating to the husband’s or partner’s behaviour are the most significant predictors of a woman’s likelihood of experiencing violence in her relationship.

These are as follows (Table 10.9): i.


Controlling behaviours by the husband/partner (P value extremely significant at <0.001): Women who experienced at least one type of controlling behaviour by their husband/partner were 4½ times more likely to have been physically or sexually abused by him.

ii.
ii.

Alcohol or home brew consumption by husband/partner (P value extremely significant at <0.001): Women with husbands/partners who drink are between 1½ to over 2 times more likely to suffer from physical or sexual partner violence.

Women with husbands/partners who rarely drink (once or twice a year) are 1½ times more likely to suffer from violence compared with women whose husbands never drink.
This risk increases to 2 times more likely for women Page 175 of 249 4.45 <0.001*** <0.001*** 1.62 2.22 1.98 27.28 2.55 1.44 43.33 0.52 2.52 1.25 2.71 Upper 1.58 1.10 1.53 <0.001*** 0.024* 0.047* 0.002** P value * ** *** 0.004** Page 174 of 249 0.005** Page 173 of 246 0.011* 0.024* 0.028* 0.040* Characteristics, risk factors Odds ratio (adjusted for all other risk factors) 95% confidence interval for the odds ratio P value * ** *** Lower Upper Reference group Reference group 1.46 1.00 1.52 0.89 1.44 1.00 0.99 1.48 Woman experienced non-partner physical abuse over the age of 15 years No Yes Woman’s mother was hit by a husband/partner when the respondent was a child No Yes Yes and woman saw or heard the violence Earning her own income No Yes Woman experienced child sexual abuse No Yes Socio-economic status Low Medium High Woman agrees with at least one justification for a husband hitting his wife No Yes 1.00 0.82 0.53 0.79 0.48 1.00 1.28 1.00 1.51 1.00 1.53 1.45 1.23 1.41 Reference group Reference group 1.58 1.10 1.53 1.61 1.61 0.85 0.60 1.32 Reference group Reference group 0.004** 0.005** 0.011* 0.024* 0.028* 0.063 Random variable: location Location Port Vila Luganville Torba Sanma Penama Malampa Shefa Tafea Enumeration area/island P values are adjusted for all other variables using multi-variable logistic regression analysis: * indicates significant; ** indicates very significant; and *** indicates extremely significant.
0.41 0.81 0.67 2.02 1.64 2.44 0.33 1.65 Numbers too small to identify specific islands 0.80 1.59 1.30 3.78 3.07 4.60 0.64 3.12 0.21 0.41 0.35 1.08 0.87 1.29 0.18 0.87 0.035* 0.040* Factors relating to the husband’s/partner’s behaviour Three of the 5 factors relating to the husband’s or partner’s behaviour are the most significant predictors of a woman’s likelihood of experiencing violence in her relationship.

These are as follows (Table 10.9): i. ii.

iii.

iv.
iii.

iv.

Controlling behaviours by the husband/partner (P value extremely significant at <0.001): Women who experienced at least one type of controlling behaviour by their husband/partner were 4½ times more likely to have been physically or sexually abused by him.

Alcohol or home brew consumption by husband/partner (P value extremely significant at <0.001): Women with husbands/partners who drink are between 1½ to over 2 times more likely to suffer from physical or sexual partner violence.
Women with husbands/partners who rarely drink (once or twice a year) are 1½ times more likely to suffer from violence compared with women whose husbands never drink.

This risk increases to 2 times more likely for women whose husbands drink once or twice a month, and is almost 2 times more likely for those who drink once or twice per week or more.

This does not mean that drinking alcohol or home brew Page 175 of 249 causes the violence, although it may trigger it.
Husband/partner having a relationship with another women while with the respondent (P value extremely significant at <0.001): Women with husbands/partners who had a relationship with another woman while being with the respondent are about 2½ times more likely to suffer from Page 174 of 246 physical or sexual violence from their husbands/partners.
Violence towards other men (P value very significant at 0.024): Women whose husbands have been involved in a physical fight with another man are almost 1½ times more likely to suffer from violence compared with women whose husbands have never been physically violent with others.

v. Employment status of the husband/partner (P value very significant at 0.047): Women whose husbands are unemployed are about 1¼ times more likely to suffer from violence compared with women whose husbands are working.
Factors relating to the background characteristics of the woman There are 7 background characteristics of the woman that are significant after all other variables are controlled.

If a woman experiences several of these factors, particularly in her childhood, she is at greater risk of having a relationship with a husband or partner who is violent and controlling.
It should be emphasised that most of these factors are largely beyond her control, particularly those that relate to abuse as a young adult or child, and they should not be mis-interpreted as causes of violence.

These factors are as follows (Table 10.9): i.


Frequent consumption of alcohol or home brew (P value very significant at 0.002): Women who frequently consume alcohol are more than twice as likely to experience partner violence compared with women who never drink, or who drink rarely or occasionally.

Frequent drinking is defined as at least once a week or more.

This may be a reaction to the experience of intimate partner violence, or a trigger for a violent act, or both.
Anecdotal evidence from VWC’s work with clients is that there are a few who have drunk occasionally or frequently because of the violence from their husbands/partners; there are also a few who have been beaten after drinking alcohol or home brew, and this may occur whether she has been drinking with her husband/partner, or without him.
Drinking frequently requires an income, and while a lot of women experience violence (60% of all ever-partnered women, Table 4.1) only 7% of all ever- partnered women drink frequently (Table 10.10).
Another consideration is that studies in several countries have shown that women who have been sexually abused as children (which is strongly associated with intimate partner violence) and those subjected to either physical or sexual partner violence are also more likely to abuse alcohol (WHO 2010: 15; and UN 2006a: 48).

ii.
ii.

The experience of non-partner physical violence (P value very significant at 0.004): Women who were physically abused by people other than their husbands and partners are 1½ times more likely to also experience violence from their partner or husband, compared with those who did not report non-partner physical violence.

iii.
iii.

Mother hit by the respondent’s father or partner (P value very significant at 0.005): Women who actually saw and/or heard their mother being abused were 1½ times more likely to experience intimate partner violence than those women whose mothers did not suffer from physical violence.

Among all ever-partnered women, about half (51%) said that their mother was hit when they were children, by their father or their mother’s partner; 44% actually saw or heard this violence (Table 10.10).
Page 176 of 249 whose husbands drink once or twice a month, and is almost 2 times more likely for those who drink once or twice per week or more.

This does not mean that drinking alcohol or home brew causes the violence, although it may trigger it.
Husband/partner having a relationship with another women while with the respondent (P value extremely significant at <0.001): Women with husbands/partners who had a relationship with another woman while being with the respondent are about 2½ times more likely to suffer from physical or sexual violence from their husbands/partners.
Violence towards other men (P value very significant at 0.024): Women whose husbands have been involved in a physical fight with another man are almost 1½ times more likely to suffer from violence compared with women whose husbands have never been physically violent with others.

Employment status of the husband/partner (P value very significant at 0.047): Women whose husbands are unemployed are about 1¼ times more likely to suffer from violence compared with women whose husbands are working.

iii.

iv.
iii.

iv.

v. Factors relating to the background characteristics of the woman There are 7 background characteristics of the woman that are significant after all other variables are controlled.

If a woman experiences several of these factors, particularly in her childhood, she is at greater risk of having a relationship with a husband or partner who is violent and controlling.
It should be emphasised that most of these factors are largely beyond her control, particularly those that relate to abuse as a young adult or child, and they should not be mis-interpreted as causes of violence.

These factors are as follows (Table 10.9): i. ii.

iii.

iv.

v. vi.
iii.

iv.

v. vi.

Frequent consumption of alcohol or home brew (P value very significant at 0.002): Women who frequently consume alcohol are more than twice as likely to experience partner violence compared with women who never drink, or who drink rarely or occasionally.

Frequent drinking is defined as at least once a week or more.

This may be a reaction to the experience of intimate partner violence, or a trigger for a violent act, or both.
Anecdotal evidence from VWC’s work with clients is that there are a few who have drunk occasionally or frequently because of the violence from their husbands/partners; there are also a few who have been beaten after drinking alcohol or home brew, and this may occur whether she has been drinking with her husband/partner, or without him.
Drinking frequently requires an income, and while a lot of women experience violence (60% of all ever-partnered women, Table 4.1) only 7% of all ever- partnered women drink frequently (Table 10.10).
Another consideration is that studies in several countries have shown that women who have been sexually abused as children (which is strongly associated with intimate partner violence) and those subjected to either physical or sexual partner violence are also more likely to abuse alcohol (WHO 2010: 15; and UN 2006a: 48).
The experience of non-partner physical violence (P value very significant at 0.004): Women who were physically abused by people other than their husbands and partners are 1½ times more likely to also experience violence from their partner or husband, compared with those who did not report non-partner physical violence.
Mother hit by the respondent’s father or partner (P value very significant at 0.005): Women who actually saw and/or heard their mother being abused were 1½ times more likely to experience intimate partner violence than those women whose mothers did not suffer from physical violence.

Among all ever-partnered women, about half (51%) said that their mother was hit when they were children, by their father or their mother’s partner; 44% actually saw or heard this violence (Table 10.10).
Earning her own income (P value significant at 0.011): Women who earn an income are 1½ times more likely to experience partner violence compared with those who do not earn any income.

(This association has already been discussed in chapter 8.)

Child sexual abuse (P value significant at 0.024): Women who were sexually abused as Page 176 of 249 children were 1½ times more likely to experience partner violence from their husband or partner than women who did not suffer from any child sexual abuse.
Socio-economic status (P value significant at 0.028): Women classified as being in the higher socio-economic status group were about half as likely to experience partner violence as those in the low socio-economic group, after adjusting for other key factors.
Although higher Page 175 of 246 education did not prove to be a significant protective factor after controlling for all other variables, it is important to keep in mind that high socio-economic status is also closely associated with higher education levels.

vii.
vii.

Agreement with one or more justification for a man to beat his wife (P value of 0.063): Women who agree with one or more reasons were more than 1¼ times more likely to experience partner violence than women who did not agree with any reason for a husband to beat his wife.
While this factor was not as significant as others after controlling for all other variables, the odds ratio suggests that these attitudes are indeed a risk factor, and this effect would be compounded if women had any of the other background characteristics mentioned above.
Table 10.10: Background characteristics relating to the woman (number and percentage of ever- partnered respondents, N = 2050) Characteristics relating to the woman Yes No Not sure/no answer N 147 % 7% N % 1902 93% Frequent consumption (once a week or more) of alcohol or home brew by the woman Frequent consumption (once a week or more) of kava by the 461 22% 1588 77% Woman’s mother was hit by her father (or by her mother’s 1038 51% 955 47% 57 Woman saw or heard her mother being by her father (or by her 909 44% 1084 53% 57 N 1 1 % 0.05% 0.05% 3% 3% Note: data on other characteristics of women that are risk or protective factors have been presented in earlier chapters.
woman husband/partner) mother’s husband/partner) Factors relating to location The association between location and partner violence is less significant than most other factors discussed above (with a P value of 0.04).

Nevertheless, after adjusting for all other variables, location did emerge as a protective factor (Table 10.9): i.

Women who live in Port Vila and Shefa province are much less likely to experience partner violence in their lifetime than women in other provinces.
These findings strongly suggest that the influence of VWC’s counselling and community education work over the past 19 years has contributed to reducing women’s risk of violence in Port Vila and Shefa, because these two places have no other significant differences with other locations where the survey was carried out.

ii.

Women who live in Malampa and Sanma provinces (excluding Luganville) are about twice as likely to experience partner violence, after adjusting for all the other factors.
Malampa is the province where VWC has the least CAVAWs and has done the least community education.

Even though Luganville does not have the low prevalence rates of Port Vila, they are substantially lower than the rest of Sanma and this also supports the conclusion that the work of the VWC network has been a protective factor.

Page 177 of 249 iv.

v. vi.

vii.


Earning her own income (P value significant at 0.011): Women who earn an income are 1½ times more likely to experience partner violence compared with those who do not earn any income.

(This association has already been discussed in chapter 8.)
Child sexual abuse (P value significant at 0.024): Women who were sexually abused as children were 1½ times more likely to experience partner violence from their husband or partner than women who did not suffer from any child sexual abuse.

Socio-economic status (P value significant at 0.028): Women classified as being in the higher socio-economic status group were about half as likely to experience partner violence as those in the low socio-economic group, after adjusting for other key factors.
Although higher education did not prove to be a significant protective factor after controlling for all other variables, it is important to keep in mind that high socio-economic status is also closely associated with higher education levels.
Agreement with one or more justification for a man to beat his wife (P value of 0.063): Women who agree with one or more reasons were more than 1¼ times more likely to experience partner violence than women who did not agree with any reason for a husband to beat his wife.
While this factor was not as significant as others after controlling for all other variables, the odds ratio suggests that these attitudes are indeed a risk factor, and this effect would be compounded if women had any of the other background characteristics mentioned above.
Table 10.10: Background characteristics relating to the woman (number and percentage of ever- partnered respondents, N = 2050) Characteristics relating to the woman Yes No N 147 % 7% N % Frequent consumption (once a week or more) of alcohol or home brew by the woman Frequent consumption (once a week or more) of kava by the woman Woman’s mother was hit by her father (or by her mother’s husband/partner) Woman saw or heard her mother being by her father (or by her mother’s husband/partner) Note: data on other characteristics of women that are risk or protective factors have been presented in earlier chapters.
22% 1588 77% 44% 1084 53% 1902 93% 1038 51% 47% 461 909 955 57 57 1 3% 3% 0.05% Not sure/no answer % 0.05% N 1 Factors relating to location The association between location and partner violence is less significant than most other factors discussed above (with a P value of 0.04).

Nevertheless, after adjusting for all other variables, location did emerge as a protective factor (Table 10.9): i.
Women who live in Port Vila and Shefa province are much less likely to experience partner violence in their lifetime than women in other provinces.

These findings strongly suggest that the influence of VWC’s counselling and community education work over the past 19 years has contributed to reducing women’s risk of violence in Port Vila and Shefa, because these two places have no other significant differences with other locations where the survey was carried out.

ii.
ii.

Women who live in Malampa and Sanma provinces (excluding Luganville) are about twice as likely to experience partner violence, after adjusting for all the other factors.

Malampa is the province where VWC has the least CAVAWs and has done the least community education.

Even though Luganville does not have the low prevalence rates of Port Vila, they are substantially lower than the rest of Sanma and this also supports the conclusion that the work of the VWC network has been a protective factor.
Island and enumeration area also emerged as a factor indicating that some locations have a significantly higher or lower prevalence of physical and/or sexual violence by husbands and Page 177 of 249 partners than the national rate.

However, it is not possible to identify which islands and enumeration areas demonstrate this effect.

iii.
iii.

10.5 DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS The risk factors identified above have important implications for all stakeholders who aim to effectively prevent and respond to the problem of violence against women in intimate relationships.

However, it is Page 176 of 246 very important not to misconstrue any of these factors as causes of violence against women.
As stated in the United Nations Declaration on the Elimination of Violence against Women, violence against women is the result of “unequal power relations between men and women” (UN 1993: preamble).

Nevertheless, the findings on risk factors do give strong pointers to attitudes, beliefs and behaviours that need to change to strengthen prevention strategies on violence against women.
The strongest associations between risk factors and women’s experience of intimate partner violence related to the characteristics of the husband or partner.

This underlines the crucial importance of working with men of all ages to prevent further violence.

Abuse of alcohol and home brew The survey has demonstrated serious and widespread impacts on families from alcohol, home brew and kava drinking by men, with many families experiencing money or family problems or both as a result.
For these reasons alone, frequent drinking of alcohol and kava need to be addressed, since these problems clearly bring considerable costs to families, communities and the nation as a whole.

This study has identified drinking alcohol and home brew as a risk factor both for the men who perpetrate violence, and for the women who are subjected to violence, although very few women drink alcohol frequently compared with men.
The strong association between drinking alcohol and intimate partner violence has been observed in many other countries.

However, the evidence suggests that alcohol abuse by women is as much a consequence of violence as a trigger (WHO 2010: 21; UN 2006a: 34; SPC 2009: 144; and SPC 2010: 171).

These findings point to the need for community education on the impacts of alcohol and home brew, and for public health programs to reduce harmful consumption patterns.
Currently there is little hard evidence internationally of the impact of programs to reduce alcohol consumption, although there are some promising approaches.

These include community-based programs focused on reducing the availability of alcohol, increasing its price, and banning alcohol advertising, particularly advertising linked to key sporting and cultural events, and advertising targeted at young people (WHO 2010: 51- 52).
However, it is important for all stakeholders to recognise that alcohol and home brew are contributing factors or triggers of intimate partner violence, rather than causes.

As noted above, the relationship between harmful use of alcohol and violence is complex, because not everyone who drinks commits violence; although 54% of husbands/partners drink alcohol or home brew, this compares with 17% of women who identify drunkenness by their husbands/partners as a trigger for his physical violence.
Furthermore, it is important to recognise that reducing alcohol by itself will not necessarily reduce intimate partner violence, and it certainly will not eliminate it.

Excessive and frequent drinking is only one of many risk factors.

Acceptance of violence as a form of discipline and punishment in the community Page 178 of 249 iii.

iii.
iii.

Island and enumeration area also emerged as a factor indicating that some locations have a Island and enumeration area also emerged as a factor indicating that some locations have a significantly higher or lower prevalence of physical and/or sexual violence by husbands and significantly higher or lower prevalence of physical and/or sexual violence by husbands and partners than the national rate.

However, it is not possible to identify which islands and partners than the national rate.
However, it is not possible to identify which islands and enumeration areas demonstrate this effect.

enumeration areas demonstrate this effect.

10.5 DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS 10.5 DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS The risk factors identified above have important implications for all stakeholders who aim to effectively The risk factors identified above have important implications for all stakeholders who aim to effectively prevent and respond to the problem of violence against women in intimate relationships.
However, it is prevent and respond to the problem of violence against women in intimate relationships.

However, it is very important not to misconstrue any of these factors as causes of violence against women.

As stated very important not to misconstrue any of these factors as causes of violence against women.
As stated in the United Nations Declaration on the Elimination of Violence against Women, violence against in the United Nations Declaration on the Elimination of Violence against Women, violence against women is the result of “unequal power relations between men and women” (UN 1993: preamble).

women is the result of “unequal power relations between men and women” (UN 1993: preamble).
Nevertheless, the findings on risk factors do give strong pointers to attitudes, beliefs and behaviours Nevertheless, the findings on risk factors do give strong pointers to attitudes, beliefs and behaviours that need to change to strengthen prevention strategies on violence against women.

that need to change to strengthen prevention strategies on violence against women.
The strongest associations between risk factors and women’s experience of intimate partner violence The strongest associations between risk factors and women’s experience of intimate partner violence related to the characteristics of the husband or partner.

This underlines the crucial importance of related to the characteristics of the husband or partner.

This underlines the crucial importance of working with men of all ages to prevent further violence.


Abuse of alcohol and home brew Abuse of alcohol and home brew The survey has demonstrated serious and widespread impacts on families from alcohol, home brew The survey has demonstrated serious and widespread impacts on families from alcohol, home brew and kava drinking by men, with many families experiencing money or family problems or both as a and kava drinking by men, with many families experiencing money or family problems or both as a result.
For these reasons alone, frequent drinking of alcohol and kava need to be addressed, since result.

For these reasons alone, frequent drinking of alcohol and kava need to be addressed, since these problems clearly bring considerable costs to families, communities and the nation as a whole.

these problems clearly bring considerable costs to families, communities and the nation as a whole.
This study has identified drinking alcohol and home brew as a risk factor both for the men who This study has identified drinking alcohol and home brew as a risk factor both for the men who perpetrate violence, and for the women who are subjected to violence, although very few women drink perpetrate violence, and for the women who are subjected to violence, although very few women drink alcohol frequently compared with men.
The strong association between drinking alcohol and intimate alcohol frequently compared with men.

The strong association between drinking alcohol and intimate partner violence has been observed in many other countries.

However, the evidence suggests that partner violence has been observed in many other countries.
However, the evidence suggests that alcohol abuse by women is as much a consequence of violence as a trigger (WHO 2010: 21; UN alcohol abuse by women is as much a consequence of violence as a trigger (WHO 2010: 21; UN 2006a: 34; SPC 2009: 144; and SPC 2010: 171).

2006a: 34; SPC 2009: 144; and SPC 2010: 171).


These findings point to the need for community education on the impacts of alcohol and home brew, These findings point to the need for community education on the impacts of alcohol and home brew, and for public health programs to reduce harmful consumption patterns.

Currently there is little hard and for public health programs to reduce harmful consumption patterns.
Currently there is little hard evidence internationally of the impact of programs to reduce alcohol consumption, although there are evidence internationally of the impact of programs to reduce alcohol consumption, although there are some promising approaches.

These include community-based programs focused on reducing the some promising approaches.
These include community-based programs focused on reducing the availability of alcohol, increasing its price, and banning alcohol advertising, particularly advertising availability of alcohol, increasing its price, and banning alcohol advertising, particularly advertising linked to key sporting and cultural events, and advertising targeted at young people (WHO 2010: 51- linked to key sporting and cultural events, and advertising targeted at young people (WHO 2010: 51- 52).
However, it is important for all stakeholders to recognise that alcohol and home brew are 52).

However, it is important for all stakeholders to recognise that alcohol and home brew are contributing factors or triggers of intimate partner violence, rather than causes.

As noted above, the contributing factors or triggers of intimate partner violence, rather than causes.
As noted above, the relationship between harmful use of alcohol and violence is complex, because not everyone who drinks relationship between harmful use of alcohol and violence is complex, because not everyone who drinks commits violence; although 54% of husbands/partners drink alcohol or home brew, this compares with commits violence; although 54% of husbands/partners drink alcohol or home brew, this compares with 17% of women who identify drunkenness by their husbands/partners as a trigger for his physical 17% of women who identify drunkenness by their husbands/partners as a trigger for his physical violence.
Furthermore, it is important to recognise that reducing alcohol by itself will not necessarily violence.

Furthermore, it is important to recognise that reducing alcohol by itself will not necessarily reduce intimate partner violence, and it certainly will not eliminate it.

Excessive and frequent drinking is reduce intimate partner violence, and it certainly will not eliminate it.

Excessive and frequent drinking is only one of many risk factors.

only one of many risk factors.


Acceptance of violence as a form of discipline and punishment in the community Acceptance of violence as a form of discipline and punishment in the community Several risk factors suggest that there is a wider pattern of acceptance of violence in general in the community, particularly as a form of discipline and punishment.
These include women’s experience of non-partner violence since the age of 15 (which affects more than 1 in 4 women, see chapter 5), men Page 178 of 249 Page 178 of 249 being beaten as children (which affects more than 1 in 4 men), and men being violent towards other men.
Studies in other countries have also shown that exposure to violence during childhood increased both the likelihood of men perpetrating violence in intimate relationships, and of women being subjected to intimate partner violence (WHO 2010: 22).
A qualitative study undertaken by the Pacific Children’s Program (PCP) in Vanuatu also found high rates of child abuse: 73% of respondents in that study said they had seen or heard of various forms of abuse of children, including physical, emotional, sexual and Page 177 of 246 neglect (PCP 2004 : 1, 7).

In addition, 3 in 5 women agree with one or more justification for a man to beat his wife.
Other studies in Vanuatu have also found high levels of tolerance for physical violence as a form of punishment, particularly against women (Tor and Toka 2004: 43; and FSP 2005: 23, 26, 32).

The acceptance of violence as a legitimate way of resolving conflict and meting out punishment, and the normalisation of these attitudes in the community, are a huge challenge for all stakeholders who aim to address the problem of violence against women.
Not surprisingly, a review of evidence by the United Nations in a study on violence against children concluded that social acceptance of violence is a major problem that needs to be addressed in programs aiming to address the maltreatment of children, particularly the view that violence is acceptable when there is no lasting visible injury (UN 2006b: 9).
Several social commentators believe that Vanuatu generally has well-functioning traditional support networks and high levels of social cohesion compared with many other countries (for example, Freeland and Robertson 2010: vii); the data in chapter 9 on social capital support this view.
There is great potential to address the problem of violence, particularly if Chiefs, church and other community leaders take up this challenge by condemning the use of violence as a form of punishment and discipline, and as a way of resolving conflict in relationships of any kind.

A WHO review of evidence on effective approaches to prevent intimate partner violence concludes that strategies aimed at preventing all forms of child maltreatment are essential for reducing intimate partner violence.
Promising approaches are: including non-violent and non-discriminatory attitudes and behaviours in school curricula; reinforcing good parenting behaviours including promoting non-violent forms of discipline; and school-based programs that help children to recognise the risk of sexual abuse in various situations (WHO 2010: 33; and UN 2006b: 9).
Inequality between women and men The majority of risk factors that increase women’s likelihood of experiencing intimate partner violence are related directly or indirectly to gender inequality in Vanuatu society.
For example, seeing or hearing their mother beaten significantly increases the likelihood that men will perpetrate violence against their wives/partners, and that women will be subjected to intimate agreeing that it is justified for a man to beat his wife increases women’s risk of violence;  women who are subjected to controlling behaviours by their husbands/partners have a greater likelihood of being physically or sexually abused by them; and  men who have affairs with other women are more likely to physically or sexually abuse their Also, behaviours and situations that challenge traditional gender roles are significant risk factors:  a woman who earns her own income is more likely to be physically or sexually abused by her   partner violence; wives and partners.
husband/partner; Page 179 of 249 Several risk factors suggest that there is a wider pattern of acceptance of violence in general in the community, particularly as a form of discipline and punishment.

These include women’s experience of non-partner violence since the age of 15 (which affects more than 1 in 4 women, see chapter 5), men being beaten as children (which affects more than 1 in 4 men), and men being violent towards other men.
Studies in other countries have also shown that exposure to violence during childhood increased both the likelihood of men perpetrating violence in intimate relationships, and of women being subjected to intimate partner violence (WHO 2010: 22).
A qualitative study undertaken by the Pacific Children’s Program (PCP) in Vanuatu also found high rates of child abuse: 73% of respondents in that study said they had seen or heard of various forms of abuse of children, including physical, emotional, sexual and neglect (PCP 2004 : 1, 7).

In addition, 3 in 5 women agree with one or more justification for a man to beat his wife.
Other studies in Vanuatu have also found high levels of tolerance for physical violence as a form of punishment, particularly against women (Tor and Toka 2004: 43; and FSP 2005: 23, 26, 32).

The acceptance of violence as a legitimate way of resolving conflict and meting out punishment, and the normalisation of these attitudes in the community, are a huge challenge for all stakeholders who aim to address the problem of violence against women.
Not surprisingly, a review of evidence by the United Nations in a study on violence against children concluded that social acceptance of violence is a major problem that needs to be addressed in programs aiming to address the maltreatment of children, particularly the view that violence is acceptable when there is no lasting visible injury (UN 2006b: 9).
Several social commentators believe that Vanuatu generally has well-functioning traditional support networks and high levels of social cohesion compared with many other countries (for example, Freeland and Robertson 2010: vii); the data in chapter 9 on social capital support this view.
There is great potential to address the problem of violence, particularly if Chiefs, church and other community leaders take up this challenge by condemning the use of violence as a form of punishment and discipline, and as a way of resolving conflict in relationships of any kind.

A WHO review of evidence on effective approaches to prevent intimate partner violence concludes that strategies aimed at preventing all forms of child maltreatment are essential for reducing intimate partner violence.
Promising approaches are: including non-violent and non-discriminatory attitudes and behaviours in school curricula; reinforcing good parenting behaviours including promoting non-violent forms of discipline; and school-based programs that help children to recognise the risk of sexual abuse in various situations (WHO 2010: 33; and UN 2006b: 9).
Inequality between women and men The majority of risk factors that increase women’s likelihood of experiencing intimate partner violence are related directly or indirectly to gender inequality in Vanuatu society.
For example,  seeing or hearing their mother beaten significantly increases the likelihood that men will perpetrate violence against their wives/partners, and that women will be subjected to intimate partner violence; agreeing that it is justified for a man to beat his wife increases women’s risk of violence;   women who are subjected to controlling behaviours by their husbands/partners have a greater likelihood of being physically or sexually abused by them; and  men who have affairs with other women are more likely to physically or sexually abuse their wives and partners.
Also, behaviours and situations that challenge traditional gender roles are significant risk factors:    a woman who earns her own income is more likely to be physically or sexually abused by her husband/partner; a woman who agrees with one or more reason for refusing sex is more likely to be physically or sexually abused by her husband/partner; and Page 179 of 249 a man who is unemployed is significantly more likely to physically or sexually abuse his wife/partner.
These attitudes and behaviours are caused by unequal gender power relations, and they also reinforce inequality between women and men, as does the violence itself.

Most of the associations between intimate partner violence and these behaviours and attitudes have also been found in studies in other Page 178 of 246 countries, including in the Pacific (SPC 2009: 147-148; SPC 2010: 168-169; WHO 2005: 69; UN 2006a: 29, 34; and WHO 2010: 27-32).
When women step outside traditional roles and expectations – by earning more money than her husband, being mobile and not accounting for her time when she is away from the home, making her own decisions, or refusing sex – violence is a way of maintaining male authority through “punishment”, “discipline” or “teaching her a lesson”, or as a way of resolving disagreements or conflicts in the relationship.
A study by the United Nations Secretary General concluded: “When a woman is subjected to violence for transgressing social norms governing female sexuality and family roles, for example, the violence is not only individual but, through its punitive and controlling functions, also reinforces prevailing gender norms.

Acts of violence against women cannot be attributed solely to individual psychological factors or socio - economic conditions such as unemployment.
Explanations for violence that focus primarily on individual behaviours and personal histories, such as alcohol abuse or a history of exposure to violence, overlook the broader impact of systemic gender inequality and women’s subordination.
Efforts to uncover the factors that are associated with violence against women should therefore be situated within this larger social context of power relations.” (UN 2006a: 29) The close association between women’s experience of physical and/or sexual violence and controlling behaviours by the husband/partner highlights the fact that violent men use a range of strategies to exert power over and control women and has been demonstrated in a range of different studies (WHO 2005: 84; SPC 2009: 149; and SPC 2010: 173).
The data from chapter 4 illustrated that unequal gender relations are maintained by a web of intimidation, emotional abuse, threats of violence, and various physically violent acts, in addition to controlling behaviours.

In addition, the situations most commonly mentioned by women as triggers for violence are also expressions of unequal gender power relations.

Women most commonly report that their husbands/partners hit them for no reason, because they have been disobedient, or to discipline them.
These triggers underline the fact that many men believe they have a right to treat women in this inhuman and degrading way.

Other common triggers are directly linked to women stepping outside traditional roles or expectations, or not fulfilling men’s expectations of what a woman should do.

Many other studies have found that men who are violent towards their wives and partners are also more likely to have multiple sexual partners (WHO 2005: 69; SPC 2009: 149; and SPC 2010: 173).
In the Vanuatu study, this link between violence and unfaithfulness was one of the strongest predictors of a woman experiencing violence.

This is further evidence that gender inequality is the root cause of violence; as the WHO concluded, “the same notions of masculinity that condone male infidelity also tend to support male violence or control” (WHO 2005: 69).
The fact that more than 1 in 4 women have husbands/partners who have other sexual partners is also a worrying finding because it puts women at increased risk of contracting sexually transmitted infections including HIV.

The fact that 1 in 10 have children with more than one woman also has long-term and potentially damaging social consequences, including poverty among these women and their children.
Page 180 of 249   a woman who agrees with one or more reason for refusing sex is more likely to be physically or sexually abused by her husband/partner; and a man who is unemployed is significantly more likely to physically or sexually abuse his wife/partner.

These attitudes and behaviours are caused by unequal gender power relations, and they also reinforce inequality between women and men, as does the violence itself.
Most of the associations between intimate partner violence and these behaviours and attitudes have also been found in studies in other countries, including in the Pacific (SPC 2009: 147-148; SPC 2010: 168-169; WHO 2005: 69; UN 2006a: 29, 34; and WHO 2010: 27-32).
When women step outside traditional roles and expectations – by earning more money than her husband, being mobile and not accounting for her time when she is away from the home, making her own decisions, or refusing sex – violence is a way of maintaining male authority through “punishment”, “discipline” or “teaching her a lesson”, or as a way of resolving disagreements or conflicts in the relationship.
A study by the United Nations Secretary General concluded: “When a woman is subjected to violence for transgressing social norms governing female sexuality and family roles, for example, the violence is not only individual but, through its punitive and controlling functions, also reinforces prevailing gender norms.

Acts of violence against women cannot be attributed solely to individual psychological factors or socio - economic conditions such as unemployment.
Explanations for violence that focus primarily on individual behaviours and personal histories, such as alcohol abuse or a history of exposure to violence, overlook inequality and women’s subordination.
Efforts to uncover the factors that are associated with violence against women should therefore be situated within this larger social context of power relations.” (UN 2006a: 29) impact of systemic gender the broader The close association between women’s experience of physical and/or sexual violence and controlling behaviours by the husband/partner highlights the fact that violent men use a range of strategies to exert power over and control women and has been demonstrated in a range of different studies (WHO 2005: 84; SPC 2009: 149; and SPC 2010: 173).
The data from chapter 4 illustrated that unequal gender relations are maintained by a web of intimidation, emotional abuse, threats of violence, and various physically violent acts, in addition to controlling behaviours.

In addition, the situations most commonly mentioned by women as triggers for violence are also expressions of unequal gender power relations.

Women most commonly report their husbands/partners hit them for no reason, because they have been disobedient, or to discipline them.
These triggers underline the fact that many men believe they have a right to treat women in this inhuman and degrading way.

Other common triggers are directly linked to women stepping outside traditional roles or expectations, or not fulfilling men’s expectations of what a woman should do.

that Many other studies have found that men who are violent towards their wives and partners are also more likely to have multiple sexual partners (WHO 2005: 69; SPC 2009: 149; and SPC 2010: 173).
In the Vanuatu study, this link between violence and unfaithfulness was one of the strongest predictors of a woman experiencing violence.

This is further evidence that gender inequality is the root cause of violence; as the WHO concluded, “the same notions of masculinity that condone male infidelity also tend to support male violence or control” (WHO 2005: 69).
The fact that more than 1 in 4 women have husbands/partners who have other sexual partners is also a worrying finding because it puts women at increased risk of contracting sexually transmitted infections including HIV.

The fact that 1 in 10 have children with more than one woman also has long-term and potentially damaging social consequences, including poverty among these women and their children.
Page 180 of 249 Page 179 of 246 Women’s rights and information about services All these findings highlight the need to focus on women’s human rights including their right to equality as a centrepiece of any effective strategy to deal with violence against women in intimate relationships.

With so many risk factors linked to gender inequality, it is clear that any long-term strategies to reduce violence against women must focus on changing attitudes about women’s rights and gender inequality.
The findings in chapter 9 showed that than 1 in 4 women said that they sought help because they knew their rights and more than 1 in 10 left home temporarily for the same reason; this has been the foundation stone of VWC’s approach since its establishment, in addition to providing information about services.
The significance of location as a protective factor is a remarkable achievement for the VWC network; this is an association that has not been demonstrated in other Pacific countries where the WHO methodology has been used (SPC 2009 and SPC 2010), and it provides strong evidence of the need to continue using a rights-based approach.
In addition, other strategies used by VWC have been recognised throughout the region and internationally as being on the cutting edge of prevention work; these include the home-grown strategy of community mobilisation through the establishment of CAVAWs; and the male advocacy program that trains and engages men to work for the advancement of women’s rights and to reduce and confront violence wherever it occurs (AusAID 2008: 178-181).
While these programs need to continue, the findings also point to the need for more attention from all stakeholders in order to address the gender inequalities that cause violence against women.

AusAID’s 2008 study on violence against women in Melanesia highlighted the importance of transforming gender norms, and also the harm that can be done if stakeholders do not work within a rights-based approach (AusAID 2008: xi, 55).
This means challenging and changing attitudes and behaviours that condone violence towards women as a legitimate or “normal” form of punishment, including the beliefs that men have a right to punish or discipline women, that women are possessions owned by men, that men have the right to control women, and that women must submit to men in all respects.
A review of evidence-based approaches to primary prevention of intimate partner violence by the WHO highlights the effectiveness of empowering women through participatory approaches, using mass media to challenge gender inequality and discrimination, working with men as VWC has done to advance women’s rights, and mobilising communities as VWC has done with CAVAWs (WHO 2010: 40).
Other promising approaches include addressing violence against women and gender inequality in primary and secondary school curricula, ensuring that violence against women and gender equality components are included in all youth activities and programs, and using entertainment education such as theatre to challenge gender-based discrimination and violence (AusAID 2008: 184-185).
Page 181 of 249 Page 180 of 246 CHAPTER 11: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 11.1 CONCLUSIONS This survey opens a door to women’s lives: it challenges Vanuatu’s view of itself as a happy nation that values and protects family and children.

It explodes myths about who suffers from violence, the severity of violence and its impacts, and where it occurs.
It reveals an intense web of intimidation, threats, humiliation, controlling behaviour and acts of physical and sexual violence imposed on the women who suffer from violence by their husbands and partners.
It shows pervasive patterns of gender inequality in Vanuatu society, including widespread beliefs and attitudes that directly undermine women’s human rights; and it shows that violence against women cannot be prevented unless these patterns of unequal power between women and men (gender power relations) are transformed.

The survey also shows that there are high levels of social cohesion and social capital in Vanuatu, with much respect and trust given to chiefs and church leaders.
There is considerable support within the community in favour of women’s rights and non-violent approaches to resolving conflict in families.

These factors all put Vanuatu in a good position to reduce and prevent all forms of violence against women, by building on the positive work that has already been done by VWC and its branches and CAVAWS, other civil society organisations, government, chiefs and other community leaders.
Prevalence of violence against women Vanuatu has alarmingly high rates of violence against women by husbands or intimate partners: 3 in 5 women experienced physical and/or sexual violence in their lifetime; 2 in 3 experienced emotional violence; about 1 in 4 was subjected to several forms of control by their husband or partner, and most of these were living with physical and sexual violence.
Of those who experienced physical and/or sexual violence by husbands/partners, more than 1 in 5 also had their savings or earnings taken from them, and more than 2 in 5 had their husband/partner refuse to give them money for household expenses.

Most women who are subjected to violence by husbands or partners experience multiple forms of violence.

The prevalence of intimate partner violence in Vanuatu is among the highest in the world.
It occurs in all provinces and islands, and among all age groups, education levels, socio-economic groups and religions.

Contrary to the expectations of some community leaders, rates of physical and sexual violence are higher in rural areas than in urban areas.

For most women who experience physical or sexual violence, it occurs frequently, and it is often very severe, including being punched, dragged, kicked, beaten up, choked, burned, or hit with a weapon such as a piece of wood, iron bar, knife or axe.
Pregnancy is a time of relative safety for some women living with violence.

Nevertheless 15% of all women who have ever been pregnant have been hit during the pregnancy, and 1 in 10 have been hit or kicked in the stomach.

There are also high rates of physical and sexual violence against women committed by people who are not their husbands or intimate partners.

Almost half of the women interviewed had experienced non- partner physical or sexual violence or both since they turned 15.
Most non-partner physical abuse (experienced by more than 1 in 4 women) was by male family members, female family members, teachers and boyfriends.

Most of the non-partner sexual abuse (affecting 1 in 3 women) was by boyfriends or male family members.

The prevalence of sexual abuse against girls under the age of 15 is also one of the very highest in the world.

Almost 1 in 3 women were sexually abused before the age of 15 years, and the majority of perpetrators were male family members and boyfriends.
For more than 1 in 4 women, their first sexual Page 182 of 249 experience was forced.

These findings are disturbing because the survey has demonstrated that non- partner physical violence and child sexual abuse are both significant risk factors which increase the likelihood that women will be subjected to violence by their husbands and partners later in life.
The complex pattern of intimidation and multiple forms of violence experienced by so many women Page 181 of 246 needs to be taken into account by all service providers, the law and justice sector, chiefs, faith-based organisations, civil society organisations and families who are asked to help women deal with violence.
Controlling behaviours by husbands and partners prevent women from finding out about their legal and human rights, reporting the violence to authorities, and telling family, friends, or community and church leaders.

Attitudes to violence against women and women’s rights The high rates of all forms of violence against women including non-partner violence shows that the use of violence as a form of punishment and discipline is accepted as a normal part of behaviour within many families and communities.
Women themselves minimise the impact of the violence on their health and well-being, and some say that they have not sought help because the violence was “normal”.

Many women agree with a range of statements that seriously undermine women’s rights – such as the notion that a good wife must obey her husband even if she disagrees with him, that the man should be the boss, that she becomes his property after bride price is paid, or that he should choose her friends.
Between 40% and 53% of women agreed with these statements.

Three in 5 women agree with at least 1 justification for a man to beat his wife: more than 1 in 3 believe that violence is justified if a wife is disobedient to her husband; more than 1 in 4 thinks it is all right for him to beat her to discipline her or teach her a lesson; and almost 1 in 3 believe that a man is justified in beating his wife if bride price has been paid.
While most women have a strong sense of their sexual autonomy, between 12% and 23% are nevertheless unclear about their right to refuse sex in some situations, and 40% of women are unclear if they have the right to refuse sex if bride price has been paid.

These attitudes demonstrate extraordinary control and power over women by men; they both reflect and perpetuate grossly unequal gender power relations.
Most women believe that bride price has a positive impact on how they are treated by their husband and his family.

Anecdotal evidence indicates that women see bride price as positive because it confers legal rights on her and her children, and it secures her place and identity in the family.

Nevertheless, the findings demonstrate clearly that bride price does not protect women from domestic violence.
On the contrary, in relation to physical and sexual abuse by husbands and partners, the findings show that many women are confused about whether bride price protects their rights or undermines them.

On the other hand, it is important to remember that 2 in 5 women have not been physically or sexually abused by their husbands/partners, and more than 1 in 3 women do not agree with any justifications for a man to beat his wife.
About half of respondents disagreed with each of the statements that undermine women’s rights; this varied from 40% to 60% depending on the statement.

In addition, although 4 in 5 women believe that family problems should only be discussed in the family, almost 3 in 4 believe that people outside the family should intervene if a man mistreats his wife.

These findings indicate that there is a strong foundation of support in the community in favour of women’s rights.
Page 183 of 249 The prevalence of sexual abuse against girls under the age of 15 is also one of the very highest in the world.

Almost 1 in 3 women were sexually abused before the age of 15 years, and the majority of perpetrators were male family members and boyfriends.

For more than 1 in 4 women, their first sexual experience was forced.
These findings are disturbing because the survey has demonstrated that non- partner physical violence and child sexual abuse are both significant risk factors which increase the likelihood that women will be subjected to violence by their husbands and partners later in life.
The complex pattern of intimidation and multiple forms of violence experienced by so many women needs to be taken into account by all service providers, the law and justice sector, chiefs, faith-based organisations, civil society organisations and families who are asked to help women deal with violence.
Controlling behaviours by husbands and partners prevent women from finding out about their legal and human rights, reporting the violence to authorities, and telling family, friends, or community and church leaders.

Attitudes to violence against women and women’s rights The high rates of all forms of violence against women including non-partner violence shows that the use of violence as a form of punishment and discipline is accepted as a normal part of behaviour within many families and communities.
Women themselves minimise the impact of the violence on their health and well-being, and some say that they have not sought help because the violence was “normal”.

Many women agree with a range of statements that seriously undermine women’s rights – such as the notion that a good wife must obey her husband even if she disagrees with him, that the man should be the boss, that she becomes his property after bride price is paid, or that he should choose her friends.
Between 40% and 53% of women agreed with these statements.

Three in 5 women agree with at least 1 justification for a man to beat his wife: more than 1 in 3 believe that violence is justified if a wife is disobedient to her husband; more than 1 in 4 thinks it is all right for him to beat her to discipline her or teach her a lesson; and almost 1 in 3 believe that a man is justified in beating his wife if bride price has been paid.
While most women have a strong sense of their sexual autonomy, between 12% and 23% are nevertheless unclear about their right to refuse sex in some situations, and 40% of women are unclear if they have the right to refuse sex if bride price has been paid.

These attitudes demonstrate extraordinary control and power over women by men; they both reflect and perpetuate grossly unequal gender power relations.
Most women believe that bride price has a positive impact on how they are treated by their husband and his family.

Anecdotal evidence indicates that women see bride price as positive because it confers legal rights on her and her children, and it secures her place and identity in the family.

Nevertheless, the findings demonstrate clearly that bride price does not protect women from domestic violence.
On the contrary, in relation to physical and sexual abuse by husbands and partners, the findings show that many women are confused about whether bride price protects their rights or undermines them.

On the other hand, it is important to remember that 2 in 5 women have not been physically or sexually abused by their husbands/partners, and more than 1 in 3 women do not agree with any justifications for a man to beat his wife.
About half of respondents disagreed with each of the statements that undermine women’s rights; this varied from 40% to 60% depending on the statement.

In addition, although 4 in 5 women believe that family problems should only be discussed in the family, almost 3 in 4 believe that people outside the family should intervene if a man mistreats his wife.

These findings indicate that there is a strong foundation of support in the community in favour of women’s rights.
Education has enormous potential to help protect women from violence in their intimate relationships.

Although the level of education was not a clear predictor of women’s attitudes to violence, gender roles or women’s human rights, all forms of violence tended to decline as the level of women’s education Page 183 of 249 increased.
The findings also indicate that primary and secondary schools could do much more to educate both boys and girls about human rights, and to reinforce the view that violence is never justified in any circumstances, and certainly not in intimate relationships.

Impacts of violence against women Page 182 of 246 The impacts of violence against women are wide-ranging and severe.
They include serious short-term and long-term impacts on women’s physical, mental and reproductive health; and impacts on children’s emotional well-being and schooling, which reduce their opportunities for development and pre-dispose them to the risk of violence in their intimate relationships as adults.
There are significant economic costs to communities and the nation to deal with these health and other impacts; and ongoing lost opportunities for social and economic development at community and national level.

The rates of injury from domestic physical and sexual violence are alarming and impose substantial social and economic costs, in addition to the pain and suffering of individual women.
One in 4 ever- partnered women has been injured in her lifetime due to violence from her husband or partner, and 1 in 10 was injured in the previous 12 months before the survey.

The data show that more than 2 women in Vanuatu are hurt badly enough every week to need health care, more than 2 are admitted to hospital every week, and between 1 and 2 women are knocked unconscious every week due to violence by intimate partners.
Among those women who have been injured, more than 1 in 5 now has a permanent disability.

The impacts of physical, sexual and emotional violence on women’s mental health have been under- estimated.

Women living with violence have more mental health problems and are between 3 and 4 times more likely to attempt suicide than women who are not experiencing violence.
Women who have experienced physical or sexual violence have a significantly higher rate of miscarriage, and this is even higher for those physically abused during pregnancy.

Children living in families where their mothers are subjected to physical and/or sexual abuse are more likely to have a range of emotional and behavioural problems including aggressive behaviour towards their mothers and other children.
They are also twice as likely as other children to repeat years of schooling, and to drop out of school.

These long-term consequences for children are part of the overall economic costs of violence against women.

Women living with physical and/or sexual violence are more likely to have restrictions placed on their mobility and their participation in organisations, and they are more likely to be prevented from continuing their education.
More than 2 in 3 women experience some form of coercive control by their husbands/partners; more than 2 in 5 need permission before getting health care and almost half before they undertake any activities.

This type of control is bad for women’s and children’s health; it prevents women from taking opportunities and undermines their capacity to participate in social and economic development.
Almost 1 in 3 women living with violence have had their work disrupted due to intimate partner violence, and women living with violence are more likely to have given up or refused a job due to their husband’s/partner’s behaviour.

All these impacts have a negative effect on national economic and social development.

Women’s coping strategies Page 184 of 249 Education has enormous potential to help protect women from violence in their intimate relationships.
Although the level of education was not a clear predictor of women’s attitudes to violence, gender roles Although the level of education was not a clear predictor of women’s attitudes to violence, gender roles or women’s human rights, all forms of violence tended to decline as the level of women’s education or women’s human rights, all forms of violence tended to decline as the level of women’s education increased.
The findings also indicate that primary and secondary schools could do much more to increased.

The findings also indicate that primary and secondary schools could do much more to educate both boys and girls about human rights, and to reinforce the view that violence is never educate both boys and girls about human rights, and to reinforce the view that violence is never justified in any circumstances, and certainly not in intimate relationships.


Impacts of violence against women Impacts of violence against women The impacts of violence against women are wide-ranging and severe.

They include serious short-term The impacts of violence against women are wide-ranging and severe.
They include serious short-term and long-term impacts on women’s physical, mental and reproductive health; and impacts on children’s and long-term impacts on women’s physical, mental and reproductive health; and impacts on children’s emotional well-being and schooling, which reduce their opportunities for development and pre-dispose emotional well-being and schooling, which reduce their opportunities for development and pre-dispose them to the risk of violence in their intimate relationships as adults.
There are significant economic them to the risk of violence in their intimate relationships as adults.

There are significant economic costs to communities and the nation to deal with these health and other impacts; and ongoing lost costs to communities and the nation to deal with these health and other impacts; and ongoing lost opportunities for social and economic development at community and national level.

opportunities for social and economic development at community and national level.
The rates of injury from domestic physical and sexual violence are alarming and impose substantial The rates of injury from domestic physical and sexual violence are alarming and impose substantial social and economic costs, in addition to the pain and suffering of individual women.

One in 4 ever- social and economic costs, in addition to the pain and suffering of individual women.
One in 4 ever- partnered women has been injured in her lifetime due to violence from her husband or partner, and 1 in partnered women has been injured in her lifetime due to violence from her husband or partner, and 1 in 10 was injured in the previous 12 months before the survey.

The data show that more than 2 women in 10 was injured in the previous 12 months before the survey.
The data show that more than 2 women in Vanuatu are hurt badly enough every week to need health care, more than 2 are admitted to hospital Vanuatu are hurt badly enough every week to need health care, more than 2 are admitted to hospital every week, and between 1 and 2 women are knocked unconscious every week due to violence by every week, and between 1 and 2 women are knocked unconscious every week due to violence by intimate partners.
Among those women who have been injured, more than 1 in 5 now has a permanent intimate partners.

Among those women who have been injured, more than 1 in 5 now has a permanent disability.

disability.

The impacts of physical, sexual and emotional violence on women’s mental health have been under- The impacts of physical, sexual and emotional violence on women’s mental health have been under- estimated.

Women living with violence have more mental health problems and are between 3 and 4 estimated.
Women living with violence have more mental health problems and are between 3 and 4 times more likely to attempt suicide than women who are not experiencing violence.

Women who have times more likely to attempt suicide than women who are not experiencing violence.
Women who have experienced physical or sexual violence have a significantly higher rate of miscarriage, and this is even experienced physical or sexual violence have a significantly higher rate of miscarriage, and this is even higher for those physically abused during pregnancy.

higher for those physically abused during pregnancy.
Children living in families where their mothers are subjected to physical and/or sexual abuse are more Children living in families where their mothers are subjected to physical and/or sexual abuse are more likely to have a range of emotional and behavioural problems including aggressive behaviour towards likely to have a range of emotional and behavioural problems including aggressive behaviour towards their mothers and other children.
They are also twice as likely as other children to repeat years of their mothers and other children.

They are also twice as likely as other children to repeat years of schooling, and to drop out of school.

These long-term consequences for children are part of the overall schooling, and to drop out of school.

These long-term consequences for children are part of the overall economic costs of violence against women.

economic costs of violence against women.


Women living with physical and/or sexual violence are more likely to have restrictions placed on their Women living with physical and/or sexual violence are more likely to have restrictions placed on their mobility and their participation in organisations, and they are more likely to be prevented from mobility and their participation in organisations, and they are more likely to be prevented from continuing their education.
More than 2 in 3 women experience some form of coercive control by their continuing their education.

More than 2 in 3 women experience some form of coercive control by their husbands/partners; more than 2 in 5 need permission before getting health care and almost half before husbands/partners; more than 2 in 5 need permission before getting health care and almost half before they undertake any activities.
This type of control is bad for women’s and children’s health; it prevents they undertake any activities.

This type of control is bad for women’s and children’s health; it prevents women from taking opportunities and undermines their capacity to participate in social and economic women from taking opportunities and undermines their capacity to participate in social and economic development.

Almost 1 in 3 women living with violence have had their work disrupted due to intimate development.
Almost 1 in 3 women living with violence have had their work disrupted due to intimate partner violence, and women living with violence are more likely to have given up or refused a job due partner violence, and women living with violence are more likely to have given up or refused a job due to their husband’s/partner’s behaviour.

All these impacts have a negative effect on national economic to their husband’s/partner’s behaviour.
All these impacts have a negative effect on national economic and social development.

and social development.

Women’s coping strategies Women’s coping strategies Family members are usually the first people whom women tell about the violence, and the first ones they ask for help; they are also the people that many women would like more help from.
When women Page 184 of 249 Page 184 of 249 do take the difficult step to ask for help outside the family or to leave home temporarily, they do so because the violence and its consequences are severe – they cannot take any more, they are seriously injured, or they fear for their lives.

About half of the women living with violence have been forced to leave home temporarily several times in their life.

In these circumstances women usually seek help from chiefs, church leaders, health agencies and police.
When women do ask for help or leave home temporarily, family members, chiefs, church leaders, friends and service-providers need to take their Page 183 of 246 requests for help very seriously.

They need to respond appropriately to ensure that women’s rights are protected, and it is very important that they do not condone or excuse the violence.
Given the evidence that violence continues throughout a woman’s life, and the serious burden of injury that this imposes on women, the community and the economy, all stakeholders and service-providers need to take steps to stop the violence.
All stakeholders also need to take note of the serious reasons why women seek help or leave home temporarily, the reasons why more than 99% of these women have returned to the family home (often to face more violence), and the reasons why about half of the women living with violence have never left home at all.
The most common reasons given by women are because they forgive their husband/partner, they don’t want to leave their children, and several other reasons that are linked to the payment of bride price and belief in the sanctity of marriage, including advice from family members that they should stay with their husband/partner regardless of the violence.

11.2 RECOMMENDATIONS Prevention 1.


All community awareness, education and training programs to address violence against women by all stakeholders must be explicitly based on a human rights and gender equality approach.
The responses of government agencies, donor agencies, civil society organisations, chiefs, church and other community leaders need to be based on the following fundamental principles: violence under any circumstances is a crime; violence can never be justified or condoned on the basis of any tradition, culture or custom (including bride price); women have a right to live without violence; women and men are equal under Vanuatu’s Constitution; and women and children can never be “owned” by men.
A human rights and gender equality approach means that all training and awareness programs must be clear about the causes of violence against women, versus the situations that may trigger violent incidents: violence against women is caused by gender inequality in Vanuatu society; and violence reinforces the unequal power and control that many men have over their wives and partners.

In other words, violence against women reinforces unequal gender power relations.

2.
2.

Faith-based organisations should include human rights, gender equality, accurate information about violence against women, and non-violent methods of conflict resolution in their training and programs.

3.

All training and other programs with men, particularly young men, must not perpetuate myths about violence against women nor condone men’s control over women.
In order for men to become effective advocates for women’s human rights, programs with men must be based on accurate data and challenge attitudes that perpetuate gender inequality.

4.

Programs with male perpetrators of violence against women must be based on sound evidence of effective strategies and carefully monitored to assess their outcomes.
Such programs should not be supported by donors or local stakeholders unless they are firmly and explicitly based on a human rights approach which advances gender equality and women’s rights.

Page 185 of 249 Family members are usually the first people whom women tell about the violence, and the first ones they ask for help; they are also the people that many women would like more help from.
When women do take the difficult step to ask for help outside the family or to leave home temporarily, they do so because the violence and its consequences are severe – they cannot take any more, they are seriously injured, or they fear for their lives.

About half of the women living with violence have been forced to leave home temporarily several times in their life.

In these circumstances women usually seek help from chiefs, church leaders, health agencies and police.
When women do ask for help or leave home temporarily, family members, chiefs, church leaders, friends and service-providers need to take their requests for help very seriously.

They need to respond appropriately to ensure that women’s rights are protected, and it is very important that they do not condone or excuse the violence.
Given the evidence that violence continues throughout a woman’s life, and the serious burden of injury that this imposes on women, the community and the economy, all stakeholders and service-providers need to take steps to stop the violence.
All stakeholders also need to take note of the serious reasons why women seek help or leave home temporarily, the reasons why more than 99% of these women have returned to the family home (often to face more violence), and the reasons why about half of the women living with violence have never left home at all.
The most common reasons given by women are because they forgive their husband/partner, they don’t want to leave their children, and several other reasons that are linked to the payment of bride price and belief in the sanctity of marriage, including advice from family members that they should stay with their husband/partner regardless of the violence.

11.2 RECOMMENDATIONS Prevention 1.


All community awareness, education and training programs to address violence against women by all stakeholders must be explicitly based on a human rights and gender equality approach.
The responses of government agencies, donor agencies, civil society organisations, chiefs, church and other community leaders need to be based on the following fundamental principles: violence under any circumstances is a crime; violence can never be justified or condoned on the basis of any tradition, culture or custom (including bride price); women have a right to live without violence; women and men are equal under Vanuatu’s Constitution; and women and children can never be “owned” by men.
A human rights and gender equality approach means that all training and awareness programs must be clear about the causes of violence against women, versus the situations that may trigger violent incidents: violence against women is caused by gender inequality in Vanuatu society; and violence reinforces the unequal power and control that many men have over their wives and partners.

In other words, violence against women reinforces unequal gender power relations.

2.
2.

Faith-based organisations should include human rights, gender equality, accurate information about violence against women, and non-violent methods of conflict resolution in their training and programs.

3.

All training and other programs with men, particularly young men, must not perpetuate myths about violence against women nor condone men’s control over women.
In order for men to become effective advocates for women’s human rights, programs with men must be based on accurate data and challenge attitudes that perpetuate gender inequality.

4.

Programs with male perpetrators of violence against women must be based on sound evidence of effective strategies and carefully monitored to assess their outcomes.
Such programs should not be supported by donors or local stakeholders unless they are firmly and explicitly based on a human rights approach which advances gender equality and women’s rights.

5.

All media organisations need to take care not to perpetuate or reinforce damaging myths about violence against women.
Page 185 of 249 The findings show that physical and sexual violence against women is part of a pattern of coercive and controlling behaviours, with men imposing power over women in a range of very damaging ways.

If violence against women and children is to be prevented, programs and stakeholders working with men need to explicitly target pervasive attitudes and myths about violence and its impacts, by taking an evidence-based approach and using the data presented in this report.
Some of the most damaging myths that need to be challenged and confronted are as follows: that women deserve to be punished or Page 184 of 246 disciplined with violence (or that they “ask for it”); that the violence is not serious (that it is “just a slap”), and that women over-state the impacts of violence; that violence mainly occurs in urban areas; that sexual abuse is motivated by uncontrollable biological urges; and that men “own” women.
Other myths exploded by the data in this report are that bride price protects women from violence, and that women are mainly home-makers who do not contribute much to family income or decision making.

The media also has a very important role to play in raising awareness of women’s rights and the serious impacts of all forms of violence against women, and in shaping community attitudes.

6.
6.

All stakeholders, agencies and programs that work with children need to have child protection policies, protocols and adequate monitoring and reporting on their implementation.

This applies to government agencies at all levels, schools, health agencies, civil society organisations, sporting bodies and faith-based organisations.

7.
7.

Child protection, human rights, gender equality and non-violent methods of conflict resolution should be included in primary and secondary school curricula; these topics should also be included in primary and secondary teacher training curricula.

Given the high rates of non-partner physical abuse and the sexual abuse of girls found in this and other surveys in Vanuatu, all agencies need to strengthen approaches to ensure that children are protected from physical and sexual violence.
Sexual abuse of girls usually begins at an early age, and in the majority of cases the abuse occurs many times.

All stakeholders, community leaders and family members need to respond assertively to child sexual assault to prevent further abuse.
Effective child protection is a key primary prevention strategy for addressing the problem of intimate partner violence, since the survey has demonstrated that girls who experience non-partner physical or sexual abuse are more likely to be abused by their husbands/partners, as are girls whose mothers are abused.

There is also evidence that boys who are regularly beaten or whose mothers were beaten are more likely to beat their own wives and partners.
It is important for teachers to be good role models for non-violent methods of conflict resolution.

Both girls and boys need to be targeted at primary and secondary school levels for education on child protection, human rights, gender equality and non-violent methods of conflict resolution.

Given the high rates of forced first sex and the use of coercion, this topic should also be included in the secondary school curriculum.

8.
8.

All training and other programs with young women should include a focus on women’s human rights, gender equality and violence against women.

Programs and stakeholders working with women, and particularly with young women, need to challenge community attitudes that undermine women’s rights.

The findings show that abusive behaviour begins very early in some relationships.
The high rates of forced first sex, the use of coercion and sexual assault by boyfriends to initiate sexual relations, and the evidence of physical abuse by some boyfriends all point to the need for assertiveness training and rights education targeted at young Page 186 of 249 5.

All media organisations need to take care not to perpetuate or reinforce damaging myths about violence against women.
The findings show that physical and sexual violence against women is part of a pattern of coercive and controlling behaviours, with men imposing power over women in a range of very damaging ways.

If violence against women and children is to be prevented, programs and stakeholders working with men need to explicitly target pervasive attitudes and myths about violence and its impacts, by taking an evidence-based approach and using the data presented in this report.
Some of the most damaging myths that need to be challenged and confronted are as follows: that women deserve to be punished or disciplined with violence (or that they “ask for it”); that the violence is not serious (that it is “just a slap”), and that women over-state the impacts of violence; that violence mainly occurs in urban areas; that sexual abuse is motivated by uncontrollable biological urges; and that men “own” women.
Other myths exploded by the data in this report are that bride price protects women from violence, and that women are mainly home-makers who do not contribute much to family income or decision making.

The media also has a very important role to play in raising awareness of women’s rights and the serious impacts of all forms of violence against women, and in shaping community attitudes.

6.
6.

All stakeholders, agencies and programs that work with children need to have child protection policies, protocols and adequate monitoring and reporting on their implementation.

This applies to government agencies at all levels, schools, health agencies, civil society organisations, sporting bodies and faith-based organisations.

7.
7.

Child protection, human rights, gender equality and non-violent methods of conflict resolution should be included in primary and secondary school curricula; these topics should also be included in primary and secondary teacher training curricula.

Given the high rates of non-partner physical abuse and the sexual abuse of girls found in this and other surveys in Vanuatu, all agencies need to strengthen approaches to ensure that children are protected from physical and sexual violence.
Sexual abuse of girls usually begins at an early age, and in the majority of cases the abuse occurs many times.

All stakeholders, community leaders and family members need to respond assertively to child sexual assault to prevent further abuse.
Effective child protection is a key primary prevention strategy for addressing the problem of intimate partner violence, since the survey has demonstrated that girls who experience non-partner physical or sexual abuse are more likely to be abused by their husbands/partners, as are girls whose mothers are abused.

There is also evidence that boys who are regularly beaten or whose mothers were beaten are more likely to beat their own wives and partners.
It is important for teachers to be good role models for non-violent methods of conflict resolution.

Both girls and boys need to be targeted at primary and secondary school levels for education on child protection, human rights, gender equality and non-violent methods of conflict resolution.

Given the high rates of forced first sex and the use of coercion, this topic should also be included in the secondary school curriculum.

8.
8.

All training and other programs with young women should include a focus on women’s human rights, gender equality and violence against women.

Programs and stakeholders working with women, and particularly with young women, need to challenge community attitudes that undermine women’s rights.

The findings show that abusive behaviour begins very early in some relationships.
The high rates of forced first sex, the use of coercion and sexual assault by boyfriends to initiate sexual relations, and the evidence of physical abuse by some boyfriends all point to the need for assertiveness training and rights education targeted at young women.
Young women need to be aware of the findings from this report, including the risk factors for intimate partner violence, the physical and mental health impacts of violence on women and children, Page 186 of 249 and the findings on financial autonomy.

Young women also need information about their legal rights, child protection issues, where to get help, and how to help each other when their friends are physically or sexually abused.

Support services 9.
Support services 9.

Service providers need to ensure that all staff are aware of the evidence in this report regarding the Page 185 of 246 multiple forms of violence experienced by women: physical, sexual and emotional violence, physical abuse during pregnancy, threats and controlling behaviours by husbands/partners including control over women’s earnings, and refusal to provide money for intimidation, household expenses.
All service providers also need to be aware of the serious impacts of all these forms of violence, including physical injury, reproductive health problems, emotional distress, suicide risk, permanent disability, the impact on women’s work and the impact on children.

10.

All health staff need to be trained on the issue of violence against women.

Assessment skills are needed for early detection of physical and sexual violence against women and children.
Basic counselling skills are needed for dealing with victims in a non-judgemental, confidential, sensitive and respectful manner.

These topics and the findings of this report need to be included in the nursing curriculum and refresher training for urban and rural health staff.

11.
11.

Protocols are needed in the health sector for the referral of victims of intimate partner violence and child abuse to other service providers (such as the VWC network and/or the police) and for ensuring that support and treatment is provided to women and children in a supportive and timely manner.

12.
12.

Training and services on mental health need to address the strong link found between physical, sexual and emotional violence against women, mental health problems, and significantly increased suicide risk.

Specialist mental health staff such as a professional psychologist should be appointed to Port Vila hospital and specialist services should be available in rural areas to assist women who are traumatised by intimate partner violence.
Health service providers are often the first point of contact for women living with violence and for children subjected to physical or sexual abuse.

Health workers will treat women for injuries caused by intimate partner violence many times during their working life.
This study has shown that women living with violence have much poorer health than other women; they are hospitalised more often, more likely to need medication for pain, anxiety and depression, more likely to need an operation, and more likely to have a miscarriage.

Assisting women living with violence can be confronting and challenging and health workers need guidance and support to respond appropriately so that women’s and children’s needs are met and their rights are protected.
Health service providers in rural and urban areas need to be open to awareness and training provided by VWC to help address this problem.

13.

Primary and secondary schools and other educational institutions need to have trained counsellors available to counsel girls and boys experiencing physical and sexual abuse, and to help address the emotional and other impacts experienced by children whose mothers are living in violent relationships.
Training is needed to help teachers and school counsellors identify the behavioural and clinical symptoms of child sexual and physical abuse.

Clear protocols need to be in place to ensure that responses are appropriate, and that they protect the rights and confidentiality of children in cases where either sexual or physical abuse is suspected.

Consequences for not following these protocols also need to be clear and in place.
Family violence (either child abuse and/or abuse of mothers) needs Page 187 of 249 women.

Young women need to be aware of the findings from this report, including the risk factors for intimate partner violence, the physical and mental health impacts of violence on women and children, and the findings on financial autonomy.

Young women also need information about their legal rights, child protection issues, where to get help, and how to help each other when their friends are physically or sexually abused.
Support services 9.

Service providers need to ensure that all staff are aware of the evidence in this report regarding the multiple forms of violence experienced by women: physical, sexual and emotional violence, physical abuse during pregnancy, threats and controlling behaviours by husbands/partners including control over women’s earnings, and refusal to provide money for household expenses.
All service providers also need to be aware of the serious impacts of all these forms of violence, including physical injury, reproductive health problems, emotional distress, suicide risk, permanent disability, the impact on women’s work and the impact on children.

intimidation, 10.

All health staff need to be trained on the issue of violence against women.

Assessment skills are needed for early detection of physical and sexual violence against women and children.
Basic counselling skills are needed for dealing with victims in a non-judgemental, confidential, sensitive and respectful manner.

These topics and the findings of this report need to be included in the nursing curriculum and refresher training for urban and rural health staff.

11.
11.

Protocols are needed in the health sector for the referral of victims of intimate partner violence and child abuse to other service providers (such as the VWC network and/or the police) and for ensuring that support and treatment is provided to women and children in a supportive and timely manner.

12.
12.

Training and services on mental health need to address the strong link found between physical, sexual and emotional violence against women, mental health problems, and significantly increased suicide risk.

Specialist mental health staff such as a professional psychologist should be appointed to Port Vila hospital and specialist services should be available in rural areas to assist women who are traumatised by intimate partner violence.
Health service providers are often the first point of contact for women living with violence and for children subjected to physical or sexual abuse.

Health workers will treat women for injuries caused by intimate partner violence many times during their working life.
This study has shown that women living with violence have much poorer health than other women; they are hospitalised more often, more likely to need medication for pain, anxiety and depression, more likely to need an operation, and more likely to have a miscarriage.

Assisting women living with violence can be confronting and challenging and health workers need guidance and support to respond appropriately so that women’s and children’s needs are met and their rights are protected.
Health service providers in rural and urban areas need to be open to awareness and training provided by VWC to help address this problem.

13.

Primary and secondary schools and other educational institutions need to have trained counsellors available to counsel girls and boys experiencing physical and sexual abuse, and to help address the emotional and other impacts experienced by children whose mothers are living in violent relationships.
Training is needed to help teachers and school counsellors identify the behavioural and clinical symptoms of child sexual and physical abuse.

Clear protocols need to be in place to ensure that responses are appropriate, and that they protect the rights and confidentiality of children in cases where either sexual or physical abuse is suspected.

Consequences for not following these protocols also need to be clear and in place.
Family violence (either child abuse and/or abuse of mothers) needs to be considered as a possible causal factor in cases of aggressive, anti-social or withdrawn behaviour among children.

Schools must be safe places where female teachers, girls and boys are protected from Page 187 of 249 physical and sexual abuse.

14.
14.

A Victim Support Unit urgently needs to be established within the Vanuatu Police Force with staff trained and experienced in responding to crimes of violence against women and sexual and physical abuse of children.

15.

The Police Family Protection Unit must be adequately resourced to respond effectively to cases of violence against women and child abuse throughout the country.
At provincial level, police stations Page 186 of 246 should have officers trained and dedicated to family protection cases, with adequate resources for transport and accommodation costs for cases to be followed up in remote areas.

16.

The findings of this report should be included in police training curricula including refresher training for officers at all levels.
Mandatory and refresher training should also be provided for all judicial officers and others in the law and justice sector on violence against women, human rights, gender equality and the findings of this survey.

Staff from the Victim Support Unit will need to be provided with ongoing training and professional supervision to perform this challenging and much-needed role.

Currently the Family Protection Unit plays an effective role in Port Vila with 6 staff.
However, the survey shows that intimate partner physical and sexual violence against women is even more prevalent in rural areas than urban areas.

This highlights the need for police officers at provincial and area level to be adequately trained and resourced to detect and assertively respond to all crimes of violence against women and children.
For example, adequate resources are needed for transport to follow up on very serious violent crimes against women in remote rural areas, for police to take victims’ statements and to make arrests.

Training for all police and judicial officers needs to highlight the multiple forms of violence experienced by women, particularly the overlap between physical and sexual violence and the high rates of physical abuse during pregnancy.
Anecdotal evidence shows that women tend to only report physical violence to the police and other service providers; great sensitivity will be needed to encourage women to report these crimes.

More female police officers are needed throughout the country to encourage reporting of physical and sexual abuse of women and children.

Strengthening the legal and policy framework 17.


Urgent action is needed to recruit and train authorised persons and registered counsellors to facilitate implementation of the Family Protection Act (FPA) throughout the country.

Implementation of the FPA needs to be expedited in rural areas and its implementation needs to be carefully monitored, including provisions related to the criminalisation of offences of violence against women.

18.
18.

The FPA needs to be reviewed to strengthen its focus on the protection of pregnant women and women with disabilities.

Violence against pregnant women and violence against women with disabilities should be highlighted as aggravating factors for conviction, and these cases must be prioritised when Family Protection Orders are issued.

19.
19.

A no-drop policy should be introduced by the Vanuatu Police Force for all cases of physical and sexual violence against women by husbands or intimate partners; implementation of the policy should be closely monitored.
The high prevalence of all forms of violence against women by husbands/partners, the prevalence of sexual assault of girl children, the damaging links between child sexual assault and intimate partner violence, and the lack of services and access to justice in rural areas all underline the urgency of fully implementing the FPA.
Careful recruitment and training of authorised persons and registered counsellors will be needed to ensure that they fully understand the causes of violence against women Page 188 of 249 to be considered as a possible causal factor in cases of aggressive, anti-social or withdrawn behaviour among children.

Schools must be safe places where female teachers, girls and boys are protected from physical and sexual abuse.

14.
14.

A Victim Support Unit urgently needs to be established within the Vanuatu Police Force with staff trained and experienced in responding to crimes of violence against women and sexual and physical abuse of children.

15.

The Police Family Protection Unit must be adequately resourced to respond effectively to cases of violence against women and child abuse throughout the country.
At provincial level, police stations should have officers trained and dedicated to family protection cases, with adequate resources for transport and accommodation costs for cases to be followed up in remote areas.

16.

The findings of this report should be included in police training curricula including refresher training for officers at all levels.
Mandatory and refresher training should also be provided for all judicial officers and others in the law and justice sector on violence against women, human rights, gender equality and the findings of this survey.

Staff from the Victim Support Unit will need to be provided with ongoing training and professional supervision to perform this challenging and much-needed role.

Currently the Family Protection Unit plays an effective role in Port Vila with 6 staff.
However, the survey shows that intimate partner physical and sexual violence against women is even more prevalent in rural areas than urban areas.

This highlights the need for police officers at provincial and area level to be adequately trained and resourced to detect and assertively respond to all crimes of violence against women and children.
For example, adequate resources are needed for transport to follow up on very serious violent crimes against women in remote rural areas, for police to take victims’ statements and to make arrests.

Training for all police and judicial officers needs to highlight the multiple forms of violence experienced by women, particularly the overlap between physical and sexual violence and the high rates of physical abuse during pregnancy.
Anecdotal evidence shows that women tend to only report physical violence to the police and other service providers; great sensitivity will be needed to encourage women to report these crimes.

More female police officers are needed throughout the country to encourage reporting of physical and sexual abuse of women and children.

Strengthening the legal and policy framework 17.


Urgent action is needed to recruit and train authorised persons and registered counsellors to facilitate implementation of the Family Protection Act (FPA) throughout the country.

Implementation of the FPA needs to be expedited in rural areas and its implementation needs to be carefully monitored, including provisions related to the criminalisation of offences of violence against women.

18.
18.

The FPA needs to be reviewed to strengthen its focus on the protection of pregnant women and women with disabilities.

Violence against pregnant women and violence against women with disabilities should be highlighted as aggravating factors for conviction, and these cases must be prioritised when Family Protection Orders are issued.

19.
19.

A no-drop policy should be introduced by the Vanuatu Police Force for all cases of physical and sexual violence against women by husbands or intimate partners; implementation of the policy should be closely monitored.
The high prevalence of all forms of violence against women by husbands/partners, the prevalence of sexual assault of girl children, the damaging links between child sexual assault and intimate partner violence, and the lack of services and access to justice in rural areas all underline the urgency of fully implementing the FPA.
Careful recruitment and training of authorised persons and registered counsellors will be needed to ensure that they fully understand the causes of violence against women and its impacts.

The findings of this report should be included in training for these key people.

VWC should be involved in training to ensure that a human rights and gender equality approach is taken in all Page 188 of 249 dealings with victims/survivors.
The survey finding that 1 in 10 ever-pregnant women were punched or kicked in the stomach highlights the need to strengthen the FPA to protect women and children.

The rate of permanent disability due to violence also highlights the need to respond assertively when women with disabilities apply for Family Protection Orders.
Although the FPA criminalises all acts of domestic violence, the introduction of a no-drop policy by the Vanuatu Police Force will help to ensure that women’s rights are protected by requiring police to follow up and prosecute all cases of domestic violence.
Timely and vigorous responses by law and justice sector agencies including arresting perpetrators, prioritising their prosecution and ensuring appropriate sentencing will send a strong Page 187 of 246 message to the community that violence against women and children are serious crimes.

20.

The Marriage Act should be amended to raise the minimum of age of marriage for women from 16 to 18 years.

21.
21.

The Vanuatu Government should urgently develop comprehensive family law legislation, which takes into account the prevalence, severity and impacts of violence against women and children.

22.

The Vanuatu Government should establish a Social Welfare Department within the Ministry of Justice and Community Services to strengthen child protection measures.

23.
23.

Recruitment criteria for all government staff appointed to gender-related adviser and child protection positions should include knowledge and experience in the area of violence against women and child protection.

24.
24.

The Correctional Services Act should be reviewed to ensure that women’s and children’s safety is given the highest priority when restorative or alternative justice approaches are implemented, including the use of community service for offenders convicted of physical and sexual crimes of violence against women and children.

Urgent action needs to be taken on many fronts to address the very high rates of child sexual assault.
The survey findings point to the urgent need for Vanuatu to raise the minimum age of marriage for women from 16 to 18 years.

This was also recommended by the United Nations Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women, and would bring Vanuatu into line with the Convention the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) and the Convention on the Rights of the Child.
Dedicated resources focused on child protection within a social welfare department are needed to identify and protect children at risk of abuse.

A comprehensive family law act is needed to consolidate existing legislation; this needs to reinforce the Vanuatu Government’s national commitments to equal rights for women.

Recommendations for all stakeholders and development programs 25.
The findings from this study need to be considered and incorporated into policy development, training, programs and service provision across government agencies, development agencies and civil society organisations.

This is particularly important for the law and justice, education and health sectors, including for mental health policy and programs.
It is also critical for stakeholders and programs aimed at promoting economic development including income-generation programs and the economic empowerment of women.

VWC’s expertise should be used in all these areas.

26.

All donor agencies should mainstream attention to gender equality, human rights and violence against women into all sector strategies, programs and projects.

27.
27.

All government agencies and service providers, particularly those in the law and justice sector and health agencies, need to systematically collect and report sex-disaggregated data on the problem of violence against women and children, to inform future policy development and programs and assist with monitoring prevention activities.

Page 189 of 249 and its impacts.

The findings of this report should be included in training for these key people.
VWC should be involved in training to ensure that a human rights and gender equality approach is taken in all dealings with victims/survivors.

The survey finding that 1 in 10 ever-pregnant women were punched or kicked in the stomach highlights the need to strengthen the FPA to protect women and children.

The rate of permanent disability due to violence also highlights the need to respond assertively when women with disabilities apply for Family Protection Orders.
Although the FPA criminalises all acts of domestic violence, the introduction of a no-drop policy by the Vanuatu Police Force will help to ensure that women’s rights are protected by requiring police to follow up and prosecute all cases of domestic violence.
Timely and vigorous responses by law and justice sector agencies including arresting perpetrators, prioritising their prosecution and ensuring appropriate sentencing will send a strong message to the community that violence against women and children are serious crimes.

20.

The Marriage Act should be amended to raise the minimum of age of marriage for women from 16 to 18 years.

21.
21.

The Vanuatu Government should urgently develop comprehensive family law legislation, which takes into account the prevalence, severity and impacts of violence against women and children.

22.

The Vanuatu Government should establish a Social Welfare Department within the Ministry of Justice and Community Services to strengthen child protection measures.

23.
23.

Recruitment criteria for all government staff appointed to gender-related adviser and child protection positions should include knowledge and experience in the area of violence against women and child protection.

24.
24.

The Correctional Services Act should be reviewed to ensure that women’s and children’s safety is given the highest priority when restorative or alternative justice approaches are implemented, including the use of community service for offenders convicted of physical and sexual crimes of violence against women and children.

Urgent action needs to be taken on many fronts to address the very high rates of child sexual assault.
The survey findings point to the urgent need for Vanuatu to raise the minimum age of marriage for women from 16 to 18 years.

This was also recommended by the United Nations Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women, and would bring Vanuatu into line with the Convention the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) and the Convention on the Rights of the Child.
Dedicated resources focused on child protection within a social welfare department are needed to identify and protect children at risk of abuse.

A comprehensive family law act is needed to consolidate existing legislation; this needs to reinforce the Vanuatu Government’s national commitments to equal rights for women.

Recommendations for all stakeholders and development programs 25.
The findings from this study need to be considered and incorporated into policy development, training, programs and service provision across government agencies, development agencies and civil society organisations.

This is particularly important for the law and justice, education and health sectors, including for mental health policy and programs.
It is also critical for stakeholders and programs aimed at promoting economic development including income-generation programs and the economic empowerment of women.

VWC’s expertise should be used in all these areas.

26.

All donor agencies should mainstream attention to gender equality, human rights and violence against women into all sector strategies, programs and projects.

27.
27.

All government agencies and service providers, particularly those in the law and justice sector and health agencies, need to systematically collect and report sex-disaggregated data on the problem of violence against women and children, to inform future policy development and programs and assist with monitoring prevention activities.

28.

The Vanuatu Government should introduce legislation and policy to provide special leave entitlements for women living with violence.

Page 189 of 249 29.
Page 189 of 249 29.

Bilateral and multilateral donors must urgently prioritise funding for the implementation of the Family Protection Act throughout the country.

30.

Bilateral and multilateral donors should provide funding for permanent premises for VWC and its Branches.

Violence against women and other aspects of gender inequality affect all areas of women’s lives and have a detrimental impact on women’s ability to earn an income and provide and care for their families.
Page 188 of 246 Economic development programs including those providing micro-finance to women need to take the findings of this report into account if they want to ensure that women are supported to earn an income by their husbands/partners, are able to control their income and savings and can spend their income on the family’s greatest needs.

For women working in the formal sector, special leave provisions can help them to keep their jobs when their lives are in crisis due to violence.
While gender mainstreaming is essential across all sectors, critical areas for donors to ensure that violence against women is addressed are the health, education and law and justice sectors, and in all income generation programs.

Donors can also play an important role by ensuring that data collection on violence against women is improved and regularly reported (for example by the police and health agencies).
While donors have provided some funding for awareness-raising on the FPA, funds are needed urgently to shift the focus from awareness to implementation, particularly in rural and remote locations.

This survey provides evidence that VWC has had a positive impact on women’s awareness of their rights and community awareness that violence against women is a crime.

VWC urgently needs a permanent home to continue its work to eliminate violence against women and provide much-needed services to survivors.
11.3 FOLLOW-UP BY THE VANUATU WOMEN’S CENTRE VWC will advocate for the urgent implementation of all the recommendations listed above.

In addition, VWC will undertake the following initiatives and activities to strengthen its ongoing work and the work of its network of branches and CAVAWs.
Prevention i. VWC will pro-actively approach agencies and stakeholders at the national and provincial levels to disseminate and raise awareness of the information in this report, and to provide training in gender equality and human rights based approaches to addressing the problem of violence against women and children.
Agencies to be approached include those in the health sector; women’s organisations and groups; the Vanuatu Council of Churches and other faith-based organisations; schools and other educational institutions; government agencies at national and provincial level including provincial councillors and staff; police; and chiefs, including the Malvatumauri.

Where appropriate, VWC will negotiate for referral protocols to be put in place.

ii.
ii.

VWC will approach media organisations to provide training on gender sensitivity in reporting about violence against women and children.

iii.
VWC will encourage further discussion and debate in the media, in agencies and communities of all the findings in this report, particularly those related to: the high rates of physical, sexual and emotional violence; the prevalence of male coercive control over women; the serious impacts of violence against women and children; attitudes on women’s rights and violence against women and particularly those related to bride price; the alarming prevalence of violence during pregnancy; the high levels of child sexual assault; and the high levels of non-partner violence towards women and girls.
Page 190 of 249 28.

The Vanuatu Government should introduce legislation and policy to provide special leave entitlements for women living with violence.

29.

Bilateral and multilateral donors must urgently prioritise funding for the implementation of the Family Protection Act throughout the country.

30.

Bilateral and multilateral donors should provide funding for permanent premises for VWC and its Branches.
Violence against women and other aspects of gender inequality affect all areas of women’s lives and have a detrimental impact on women’s ability to earn an income and provide and care for their families.
Economic development programs including those providing micro-finance to women need to take the findings of this report into account if they want to ensure that women are supported to earn an income by their husbands/partners, are able to control their income and savings and can spend their income on the family’s greatest needs.

For women working in the formal sector, special leave provisions can help them to keep their jobs when their lives are in crisis due to violence.
While gender mainstreaming is essential across all sectors, critical areas for donors to ensure that violence against women is addressed are the health, education and law and justice sectors, and in all income generation programs.

Donors can also play an important role by ensuring that data collection on violence against women is improved and regularly reported (for example by the police and health agencies).
While donors have provided some funding for awareness-raising on the FPA, funds are needed urgently to shift the focus from awareness to implementation, particularly in rural and remote locations.

This survey provides evidence that VWC has had a positive impact on women’s awareness of their rights and community awareness that violence against women is a crime.

VWC urgently needs a permanent home to continue its work to eliminate violence against women and provide much-needed services to survivors.
11.3 FOLLOW-UP BY THE VANUATU WOMEN’S CENTRE VWC will advocate for the urgent implementation of all the recommendations listed above.

In addition, VWC will undertake the following initiatives and activities to strengthen its ongoing work and the work of its network of branches and CAVAWs.
Prevention i. VWC will pro-actively approach agencies and stakeholders at the national and provincial levels to disseminate and raise awareness of the information in this report, and to provide training in gender equality and human rights based approaches to addressing the problem of violence against women and children.
Agencies to be approached include those in the health sector; women’s organisations and groups; the Vanuatu Council of Churches and other faith-based organisations; schools and other educational institutions; government agencies at national and provincial level including provincial councillors and staff; police; and chiefs, including the Malvatumauri.

Where appropriate, VWC will negotiate for referral protocols to be put in place.

ii.
ii.

VWC will approach media organisations to provide training on gender sensitivity in reporting about violence against women and children.

iii.
VWC will encourage further discussion and debate in the media, in agencies and communities of all the findings in this report, particularly those related to: the high rates of physical, sexual and emotional violence; the prevalence of male coercive control over women; the serious impacts of violence against women and children; attitudes on women’s rights and violence against women and particularly those related to bride price; the alarming prevalence of violence during pregnancy; the high levels of child sexual assault; and the high levels of non-partner violence towards women and girls.
iv.

VWC will explore ways of targeting and working with young women to raise their awareness of gender equality, human rights and violence against women.

Key groups and agencies who already Page 190 of 249 work with young women will be approached, including Wan Smol Bag, the Young People’s Project and the Vanuatu Cultural Centre, United Nations agencies, Save the Children, church youth groups, and women active in sport and music.
The potential for establishing a young women’s group focused on advancing women’s human rights and gender equality will also be explored.

v. VWC already has effective training activities for men that equip them to work as advocates for women’s rights and to oppose to violence in all its forms.

Young men have been included in most of Page 189 of 246 these trainings.
A trial will be initiated that focuses primarily on young men, to compare its effectiveness with training activities that include men of all ages.

Support for victims/survivors and ongoing awareness-raising on human rights vi.

VWC already has an ongoing community education program which includes several annual campaigns including mass media activities.
However, the findings point to the need for more focus on the mass media to increase women’s and children’s awareness of their rights, and to inform them of the services that are available in urban and rural areas.

VWC will place more emphasis in community education activities on the support that VWC and its network of branches and CAVAWs can provide.

vii.
vii.

VWC and its national network of Branches, CAVAWs and male advocates will also place more emphasis in community education, campaigns and male advocacy training on the severe impacts of violence against women on individual women, their children, and the family, clan and community.
The aim will be to mobilise and influence family and clan members to respond appropriately and provide support to women living with violence in their intimate relationships, and to respond urgently when cases of child sexual or physical abuse come to their attention.

Recognising the critical importance of family support for women, VWC will explore and trial strategies for targeting some community education activities at the clan level.
This will include providing practical guidelines to clans on how to provide appropriate support to women and children living with violence, and how to take action to prevent violence within the family, clan and community.

Broader community education and campaigning messages are that violence against women is not part of Vanuatu culture, and that bride price does not give men have the right to own, control or physical or sexually abuse women.

Further research viii.


VWC will work collaboratively with government agencies and AusAID on a study to determine the direct and indirect economic costs of violence against women.

ix.

VWC will follow up this survey by undertaking qualitative research on custom, violence against women and community understanding of human rights, including customs surrounding marriage and bride price.
x. Qualitative research is also needed to explore any links between cultural practices and the very high rates of sexual assault of girls in Vanuatu, and how to better protect both girls and boys from physical and sexual abuse.

Quantitative research should also be done on the prevalence of physical and sexual abuse of boys.

Page 191 of 249 iv.

VWC will explore ways of targeting and working with young women to raise their awareness of gender equality, human rights and violence against women.
Key groups and agencies who already work with young women will be approached, including Wan Smol Bag, the Young People’s Project and the Vanuatu Cultural Centre, United Nations agencies, Save the Children, church youth groups, and women active in sport and music.

The potential for establishing a young women’s group focused on advancing women’s human rights and gender equality will also be explored.
v. VWC already has effective training activities for men that equip them to work as advocates for women’s rights and to oppose to violence in all its forms.

Young men have been included in most of these trainings.

A trial will be initiated that focuses primarily on young men, to compare its effectiveness with training activities that include men of all ages.

Support for victims/survivors and ongoing awareness-raising on human rights vi.
VWC already has an ongoing community education program which includes several annual campaigns including mass media activities.

However, the findings point to the need for more focus on the mass media to increase women’s and children’s awareness of their rights, and to inform them of the services that are available in urban and rural areas.

VWC will place more emphasis in community education activities on the support that VWC and its network of branches and CAVAWs can provide.

vii.
vii.

VWC and its national network of Branches, CAVAWs and male advocates will also place more emphasis in community education, campaigns and male advocacy training on the severe impacts of violence against women on individual women, their children, and the family, clan and community.
The aim will be to mobilise and influence family and clan members to respond appropriately and provide support to women living with violence in their intimate relationships, and to respond urgently when cases of child sexual or physical abuse come to their attention.

Recognising the critical importance of family support for women, VWC will explore and trial strategies for targeting some community education activities at the clan level.
This will include providing practical guidelines to clans on how to provide appropriate support to women and children living with violence, and how to take action to prevent violence within the family, clan and community.

Broader community education and campaigning messages are that violence against women is not part of Vanuatu culture, and that bride price does not give men have the right to own, control or physical or sexually abuse women.

Further research viii.


VWC will work collaboratively with government agencies and AusAID on a study to determine the direct and indirect economic costs of violence against women.

ix.

VWC will follow up this survey by undertaking qualitative research on custom, violence against women and community understanding of human rights, including customs surrounding marriage and bride price.
x. Qualitative research is also needed to explore any links between cultural practices and the very high rates of sexual assault of girls in Vanuatu, and how to better protect both girls and boys from physical and sexual abuse.

Quantitative research should also be done on the prevalence of physical and sexual abuse of boys.
Page 191 of 249 Page 190 of 246 ANNEX 1: REFERENCES AusAID 2008 Violence Against Women in Melanesia and East Timor: Building on Global and Regional Promising Approaches AusAID Office of Development Effectiveness, Commonwealth of Australia.

Canberra.

Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) 2007 Concluding comments of the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women: Vanuatu CEDAW/C/VUT/CO/3, United Nations, New York.
DOWA no date (2002) Violence Against Women in Vanuatu, Policy Paper, 2002-2006 Republic of Vanuatu.

Port Vila.

Department of Women’s Affairs (DOWA) 2007 National Plan of Action for Women 2007-2011 Republic of Vanuatu.

Port Vila.

DOWA 2010 Gender Profile of Political Parties and Elections by Tina Ilo-Noka and Seman Dalesa- Saraken, Department of Women’s Affairs, Government of the Republic of Vanuatu.

Port Vila.
Port Vila.

DOWA 2011 Review of Vanuatu’s National Machinery for Women March 2011 Commissioned by the Ministry of Justice and Community Services in collaboration with UNWOMEN and AusAID, by Rebecca Olul and Anna Naupa.

Port Vila.

Ellsberg, Mary and Lori Heise 2005 Researching Violence Against Women: A Practical Guide for Researchers and Activists WHO and PATH.

Washington DC.
Washington DC.

Foundation of the People of the South Pacific Vanuatu (FSP) 2005 Masculinity, Mental Health and Violence in Vanuatu: Situation Analysis FSP.

Port Vila.

Fulu, Emma, 2007 The Maldives Study on Women’s Health and Life Experiences: Initial results on prevalence, health outcomes and women’s responses to violence Ministry of Gender and Family, Maldives.
Jansen, Henrica A. F. M, Sunday Üner and Filiz Kardam 2009 National Research on Domestic Violence Against Women in Turkey Turkey Ministry of State and Hacettepe University Institute of Population Studies, Ankara.

Hunt, Juliet 2009 Breaking the Shackles: Women’s Empowerment in Oxfam Australia’s Sri Lanka program Occasional Paper Number 3, Oxfam Australia.

Melbourne.

International Network of Women with Disabilities 2011 Document on Violence Against Women with Disabilities Disabilities.
http://www.internationaldisabilityalliance.org/advocacy-work/the-international-network-of-women-with- disabilities-inwwd/ (accessed May 2011).

International Network Women with of Kabeer, Naila 2001 “Resources, Agency, Achievements: Reflections on the Measurement of Women’s Empowerment” in Discussing Women’s Empowerment - Theory and Practice, Sida Studies No.

3, Stockholm.
3, Stockholm.

Page 192 of 249 Page 191 of 246 McGinn, Therese 2004 Instructions for Probability Proportional to Size Sampling Technique Columbia University.

New York.

Ministry of Education (MOE) 2005 (no date) Gender Equity in Education Policy, 2005–2015 Ministry of Education, Government of Vanuatu.

Port Vila.

Ministry of Education (MOE) 2010 A Review Gender Analysis of the Education Sector in Vanuatu draft report by Jane Strachan and Liku Jimmy, Ministry of Education.

Port Vila.
Port Vila.

Ministry of Health (MOH), Government of Vanuatu 2008 Monitoring the Situation of Children and Women: Vanuatu Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey 2007 Final Report Ministry of Health and UNICEF.

Port Vila.

MOH 2009 The Vanuatu Mental Health Policy and Plan, 2009 – 2015 MOH, Port Vila.
Ministry of Justice and Community Services 2009 Preliminary Draft Proposal for the establishment of a nation-wide system to protect children from violence, abuse and exploitation, and to support their families Department of Women’s Affairs, Ministry of Justice, in partnership with UNICEF, Port Vila.

Pacific Children’s Program (PCP) 2004 Community Responses to Child Protection in Vanuatu: Summary of Knowledge, Attitudes, Behaviours and Practices Survey.
Republic of Vanuatu 2004 Combined Initial, First and Second Report on the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Violence Against Women (CEDAW).

Port Vila.

Republic of Vanuatu 2006 Priorities and Action Agenda 2006-2015 Port Vila.

Republic of Vanuatu 2008 The Family Protection Act: No.28 of 2008 Republic of Vanuatu.

Port Vila.

Republic of Vanuatu no date (2009) Vanuatu Law and Justice Sector Strategy and Action Plan 2009- 2014 Republic of Vanuatu.

Port Vila.
Port Vila.

Secretariat of the Pacific Community (SPC) 2003 The Samoa Family Health and Safety Study Secretariat of the Pacific Community and the United Nations Population Fund.

Noumea.

SPC 2005 Revised Pacific Platform on Advancement of Women and Gender Equality 2005 to 2015: A Regional Charter.

SPC.

Noumea.
SPC.

Noumea.

SPC 2009 Solomon Islands Family Health and Safety Study: A study on violence against women and children Report prepared by the Secretariat of the Pacific Community for the Solomon Islands Ministry of Women, Youth and Children’s Affairs, and the National Statistics Office, Ministry of Finance and Treasury, National Reform and Planning.

SPC.

Noumea.
SPC.

Noumea.

SPC 2010 Kiribati Family Health and Support Study: A study on violence against women and children Report prepared by the Secretariat of the Pacific Community for the Ministry of Internal and Social Affairs, and the Statistics Division, Ministry of Finance and Economic Development, Republic of Kiribati.

SPC.

Noumea.
SPC.

Noumea.

Page 193 of 249 Page 192 of 246 Stone, Wendy 2001 Measuring Social Capital: Toward a Theoretically Informed Measurement Framework for Researching Social Capital in Family and Community Life Research paper no.

24.

Australian Institute of Family Studies.

Melbourne.

Strachan, Jane and Liku Jimmy 2010 A Review Gender Analysis of the Education Sector in Vanuatu (Draft Report, October), Ministry of Education and the University of Waikato.

Port Vila.
Port Vila.

Thomson, Peter and Louise Helby 2011 “Analysis of Risk Factors for the Vanuatu Violence Against Women Study” Statistical Advisory and Training Service, January.

Blackheath.

Tor, Roselyn and Anthea Toka 2004 “Gender, Kastom and Domestic Violence” Unpublished report of the Vanuatu Department of Women’s Affairs.

Port Vila.

United Nations General Assembly 1993 Declaration on the Elimination of Violence against Women United Nations.

New York.
New York.

United Nations General Assembly 2006(a) In-depth study on all forms of violence against women: Report of the Secretary-General Document A/61/122/Add.1, United Nations.

New York.

United Nations General Assembly 2006(b) Report of the independent expert for the United Nations study on violence against children Document A/61/299, United Nations.

New York.
New York.

United Nations General Assembly 2009(a) National Report Submitted in Accordance with Paragraph 15 (A) of the Annex to Human Rights Council Resolution 5/1: Vanuatu Human Rights Council, Working Group on the Universal Periodic Review, Fifth session, Geneva, 4-15 May 2009.

Document A/HRC/WG.6/5/VUT/1, 23 February 2009.


United Nations General Assembly 2009(b) Summary Prepared by the Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights in Accordance with Paragraph 15 (A) of the Annex to Human Rights Council Resolution 5/1: Vanuatu Human Rights Council, Working Group on the Universal Periodic Review, Fifth session, Geneva, 4-15 May 2009.

Document A/HRC/WG.6/5/VUT/3, 23 February 2009.


United Nations Millennium Project 2005 Taking Action: achieving gender equality and empowering women Earthscan.

London.

Vanuatu National Statistics Office (VNSO) 2006 Vanuatu Analysis of the 2006 Household Income and Expenditure Survey VNSO, the Asian Development Bank and United Nations Development Programme.

Port Vila.

VNSO 2008 Census of Agriculture 2007 – Vanuatu VNSO, Ministry of Finance and Economic Management.

Port Vila.
Port Vila.

VNSO 2008a “Survey Design Proposal: Survey on Violence Against Women” Unpublished paper by Benuel Lenge.

VNSO.

Port Vila.

VNSO 2009 2009 National Census of Population and Housing, Summary Release: Vanuatu Hemi Kaontem Yu VNSO, Ministry of Finance and Economic Management.

Port Vila.

Vanuatu Women’s Centre (VWC) 2007 “Background Paper: Baseline Research on Family Relations and Violence Against Women” Unpublished paper by Juliet Hunt.

VWC.

Port Vila.
VWC.

Port Vila.

Page 194 of 249 Page 193 of 246 Wasi, Sonia 2009 “De-briefing for VWC Field Survey on Women’s Lives and Family Relationships” Unpublished report.

VWC.

Port Vila.

2011 Bank World http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/TOPICS/EXTGENDER/EXTANATOOLS/EXTSTATIND DATA/EXTGENDERSTATS/0,,contentMDK:21438822~menuPK:7820754~pagePK:64168445~piPK:64 168309~theSitePK:3237336,00.html.

Genderstats accessed website May 21 2011.


World Health Organisation (WHO) 2005 WHO Multi-country Study on Women’s Health and Domestic Violence against Women: Initial results on prevalence, health outcomes and women’s responses by Claudia García-Moreno, Henrica A.F.M.

Jansen, Mary Ellsberg, Lori Heise and Charlotte Watts.

WHO.

Geneva.

WHO 2007 WHO Multi-country Study on Women’s Health and Domestic Violence against Women: Study Protocol (Version updated 9 September 2007) WHO.

Geneva.
Geneva.

WHO and London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine 2010 Preventing intimate partner and sexual violence against women: Taking action and generating evidence WHO.

Geneva.

Women With Disabilities Australia 2007 Development of a Resource Manual on Violence Against Women With Disabilities Final Report to the Office for Women (FaCSIA) from Women With Disabilities Australia.

Tasmania.
Tasmania.

Page 195 of 249 Page 194 of 246 Vanuatu National Survey on Women’s Lives and Family Relationships Survey conducted by the Vanuatu Women’s Centre in partnership with the Vanuatu National Statistics Office Draft 7 English language version, 16 April 2009 Vanuatu Women’s Centre, PO.

Box 1358, Port-Vila Vanuatu.


Phone: (678) 25764/24000 Fax : (678) 22478 Email: vwnc@vanuatu.com.vu This survey instrument was adapted by Vanuatu Women’s Centre with permission from the “WHO Multi-Country Study on Women’s Health and Life Experiences, Final Core Questionnaire, version 10”, © World Health Organization, 2003.
Page 196 of 249 Page 195 of 246 ADMINISTRATION FORM IDENTIFICATION LOCATION (CAPITAL/TOWN - VILA = 1, LUGANVILLE = 2; RURAL PROVINCES - TORBA = 3, SANMA = 4, PENAMA = 5, MALAMPA = 6, SHEFA = 7, TAFEA = 8) VILLAGE _____________________________________________________________ ENUMERATION AREA NUMBER .................................................................................. HOUSEHOLD NUMBER ........................................................................... [ ] [ ][ ][ ] [ ][ ][ ] NAME OF HOUSEHOLD HEAD : _______________________ DATE INTERVIEWERS NAME RESULT*** NEXT VISIT: DATE TIME LOCATION QUESTIONNAIRES COMPLETED?
[ ] 1.
None completed  1 ___________ ___________ ___________ ___________ ___________ ___________ INTERVIEWER VISITS 2 ___________ 3 ___________ ___________ ___________ ___________ ___________ ___________ ___________ ___________ *** RESULT CODES Refused (specify): _________________ ________________________________...11 Dwelling vacant or address not a dwelling12 Dwelling destroyed ...........................................13 Dwelling not found, not accessible ...................14 Entire hh absent for extended period................15 No hh member at home at time of visit .............16 Hh respondent postponed interview..........17 Need to return Need to return [ ] 2.
HH selection form (and in most cases HH questionnaire) only  [ ] 3.

Woman's questionnaire partly  [ ] 4.

Woman's questionnaire completed  Entire hh speaking unknown language.
…18 Selected woman refused (specify): ____ ________________________________...21 No eligible woman in household.......................22 Selected woman not at home ...........................23 Selected woman postponed interview ..............24 Selected woman incapacitated ..................25 Does not want to continue (specify) : ___ ________________________________...31 Rest of interview postponed to next visit .........32 Need to return Need to return Need to return ..........................................................................41 FINAL VISIT DAY [ ][ ] MONTH [ ][ ] YEAR [ ][ ][ ][ ] INTERVIEWER [ ][ ] RESULT [ ][ ] TOTAL NUMBER OF VISITS [ ] CHECK HH SELECTION FORM: TOTAL IN HOUSEHOLD (Q1) [ ][ ] TOTAL ELIGIBLE WOMEN IN HH OF SELECTED WOMAN (Q3, total with YES) [ ][ ] LINE NUMBER OF SELECTED FEMALE RESPONDENT (Q3) [ ][ ] LANGUAGE OF QUESTIONNAIRE (Bislama = 1; English = 2; French = 3) LANGUAGE INTERVIEW CONDUCTED IN (Bislama = 1; English = 2; French = 3; Other = 4) QUALITY CONTROL PROCEDURE CONDUCTED (1 = yes, 2 = no) FIELD SUPERVISOR QUESTIONNAIRE CHECKED BY OFFICE EDITOR [ ] [ ] [ ] ENTERED BY NAME [ ][ ] DAY [ ][ ] MONTH [ ][ ] YEAR [ ][ ][ ][ ] NAME [ ][ ] DAY [ ][ ] MONTH [ ][ ] YEAR [ ][ ][ ][ ] NAME [ ][ ] ENTRY 1: __________ ENTRY 2: __________ Page 197 of 249 Page 196 of 246 IF MORE THAN ONE HH IN SELECTED DWELLING: FILL OUT SEPERATE HH SELECTION FORM FOR EACH ONE THE MALE HEAD OF THE HOUSEHOLD CAN ANSWER THESE QUESTIONS, OR ANY RESPONSIBLE ADULT IN HOUSEHOLD – SUCH AS ANY ADULT WOMAN, GRANDPARENTS OR A CHILD OVER 15 YEARS.
HOUSEHOLD SELECTION FORM 1 2 3 LINE NUM.

Hello, my name is ________ .

I am here from the Vanuatu Women’s Centre and National Statistics Office.

We want to learn about women’s lives and family relationships.

There are 3 parts to the survey – for the first 2 parts, we would like to talk to the head of the household.

If he/she is not here, we would like to talk to another adult.

For the third part, we would like to talk to one woman, who will be chosen by chance.
Please can you tell me how many people live here, and share food?

PROBE: Does this include children (including infants) living here?

Does it include any other people who may not be members of your family, such as house- girls, house-boys, friends, visitors or relatives who have lived here and shared food for more than one month?

MAKE SURE THESE PEOPLE ARE INCLUDED IN THE TOTAL Is the head of the household male or female?
PUT BOTH IF THEY DON’T WANT TO SAY EITHER MALE OR FEMALE TOTAL NUMBER OF PEOPLE IN HOUSEHOLD [ ][ ] MALE ....................................1 FEMALE ...............................2 BOTH ...................................3 FEMALE HOUSEHOLD MEMBERS Today we would like to talk to one woman from your household.

To help me to identify whom I should talk to, would you please give me the first names of all girls or women who usually live in your household (and share food).
RELATIONSHIP TO HH HEAD What is the relationship of NAME to the head of the household.

* (USE CODES BELOW) RESIDENCE AGE ELIGIBLE Does NAME usually live here?

SPECIAL CASES: SEE (A) BELOW.

NO YES How old is NAME?
(YEARS, estimate) SEE CRITERIA BELOW (A +B) 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 YES NO CODES 01 HEAD 02 WIFE (or PARTNER) 03 DAUGHTER OF BOTH WIFE AND HUSBAND 04 DAUGHTER FROM FORMER RELATIONSHIP OF WIFE 05 DAUGHTER FROM FORMER RELATIONSHIP OF HUSBAND 06 ADOPTED DAUGHTER 07 SISTER 08 SISTER-IN-LAW 09 AUNTY 10 NIECE (HUSBAND) 11 NIECE (WIFE) 12 DAUGHTER-IN-LAW 13 GRANDDAUGHTER 14 MOTHER 15 MOTHER-IN-LAW 16 HOUSE-GIRL 17 ANOTHER RELATIVE 18 VISITOR 19 FRIEND 20 GRANDMOTHER 98 OTHER NOT RELATIVE: _____________________________ 99 DON’T KNOW (A) SPECIAL CASES TO BE CONSIDERED MEMBER OF HOUSEHOLD:  HOUSE-GIRLS IF THEY SLEEP 5 NIGHTS A WEEK OR MORE IN THE HOUSEHOLD.
 VISITORS, FRIENDS OR OTHER RELATIVES IF THEY SLEPT IN THE HOUSEHOLD FOR THE PAST 4 WEEKS.

(B) ELIGIBLE: ANY WOMAN BETWEEN 15 AND 49 YEARS LIVING IN HOUSEHOLD.

MORE THAN ONE ELIGIBLE WOMEN IN HH:  RANDOMLY SELECT ONE ELIGIBLE WOMAN FOR INTERVIEW.

TO DO THIS, WRITE THE LINE NUMBERS OF ELIGIBLE WOMEN ON PIECES OF PAPER, AND PUT IN A BAG, CUP OR POT.

ASK THE HOUSEHOLD HEAD OR OTHER MEMBER TO PICK OUT A NUMBER – THIS SELECTS THE PERSON TO BE INTERVIEWED.

PUT CIRCLE AROUND LINE NUMBER OF WOMAN SELECTED.


ASK IF YOU CAN TALK WITH THE SELECTED WOMAN.

IF SHE IS NOT AT HOME, AGREE ON DATE FOR RETURN VISIT.

  CONTINUE WITH HOUSEHOLD QUESTIONNAIRE NO ELIGIBLE WOMAN IN HH:   * If both (male and female) are the head, refer to the male.

SAY “I cannot continue because I can only interview women 15–49 years old.

Thank you for your assistance.” FINISH HERE.


Page 198 of 249 Page 197 of 246 THE MALE HEAD OF THE HOUSEHOLD CAN ANSWER THESE QUESTIONS, OR ANY RESPONSIBLE ADULT IN HOUSEHOLD – SUCH AS ANY ADULT WOMAN, GRANDPARENTS OR A CHILD OVER 15 YEARS.

HOUSEHOLD QUESTIONNAIRE 1 QUESTIONS & FILTERS If you don’t mind, I would like to ask you a few questions about your household.

What is the main source of drinking-water for your household?

2 What kind of toilet does your household have?


VIP = VENTILATED IMPROVED PIT LATRINE 3 What are the main materials used in the roof of the house?
RECORD OBSERVATION 4 Does your household have: A television a) Electric light b) A radio c) d) A telephone (landline or mobile) e) A refrigerator f) A washing machine g) A microwave oven h) A cooking stove An clothes iron i) A table j) A chair k) A bed l) m) A mattress n) A mat o) A kerosene, hurricane or kolman light p) An axe, big knife, spade, hammer or hoe CODING CATEGORIES TAP/PIPED WATER INSIDE THE HOUSE.....................01 OUTSIDE TAP (PIPED WATER) WITH HH....................02 PUBLIC TAP ...................................................................03 WELL-WATER, WITH HOUSEHOLD..............................04 PUBLIC WELL.................................................................05 HANDPUMP WELL, WITH HOUSEHOLD ......................06 PUBLIC HANDPUMP WELL ...........................................07 SPRING WATER ....................................................... ….08 RIVER/SMALL CREEK/LAKE .........................................09 RAINWATER TANK ........................................................10 RAINWATER DRUM .......................................................11 BOTTLED WATER FROM SHOP ...................................12 OTHER: _______________________________............96 DON’T KNOW .................................................................98 REFUSED/NO ANSWER ................................................99 OWN FLUSH TOILET ....................................................01 SHARED FLUSH TOILET ..............................................02 VIP LATRINE IN THE HOUSEHOLD................ 03 PUBLIC VIP LATRINE........................................ 04 TRADITIONAL PIT TOILET/LATRINE ............ 05 RIVER/CANAL/SEA ............................................ 06 NO FACILITY/BUSH/FIELD .............................. 07 OTHER: _______________________________... 96 DON’T KNOW...................................................... 98 REFUSED/NO ANSWER ..................................... 99 ROOF FROM NATURAL MATERIALS ...........................01 (coconut leaf, bamboo, grass, cane, natangura leaf) TEMPORARY ROOF (PLASTIC/CARTON)....................02 WOOD, TIMBER .............................................................03 TILED OR CONCRETE ROOF .......................................04 CORRUGATED IRON.....................................................05 OTHER: _______________________________............06 DON’T KNOW .................................................................98 REFUSED/NO ANSWER ................................................99 DK 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 a) Electric light b) Radio c) Television d) Telephone e) Refrigerator f) Washing machine g) Microwave oven h) Cooking stove i) Clothes Iron j) Table k) Chair l) Bed m) Mattress n) Mat o) Kero/Other Light p) Axe, knife etc YES 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 NO 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 Page 199 of 249 Page 198 of 246 5 Does any member of your household own: a) A bicycle?
b) A motorcycle?

A car?

c) d) A truck, hilux or 4-wheel drive?

e) A speedboat with an engine?

f) A canoe?

6 Do people in your household own any land?

7 8 9 How many rooms in your household are used for sleeping?

Are you concerned about the levels of crime in your community (like robberies, assaults or murders)?

Would you say that you are not at all concerned, a little concerned, or very concerned?
In the past 4 weeks, has someone from this household been the victim of a crime in this community, such as a robbery or assault?

9 a Are you concerned about violence due to land disputes?

Would you say that you are not at all concerned, a little concerned, or very concerned?

9 b In the past 4 weeks, has someone from this household been the victim of a crime in this community due to a land dispute?

9 c Are you concerned about violence due to black magic/sorcery?
Would you say that you are not at all concerned, a little concerned, or very concerned?

9 d In the past 4 weeks, has someone from this household been the victim of a crime in this community due to black magic/sorcery?

10 NOTE SEX OF RESPONDENT Thank you very much for your assistance.
DK 8 8 8 8 8 8 NO 2 2 2 2 2 2 YES 1 1 1 1 1 1 a) BICYCLE b) MOTORCYCLE c) CAR d) TRUCK/4WD e) SPEEDBOAT f) CANOE YES .................................................................................01 NO ...................................................................................02 DON’T KNOW .................................................................98 REFUSED/NO ANSWER ................................................99 NUMBER OF ROOMS ...........................................[ ][ ] DON’T KNOW .................................................................98 REFUSED/NO ANSWER ................................................99 NOT CONCERNED.........................................................01 A LITTLE CONCERNED .................................................02 VERY CONCERNED.......................................................03 DON’T KNOW .................................................................98 REFUSED/NO ANSWER ................................................99 YES .................................................................................01 NO ...................................................................................02 DON’T KNOW .................................................................98 REFUSED/NO ANSWER ................................................99 NOT CONCERNED.........................................................01 A LITTLE CONCERNED .................................................02 VERY CONCERNED.......................................................03 DON’T KNOW .................................................................98 REFUSED/NO ANSWER ................................................99 YES .................................................................................01 NO ...................................................................................02 DON’T KNOW .................................................................98 REFUSED/NO ANSWER ................................................99 NOT CONCERNED.........................................................01 A LITTLE CONCERNED .................................................02 VERY CONCERNED.......................................................03 DON’T KNOW .................................................................98 REFUSED/NO ANSWER ................................................99 YES .................................................................................01 NO ...................................................................................02 DON’T KNOW .................................................................98 REFUSED/NO ANSWER ................................................99 MALE.................................................................................1 FEMALE ..........................................................................2 Page 200 of 249 Page 199 of 246 Survey on women’s lives and family relationships Survey on women’s lives and family relationships WOMAN'S QUESTIONNAIRE WOMAN'S QUESTIONNAIRE Confidential upon completion Confidential upon completion Page 200 of 246 Page 201 of 249 Page 201 of 249 INDIVIDUAL CONSENT FORM INDIVIDUAL CONSENT FORM Hello, my name is _________________.
I am from the Vanuatu Women’s Centre and the National Statistics Office.

We are conducting a survey to learn about women’s lives and family relationships.

We would like to talk to you about this.

You have been chosen by chance to participate in the survey.

(EXPLAIN HOW SHE WAS CHOSEN IF NECESSARY.)

All your answers will be kept strictly secret.

I will not keep a record of your name or address.


You have the right to stop the interview at any time, or to skip any questions that you don’t want to answer.

There are no right or wrong answers.

Some of the topics may be difficult to discuss, but many women have found it useful to have the opportunity to talk.

Your participation is completely voluntary but your experiences could be very helpful to other women in Vanuatu.

Do you have any questions?


(The interview takes between 30 to 60 minutes to complete.)

Do you agree to be interviewed?

NOTE WHETHER RESPONDENT AGREES TO INTERVIEW OR NOT [ ] DOES NOT AGREE TO BE INTERVIEWED THANK PARTICIPANT FOR HER TIME AND END [ ] AGREES TO BE INTERVIEWED Is now a good time to talk?

It’s very important that we talk in private.

Is this a good place to hold the interview, or is there somewhere else that you would like to go?
________________________________________________________________________________________ TO BE COMPLETED BY INTERVIEWER I CERTIFY THAT I HAVE READ THE ABOVE CONSENT PROCEDURE TO THE PARTICIPANT.
SIGNED: ____________________________________________________________ REMEMBER, BEFORE YOU GO SOMEWHERE PRIVATE TO TALK , ASK THE WOMAN TO COLLECT ANY DOCUMENT THAT SHOWS HER DATE OF BIRTH, AND THE DATE OF BIRTH AND BIRTH WEIGHT OF HER YOUNGEST CHILD – FOR EXAMPLE, BIRTH CERTIFICATE AND MARRIAGE CERTIFICATE, IF SHE HAS THEM.

Page 202 of 249 Page 201 of 246 DATE OF INTERVIEW: day [ ][ ] month [ ][ ] year [ ][ ][ ][ ] 100.
RECORD THE TIME Hour [ ][ ] (24 h) Minutes [ ][ ] SECTION 1 RESPONDENT AND HER COMMUNITY QUESTIONS & FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP TO If you don’t mind, I would like to start by asking you a little about <COMMUNITY NAME>.

INSERT NAME OF COMMUNITY/VILLAGE/ ABOVE AND IN THE QUESTIONS BELOW.

IF NO NAME, SAY "IN THIS COMMUNITY/VILLAGE/AREA" AS APPROPRIATE.

101 Do neighbours in COMMUNITY NAME generally tend to know each other well?
102 If there were a street fight in COMMUNITY NAME would people generally do something to stop it?

103 104 If someone in COMMUNITY NAME decided to undertake a community project (for example, building a church or community hall, health centre or water system) would most people be willing to contribute time, labour or money?

In this community do most people generally trust one another in matters of lending and borrowing things?
105 If someone in your family suddenly fell ill or had an accident, would your neighbours offer to help?

106 I would now like to ask you some questions about yourself.

What is your date of birth (day, month and year that you were born)?

107 How old are you now?

IF NOT SURE: About how old?

108 How long have you been living continuously in COMMUNITY NAME?

What is your religion?

108 a 109 Can you read and write?
YES ............................................................................ 1 NO .............................................................................. 2 DON’T KNOW ............................................................ 8 REFUSED/NO ANSWER ........................................... 9 YES ............................................................................ 1 NO .............................................................................. 2 DON’T KNOW ............................................................ 8 REFUSED/NO ANSWER ........................................... 9 YES ............................................................................ 1 NO .............................................................................. 2 DON’T KNOW ............................................................ 8 REFUSED/NO ANSWER ........................................... 9 YES ............................................................................ 1 NO .............................................................................. 2 DON’T KNOW ............................................................ 8 REFUSED/NO ANSWER ........................................... 9 YES ............................................................................ 1 NO .............................................................................. 2 DON’T KNOW ............................................................ 8 REFUSED/NO ANSWER ........................................... 9 DAY .................................................... [ ][ ] MONTH .................................................... [ ][ ] YEAR ......................................... [ ][ ][ ][ ] DON’T KNOW YEAR............................................9998 REFUSED/NO ANSWER .....................................9999 AGE (YEARS) .......................................... [ ][ ] NUMBER OF YEARS ............................. [ ][ ] LESS THAN 1 YEAR....................................00 LIVED ALL HER LIFE ............................................ 95 VISITOR (AT LEAST 4 WEEKS IN HOUSEHOLD) ......................................96 DON’T KNOW/DON’T REMEMBER..........98 REFUSED/NO ANSWER..............................99 NO RELIGION ................................................0 CATHOLIC ...................................................01 ANGLICAN ...................................................02 ASSEMBLIES OF GOD (AOG) ...................03 CHURCH OF CHRIST .................................04 PRESBYTERIAN ..........................................05 SEVENTH DAY ADVENTIST .....................06 APOSTOLIC ..................................................07 OTHER: _____________________________96 DON’T KNOW/DON’T REMEMBER..........98 REFUSED/NO ANSWER..............................99 YES ............................................................................ 1 NO ............................................................................. 2 DON’T KNOW ............................................................ 8 REFUSED/NO ANSWER ........................................... 9 Page 203 of 249 Page 202 of 246 110 Have you ever attended school?
YES ........................................................................... 1 SCHOOL INCLUDES PRIMARY, SECONDARY, TERTIARY AND VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 111 What is the highest level of education that you achieved?

MARK HIGHEST LEVEL.

ADD UP THE TOTAL NUMBER OF YEARS IN SCHOOLING, INLCUDING TERTIARY EDUCATION 112 Where did you grow up?

PROBE: Before age 12 where did you live longest?

113 Do any of your family of birth live close enough by that you can easily see/visit them?
114 How often do you see or talk to a member of your family of birth?

Would you say at least once a week, once a month, once a year, or never?

115 When you need help or have a problem, can you usually ask your family of birth for support?

Do you regularly attend a group, organization or association?

IF NO, PROMPT: Organizations like women’s or community groups, religious groups or political associations.
NO ........................................................................... 2 DON’T KNOW ............................................................ 8 REFUSED/NO ANSWER ........................................... 9 PRIMARY ___________ year .................................... 1 SECONDARY _________ year.................................. 2 TERTIARY _________ year....................................... 3 NUMBER OF YEARS SCHOOLING ...............[ ][ ] DON’T KNOW/DON’T REMEMBER..........................98 REFUSED/NO ANSWER ..........................................99 THIS COMMUNITY .....................................................1 OTHER RURAL AREA/VILLAGE/ISLAND..................2 ANOTHER TOWN.......................................................3 ANOTHER COUNTRY ................................................4 ANOTHER COMMUNITY IN SAME TOWN................5 DON’T KNOW/DON’T REMEMBER............................8 REFUSED/NO ANSWER ............................................9 YES .............................................................................1 NO ...............................................................................2 LIVING WITH FAMILY OF BIRTH...............................3 DON’T KNOW/DON’T REMEMBER............................8 REFUSED/NO ANSWER ............................................9 AT LEAST ONCE A WEEK .........................................1 AT LEAST ONCE A MONTH ......................................2 AT LEAST ONCE A YEAR .........................................3 NEVER (HARDLY EVER) ...........................................4 DON’T KNOW/DON’T REMEMBER............................8 REFUSED/NO ANSWER ............................................9 YES .............................................................................1 NO ...............................................................................2 DON’T KNOW/DON’T REMEMBER............................8 REFUSED/NO ANSWER ............................................9 YES .............................................................................1 NO ...............................................................................2 DON’T KNOW/DON’T REMEMBER............................8 REFUSED/NO ANSWER ............................................9 Y112 112 Y115  115 Y118 118 Is this group (Are any of these groups) attended by women only?
(REFER TO THE ATTENDED GROUPS ONLY) Has anyone ever prevented you from attending a meeting or participating in an organization?

IF YES, ASK: Who prevented you?

MARK ALL THAT APPLY IF A GOVERNMENT OR COMMUNITY LEADER IS MENTIONED, PROMPT FOR TYPE OF LEADER (e.g.
Chief, Police, Church leader etc) YES...........................................................................................1 NO.............................................................................................2 DON’T KNOW/DON’T REMEMBER .........................................8 REFUSED/NO ANSWER..........................................................9 NOT PREVENTED .................................................................. A PARTNER/HUSBAND ............................................................. B PARENTS ................................................................................C PARENTS-IN-LAW/PARENTS OF PARTNER ........................D SON ........................................................................................ E DAUGHTER ............................................................................ F OTHER RELATIVE .................................................................G GOVERNMENT/COMMUNITY LEADER (specify): _________________________________________ ...............H OTHER:______________________________ ....................... X Page 204 of 249 Page 203 of 246 116 a 117 118 118 a Has anyone ever prevented you from travelling to another village, community or island?
IF YES, ASK: Who prevented you?

MARK ALL THAT APPLY IF A GOVERNMENT OR COMMUNITY LEADER IS MENTIONED, PROMPT FOR TYPE OF LEADER (e.g.

Chief, Police, Church leader etc) 118 b Has anyone ever prevented you continuing with your education?

IF YES, ASK: Who prevented you?

from accessing or MARK ALL THAT APPLY IS IF A GOVERNMENT OR COMMUNITY LEADER MENTIONED, PROMPT FOR TYPE OF LEADER (e.g.

Chief, Police, Church leader etc) 119 Are you currently married or do you have a male partner?
IF RESPONDENT HAS A MALE PARTNER ASK Do you and your partner live together?

Have you ever been married or lived with a male partner?

Have you ever had a regular male sexual partner?

120 a 120 b 121 Did the last partnership with a man end in divorce or separation, or did your husband/partner die?

122 Was the divorce/separation initiated by you, by your husband/partner, or did you both decide that you should separate?

123 How many times in your life have you been married and/or lived together with a man?
(INCLUDE CURRENT PARTNER IF LIVING TOGETHER) NOT PREVENTED .................................................................. A PARTNER/HUSBAND ............................................................. B PARENTS ................................................................................C PARENTS-IN-LAW/PARENTS OF PARTNER ........................D SON ........................................................................................ E DAUGHTER ............................................................................ F OTHER RELATIVE .................................................................G GOVERNMENT/COMMUNITY LEADER (specify): _________________________________________ ...............H OTHER:______________________________ ....................... X NOT PREVENTED .................................................................. A PARTNER/HUSBAND ............................................................. B PARENTS ................................................................................C PARENTS-IN-LAW/PARENTS OF PARTNER ........................D SON ........................................................................................ E DAUGHTER ............................................................................ F OTHER RELATIVE .................................................................G GOVERNMENT/COMMUNITY LEADER (specify): _________________________________________ ...............H OTHER:______________________________ ....................... X CURRENTLY MARRIED .............................................1 LIVING WITH MAN, NOT MARRIED........................................3 CURRENTLY HAVING A REGULAR PARTNER (SEXUAL RELATIONSHIP), LIVING APART .................................................................4 NOT CURRENTLY MARRIED OR LIVING WITH A MAN (NOT INVOLVED IN A SEXUAL RELATIONSHIP) ...............................................................5 YES, MARRIED ........................................................................1 YES, LIVED WITH A MAN, BUT NEVER MARRIED ................................................................................3 NO ............................................................................................5 YES ..........................................................................................1 NO.............................................................................................2 REFUSED/NO ANSWER..........................................................9 DIVORCED ..............................................................................1 SEPARATED/BROKEN UP ......................................................2 WIDOWED/PARTNER DIED ....................................................3 DON’T KNOW...........................................................................8 REFUSED/NO ANSWER..........................................................9 RESPONDENT .........................................................................1 HUSBAND/PARTNER ..............................................................2 BOTH (RESPONDENT AND PARTNER).................................3 HIS RELATIVES .......................................................................4 HER RELATIVES......................................................................5 Y123 123 Y123 123 Y123 123 121 Y121 121 Y121 S2 YS2 YS2 S2 123 Y123 OTHER: ____________________________ ...........................6 DON’T KNOW...........................................................................8 REFUSED/NO ANSWER..........................................................9 NUMBER OF TIMES MARRIED/ LIVED TOGETHER...........................................................[ ][ ] ........................................................................................IF “00” YS2 S2 DON’T KNOW/DON’T REMEMBER .......................................98 REFUSED/NO ANSWER........................................................99 Page 205 of 249 Page 204 of 246 124 125 129 The next few questions are about your current or most recent partnership.
Do/did you live with your husband/partner’s parents or any of his relatives?

IF CURRENTLY WITH PARTNER: Do you currently live with your parents or any of your relatives?

IF NOT CURRENTLY WITH PARTNER: Were you living with your parents or relatives during your last relationship?

Did you have any kind of marriage ceremony to formalize the union?

What type of ceremony did you have?

MARK ALL THAT APPLY 130 In what year was the (first) ceremony performed?
(THIS REFERS TO CURRENT/LAST RELATIONSHIP) 131 Did you yourself choose your current/most recent husband, did someone else choose him for you, or did he choose you?

IF SHE DID NOT CHOOSE HERSELF, PROBE: Who chose your current/most recent husband for you?

131 a What was the reason that your current/most recent husband was chosen for you?

PROBE THE REASON THAT HER HUSBAND WAS CHOSEN FOR HER 132 Were you forced to marry your current/most recent husband?

133 Did your marriage involve bride price payment?


IF NO, PROBE: Do you expect bride price to be paid in future?

134 Has all of the bride price been paid for, or does some part still remain to be paid?

135 Do you think that the amount of bride price payment has had a positive impact on how you are treated by your husband and his family, a negative impact, or no particular impact?
YES...........................................................................................1 NO.............................................................................................2 DON’T KNOW/DON’T REMEMBER .........................................8 REFUSED/NO ANSWER..........................................................9 YES...........................................................................................1 NO.............................................................................................2 DON’T KNOW/DON’T REMEMBER .........................................8 REFUSED/NO ANSWER..........................................................9 NONE.......................................................................................A CIVIL MARRIAGE.................................................................... B RELIGIOUS MARRIAGE .........................................................C CUSTOMARY MARRIAGE......................................................D OTHER: ____________________________ .......................... X YEAR ............................................................[ ][ ][ ][ ] DON’T KNOW/DON’T REMEMBER ...................................9998 REFUSED/NO ANSWER....................................................9999 BOTH CHOSE .........................................................................1 RESPONDENT CHOSE ...........................................................2 RESPONDENT’S FAMILY CHOSE .........................................3 PARTNER CHOSE ...................................................................4 PARTNER’S FAMILY CHOSE..................................................5 OTHER: ____________________________ ..........................6 DON’T KNOW/DON’T REMEMBER .........................................8 REFUSED/NO ANSWER..........................................................9 ARRANGED MARRIAGE .......................................................01 SWAPPING ARRANGMENT ..................................................02 COMPENSATION PAYMENT ...............................................03 BRIDE PRICE WAS PAID .....................................................04 PASSED ON TO A MAN IN HER HUSBAND’S FAMILY DUE TO BRIDE PRICE (AFTER HER HUSBAND’ DEATH) ..........05 MARRIED TO THE MAN WHO RAPED HER.........................06 SETTLEMENT FOR LAND DISPUTE ....................................07 OTHER: ________________________________ ................96 DON’T KNOW/DON’T REMEMBER .......................................98 REFUSED/NO ANSWER........................................................99 YES NO.............................................................................................2 DON’T KNOW/DON’T REMEMBER .........................................8 REFUSED/NO ANSWER..........................................................9 YES...........................................................................................1 NO ............................................................................................2 DON’T KNOW/DON’T REMEMBER .........................................8 REFUSED/NO ANSWER..........................................................9 ALL PAID ..................................................................................1 PARTIALLY PAID .....................................................................2 NONE PAID ..............................................................................3 DON’T KNOW/DON’T REMEMBER .........................................8 REFUSED/NO ANSWER..........................................................9 POSITIVE IMPACT...................................................................1 NEGATIVE IMPACT .................................................................2 NO IMPACT ..............................................................................3 DON’T KNOW/DON’T REMEMBER .........................................8 REFUSED/NO ANSWER..........................................................9 1 YS.2 S.2 Y133* 133* Y133* 133* YS.2 S.2 YS.2 S.2 BEFORE STARTING WITH SECTION 2: REVIEW RESPONSES IN SECTION 1 AND MARK MARITAL STATUS ON REFERENCE SHEET, BOX A.
Page 206 of 249 Page 205 of 246 SECTION 2 GENERAL HEALTH 201 I would now like to ask a few questions about your health and use of health services.

Would you describe your overall health as excellent, good, fair, poor or very poor?

Do you have any physical or intellectual disability?

201 a 202 Now I would like to ask you about your health in the past 4 weeks.

How would you describe your ability to walk around?
I will give 5 options, which one best describes your situation: Would you say that you have no problems, very few problems, some problems, many problems or that you are unable to walk at all?

203 204 205 In the past 4 weeks did you have problems with performing usual activities, such as work, study, household, family or social activities?

Please choose from the following 5 options.

Would you say no problems, very few problems, some problems, many problems or unable to perform usual activities?
In the past 4 weeks have you been in pain or discomfort?

Please choose from the following 5 options.

Would you say not at all, slight pain or discomfort, moderate, severe or extreme pain or discomfort?

In the past 4 weeks have you had problems with your memory or concentration?

Please choose from the following 5 options.

Would you say no problems, very few problems, some problems, many problems or extreme memory or concentration problems?
206 In the past 4 weeks have you had: a) Dizziness b) Vaginal discharge EXCELLENT .......................................................................... 1 GOOD ..................................................................................... 2 FAIR........................................................................................ 3 POOR...................................................................................... 4 VERY POOR........................................................................... 5 DON’T KNOW/DON’T REMEMBER ....................................... 8 REFUSED/NO ANSWER........................................................ 9 NO PROBLEM ....................................................................... 1 PHYSICAL DISABILITY ___________________................... 2 INTELECTUAL DISABILITY________________ ................... 3 BOTH ________________ ..................................................... 4 OTHER _________________________................................. 6 DON’T KNOW/DON’T REMEMBER ....................................... 8 REFUSED/NO ANSWER........................................................ 9 NO PROBLEMS...................................................................... 1 VERY FEW PROBLEMS ........................................................ 2 SOME PROBLEMS................................................................. 3 MANY PROBLEMS................................................................. 4 UNABLE TO WALK AT ALL.................................................... 5 DON’T KNOW/DON’T REMEMBER ....................................... 8 REFUSED/NO ANSWER........................................................ 9 NO PROBLEMS...................................................................... 1 VERY FEW PROBLEMS ........................................................ 2 SOME PROBLEMS................................................................. 3 MANY PROBLEMS................................................................. 4 UNABLE TO PERFORM USUAL ACTIVITIES ....................... 5 DON’T KNOW/DON’T REMEMBER ....................................... 8 REFUSED/NO ANSWER........................................................ 9 NO PAIN OR DISCOMFORT.................................................. 1 SLIGHT PAIN OR DISCOMFORT .......................................... 2 MODERATE PAIN OR DISCOMFORT................................... 3 SEVERE PAIN OR DISCOMFORT......................................... 4 EXTREME PAIN OR DISCOMFORT...................................... 5 DON’T KNOW/DON’T REMEMBER ....................................... 8 REFUSED/NO ANSWER........................................................ 9 NO PROBLEMS...................................................................... 1 VERY FEW PROBLEMS ........................................................ 2 SOME PROBLEMS................................................................. 3 MANY PROBLEMS................................................................. 4 EXTREME MEMORY PROBLEMS......................................... 5 DON’T KNOW/DON’T REMEMBER ....................................... 8 REFUSED/NO ANSWER........................................................ 9 YES NO DK a) DIZZINESS b) VAGINAL DISCHARGE 1 1 2 2 8 8 207 In the past 4 weeks, have you taken medication: (including medicine/tablets or custom medicine) a) b) c) FOR EACH, IF YES PROBE: How often?
Once or twice, a few times or many times?

To help you calm down or sleep?

To relieve pain?

To help you not feel sad or depressed?

a) b) c) FOR SLEEP FOR PAIN FOR SADNESS NO 1 1 1 ONCE OR TWICE 2 2 2 A FEW TIMES 3 3 3 MANY TIMES 4 4 4 Page 207 of 249 Page 206 of 246 208 In the past 4 weeks, did you consult a doctor or other professional or traditional health worker or church leader because you yourself were sick?

IF YES: Whom did you consult?

MARK ALL THAT APPLY PROBE: Did you also see anyone else?
IF SHE MENTIONS A COUNSELLOR, PROBE: Where did you see a counsellor?
NO ONE CONSULTED........................................................ A DOCTOR B NURSE C MIDWIFE .............................................................................D AID POST WORKER .......................................................... E PHARMACIST...................................................................... F CUSTOM DOCTOR ............................................................G TRADITIONAL BIRTH ATTENDANT ..................................H CHURCH LEADER ..............................................................
I COUNSELLOR (where?

): ____________________ ............J OTHER: _________________________________............. X 209 The next questions are related to other common problems that may have bothered you in the past 4 weeks.

If you had the problem in the past 4 weeks, answer yes.

If you have not had the problem in the past 4 weeks, answer no.

YES NO a) Do you often have headaches?

b) Is your appetite poor?

c) Do you sleep badly?

d) Are you easily frightened?

e) Do your hands shake?


f) g) h) Do you have trouble thinking clearly?

Do you feel nervous, tense or worried?

Is your digestion poor?

Do you feel unhappy?

Do you cry more than usual?

i) j) k) Do you find it difficult to enjoy your daily activities?

l) Do you find it difficult to make decisions?

m) Are you finding it hard to do your daily work?

n) Do you feel unable to be active and useful in your life?

o) Are you no longer interested in things that you used to enjoy?
p) Do you feel that you are a worthless person?

Do you feel tired all the time?

q) Have you been thinking of ending your life?

r) s) Do you have uncomfortable feelings in your stomach?

t) Are you easily tired?


a) HEADACHES b) APPETITE c) d) SLEEP BADLY FRIGHTENED e) HANDS SHAKE f) NERVOUS g) DIGESTION h) THINKING UNHAPPY i) j) CRY MORE k) NOT ENJOY DECISIONS l) m) WORK SUFFERS n) USEFUL o) LOST INTEREST p) WORTHLESS q) ENDING LIFE FEEL TIRED r) STOMACH s) EASILY TIRED t 210 Just now we talked about problems that may have bothered you in the past 4 weeks.
I would like to ask you now: In your life, have you ever thought about ending your life?

211 Have you ever tried to take your life?

212 In the past 12 months, have you had an operation (other than a caesarean section)?

213 In the past 12 months, did you have to spend any nights in a hospital/clinic/aid post/health centre or dispensary because you were sick (other than to give birth)?

IF YES: How many nights in the past 12 months?
Y212 212 .............................................................................. 1 YES NO .............................................................................. 2 DON’T KNOW/DON’T REMEMBER ..................................... 8 REFUSED/NO ANSWER...................................................... 9 .............................................................................. 1 YES NO .............................................................................. 2 DON’T KNOW/DON’T REMEMBER ..................................... 8 REFUSED/NO ANSWER...................................................... 9 YES...................................................................................... 1 NO........................................................................................ 2 DON’T KNOW/DON’T REMEMBER .................................... 8 REFUSED/NO ANSWER..................................................... 9 NIGHTS IN HOSPITAL ............................................ [ ][ ] NONE ................................................................................. 00 DON’T KNOW/DON’T REMEMBER ................................... 98 REFUSED/NO ANSWER.................................................... 99 Page 208 of 249 Page 207 of 246 214 Do you now smoke….….
1.

Daily?

2.

Occasionally?

3.

Not at all?

DAILY................................................................................ 1 OCCASIONALLY .............................................................. 2 NOT AT ALL ..........................................................3 DON’T KNOW/DON’T REMEMBER ................................. 8 REFUSED/NO ANSWER.................................................. 9 Y216 216 Y216 216 215 Have you ever smoked in your life?

Did you ever smoke….

1.

Daily?


(smoking at least once a day) 2.

Occasionally?

(at least 100 cigarettes in your lifetime, but never daily) 3.

Not at all?

(not at all, or less than 100 cigarettes in your life time) 216 How often do you drink alcohol or home brew?
Would you DAILY................................................................................ 1 OCCASIONALLY .............................................................. 2 NOT AT ALL...................................................................... 3 DON’T KNOW/DON’T REMEMBER ................................. 8 REFUSED/NO ANSWER.................................................. 9 say: 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.
Every day Once or twice a week Once or twice a month Occasionally, about once or twice a year EVERY DAY...................................................................... 1 ONCE OR TWICE A WEEK.............................................. 2 ONCE OR TWICE A MONTH ........................................... 3 ONCE OR TWICE A YEAR............................................... 4 Never NEVER ............................................................................. 5 Y217a 217a 217 On the days that you drank alcohol or home brew in the past 4 weeks, about how many alcoholic drinks did you usually have a day?
How often do you drink kava?

Would you say: 1.

2.

3.

4.
Every day Once or twice a week Once or twice a month Occasionally, about once or twice a year DON’T KNOW/DON’T REMEMBER ................................. 8 REFUSED/NO ANSWER.................................................. 9 USUAL NUMBER OF DRINKS ............................ [ ][ ] NO ALCOHOLIC DRINKS IN PAST 4 WEEKS ................. 00 EVERY DAY...................................................................... 1 ONCE OR TWICE A WEEK.............................................. 2 ONCE OR TWICE A MONTH ........................................... 3 ONCE OR TWICE A YEAR............................................... 4 5.
Never NEVER ............................................................................. 5 DON’T KNOW/DON’T REMEMBER ................................. 8 REFUSED/NO ANSWER.................................................. 9  S.3 OR IF YES TO Q216, GO TO 218 On the days that you drank kava in the past 4 weeks, about how many shells did you usually have a day?
USUAL NUMBER OF DRINKS ............................ [ ][ ] NO KAVA DRINKS IN PAST 4 WEEKS............................. 00 In the past 12 months, have you experienced any of the following problems, related to your drinking of alcohol, home brew or kava?

a) money problems b) health problems c) d) problems with authorities (bar owner, police, chief, conflict with family, relatives or friends church leaders) x) other, specify.
a) MONEY PROBLEMS b) HEALTH PROBLEMS c) CONFLICT d) PROBLEMS WITH AUTHORITIES x) OTHER: _________________ YES NO 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 Page 209 of 249 Page 208 of 246 217 a 217 b 218 SECTION 3 REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH Now I would like to ask about all of the children that you may have given birth to during your life.

301 Have you ever given birth?

How many children have you given birth to that were alive when they were born?

(INCLUDE BIRTHS WHERE THE BABY DIDN’T LIVE FOR LONG) 302 Have you ever been pregnant?
303 How many children do you have, who are alive now?

RECORD NUMBER 304 Have you ever given birth to a boy or a girl who was born alive, but later died?

This could be at any age.

IF NO, PROBE: Any baby who cried or showed signs of life but survived for only a few hours or days?

a) How many sons have died?

a) How many daughters have died?

(THIS IS ABOUT ALL AGES) 305 306 Do (did) all your children have the same biological father, or more than one father?
307 How many of your children receive financial support from their father(s)?

Would you say none, some children or all children?

IF ONLY ONE CHILD AND SHE SAYS ‘YES,’ CODE ‘3’ (‘ALL’).

308 How many times have you been pregnant?

Include pregnancies that did not end up in a live birth, and if you are pregnant now, your current pregnancy?

PROBE: How many pregnancies were with twins, triplets?
NUMBER OF CHILDREN BORN ................... [ ][ ] IF 1 OR MORE .............  NONE .................................................................... 00 YES........................................................................... 1 NO ............................................................................ 2 MAYBE/NOT SURE ................................................. 3 DON’T KNOW/DON’T REMEMBER......................... 8 REFUSED/NO ANSWER ......................................... 9 CHILDREN ................................................. [ ][ ] NONE .................................................................... 00 Y303 303 Y304 304 Y310 310 Y310 310 Y310 310 Y310 310 1 YES NO ........................................................................... 2 306 Y306 Y308  308 a) SONS DEAD .......................................... [ ][ ] b) DAUGHTERS DEAD ................................ [ ][ ] IF NONE ENTER ‘00’ ONE FATHER........................................................... 1 MORE THAN ONE FATHER .................................... 2 N/A (NEVER HAD LIVE BIRTH)............................... 7 DON’T KNOW/DON’T REMEMBER............8 REFUSED/NO ANSWER................................9 NONE ....................................................................... 1 SOME ....................................................................... 2 ALL ........................................................................... 3 N/A ........................................................................... 7 DON’T KNOW/DON’T REMEMBER......................... 8 REFUSED/NO ANSWER ......................................... 9 a) TOTAL NO.
OF PREGNANCIES.

................ [ ][ ] b) PREGNANCIES WITH TWINS ....................... [ ] c) PREGNANCIES WITH TRIPLETS ................... [ ] 309 Have you ever had a pregnancy that miscarried, or ended in a stillbirth?

PROBE: How many times did you miscarry, how many times did you have a stillbirth, and how many times did you abort?
a) MISCARRIAGES .................................... [ ][ ] b) STILLBIRTHS .............................[ ][ ] c) ABORTIONS ..................................[ ][ ] IF NONE ENTER ‘00’ 310 Are you pregnant now?

DO EITHER A OR B: IF PREGNANT NOW ==> IF NOT PREGNANT NOW ==> VERIFY THAT ADDITION ADDS UP TO THE SAME FIGURE.

IF NOT, PROBE AGAIN AND CORRECT.

311 Have you ever used anything, or tried in any way, to delay or avoid getting pregnant?
YES........................................................................... 1 NO ............................................................................ 2 MAYBE ..................................................................... 3 YA  A YB  B YB  B [301] ____ + [309 a+b+c] _____ + 1 = A.

[308a] _____+ [308b] ____ + [ 2x308c] ____ = ___ [301] ____ + [309 a+b+c] _____ = B.
[308a] _____+ [308b] ____ + [ 2x308c] ____ = ___ YES........................................................................... 1 NO ........................................................................... 2 NEVER HAD SEXUAL INTERCOURSE ................. 3 DON’T KNOW/DON’T REMEMBER......................... 8 REFUSED/NO ANSWER ......................................... 9 Y315 315 Y315 S.5 Page 210 of 249 Page 209 of 246 312 Are you currently doing something, or using any method, to delay or avoid getting pregnant?
313 What (main) method are you currently using?

IF MORE THAN ONE, ONLY MARK MAIN METHOD 314 Does your current husband/partner know that you are using a method of family planning?

315 Has/did your current/most recent husband/partner ever refused to use a method or tried to stop you from using a method to avoid getting pregnant?

316 How did he let you know that he disapproved of using methods to avoid getting pregnant?
MARK ALL THAT APPLY 317 Apart from what you have told me before, I would now like to ask some specific questions about condoms.

Have you ever used a condom with your current/most recent partner?

317 a The last time that you had sex with your current/most recent partner did you use a condom?

318 Have you ever asked your current/most recent partner to use a condom?
315 Y315 YES........................................................................... 1 NO ............................................................................ 2 DON’T KNOW/DON’T REMEMBER......................... 8 REFUSED/NO ANSWER ......................................... 9 PILL/TABLETS ....................................................... 01 INJECTABLES........................................................ 02 IUD/LOOP............................................................... 03 FEMALE CONDOM ................................................ 04 CALENDAR/MUCUS METHOD.............................. 05 FEMALE STERILIZATION...................................... 06 CONDOMS ............................................................. 07 MALE STERILIZATION/VASECTOMY................... 08 WITHDRAWAL ....................................................... 09 Y315 315 Y315 315 Y315 315 HERBS ................................................................... 10 OTHER:____________________________ .......... 96 DON’T KNOW/DON’T REMEMBER....................... 98 REFUSED/NO ANSWER ....................................... 99 YES........................................................................... 1 NO ............................................................................ 2 N/A: NO CURRENT PARTNER ............................... 7 DON’T KNOW/DON’T REMEMBER......................... 8 REFUSED/NO ANSWER ......................................... 9 YES........................................................................... 1 NO .......................................................................... 2 DON’T KNOW/DON’T REMEMBER......................... 8 REFUSED/NO ANSWER ......................................... 9 TOLD ME HE DID NOT APPROVE ............. A SHOUTED/GOT ANGRY..........................................B THREATENED TO BEAT ME...................................C THREATENED TO LEAVE/THROW ME OUT OF HOME...................................................................D BEAT ME/PHYSICALLY ASSAULTED.....................E TOOK OR DESTROYED METHOD ......................... F TOLD HIS OR HER RELATIVES .............................G TOLD THE CHIEF ....................................................H THREATENED TO GET ANOTHER WOMAN ..........
I GOT ANOTHER WOMAN .........................................J LEFT THE HOME TEMPORARILY ..........................K THREATENED TO DESERT HER OR DESERTED HER .......................................................................... L Y317 317 Y317 317 Y317 317 OTHER _____________________________ ..........X YES........................................................................... 1 NO ............................................................................ 2 Y318 318 DON’T KNOW/DON’T REMEMBER......................... 8 REFUSED/NO ANSWER ......................................... 9 YES........................................................................... 1 NO ............................................................................ 2 DON’T KNOW/DON’T REMEMBER......................... 8 REFUSED/NO ANSWER ......................................... 9 YES........................................................................... 1 NO ............................................................................ 2 DON’T KNOW/DON’T REMEMBER......................... 8 REFUSED/NO ANSWER ......................................... 9 Page 211 of 249 Page 210 of 246 YS.4 S.4 YS.4 S.4 YS.4 S.4 319 Has your current/most recent husband/partner ever refused to use a condom?
YES........................................................................... 1 NO .......................................................................... 2 320 How did he let you know that he disapproved of using a condom?
MARK ALL THAT APPLY DON’T KNOW/DON’T REMEMBER......................... 8 REFUSED/NO ANSWER ......................................... 9 TOLD ME HE DID NOT APPROVE..........................A SHOUTED/GOT ANGRY..........................................B THREATENED TO BEAT ME...................................C THREATENED TO LEAVE/THROW ME OUT OF HOME ..................................................D BEAT ME/PHYSICALLY ASSAULTED.....................E TOOK OR DESTROYED CONDOM......................... F ACCUSED ME OF BEING UNFAITHFUL/ NOT A GOOD WOMAN.......................................G LAUGHED AT/NOT TAKE ME SERIOUS ................H SAID IT IS NOT NECESSARY ..................................
I TOLD HIS OR HER RELATIVES ..............................J TOLD THE CHIEF ....................................................K THREATENED TO GET ANOTHER WOMAN ......... L GOT ANOTHER WOMAN ....................................... M LEFT THE HOME TEMPORARILY ..........................N THREATENED TO DESERT HER OR DESERTED HER ..........................................................................O OTHER _____________________________ ..........X BEFORE STARTING WITH SECTION 4: REVIEW RESPONSES AND MARK REPRODUCTIVE HISTORY ON REFERENCE SHEET, BOX B.
Page 212 of 249 Page 211 of 246 SECTION 4 CHILDREN CHECK: Ref.

Sheet, box B, point Q ANY LIVE BIRTHS [ ]  (1) (s4bir) 401 I would like to ask about the last time that you gave birth (Live birth, regardless of whether the child is still alive or not).

What is the date of birth of this child?

402 What name was given to your last born child?

Is (NAME) a boy or a girl?

403 Is your last born child (NAME) still alive?

404 How old was (NAME) at his/her last birthday?


RECORD AGE IN COMPLETED YEARS CHECK AGE WITH BIRTH DATE 405 How old was (NAME) when he/she died?

406 CHECK IF DATE OF BIRTH OF LAST CHILD (IN Q401) IS MORE OR LESS THAN 5 YEARS AGO 407 I would like to ask you about your last pregnancy.

At the time you became pregnant with this child (NAME), did you want to become pregnant then, did you want to wait until later, did you want no (more) children, or did you not mind either way?
408 At the time you became pregnant with this child (NAME), did your husband/partner want you to become pregnant then, did he want to wait until later, did he want no (more) children at all, or did he not mind either way?

409 When you were pregnant with this child (NAME), did you see anyone for an antenatal check?

IF YES: Whom did you see?

Anyone else?

MARK ALL THAT APPLY 410 Did your husband/partner stop you, encourage you, or have no interest in whether you received antenatal care for your pregnancy?
411 When you were pregnant with this child, did your husband/partner have preference for a son, a daughter or did it not matter to him whether it was a boy or a girl?
NO LIVE BIRTHS [ ]  YS.5 S.5 (2) DAY ...................................................[ ][ ] MONTH ...................................................[ ][ ] YEAR ....................................[ ][ ][ ][ ] NAME: ____________________ BOY..............................................................................1 GIRL ...................................................................2 YES ..............................................................................1 Y405 NO.......................................................................2 405 AGE IN YEARS ........................................... [ ][ ] Y406 406 Y406 IF NOT YET COMPLETED 1 YEAR ......................... 00 406 YEARS .................................................... [ ][ ] MONTHS (IF LESS THAN 1 YEAR) .................... [ ][ ] DAYS (IF LESS THAN 1 MONTH)....................... [ ][ ] 5 OR MORE YEARS AGO........................................... 1 LESS THAN 5 YEARS AGO............................. 2 Y417 417 BECOME PREGNANT THEN...................................... 1 WAIT UNTIL LATER .................................................... 2 NOT WANT CHILDREN............................................... 3 NOT MIND EITHER WAY ............................................ 4 DON’T KNOW/DON’T REMEMBER ............................ 8 REFUSED/NO ANSWER............................................. 9 BECOME PREGNANT THEN...................................... 1 WAIT UNTIL LATER .................................................... 2 NOT WANT CHILDREN............................................... 3 NOT MIND EITHER WAY ............................................ 4 DON’T KNOW/DON’T REMEMBER ............................ 8 REFUSED/NO ANSWER............................................. 9 NO ONE ......................................................................A DOCTOR......................................................................B OBSTETRICIAN/GYNAECOLOGIST...........................C NURSE/MIDWIFE ........................................................D AID POST WORKER ...................................................E TRADITIONAL BIRTH ATTENDANT ........................... F OTHER:_____________________________ _______________________________ .............X STOP ........................................................................... 1 ENCOURAGE .............................................................. 2 NO INTEREST ............................................................. 3 DON’T KNOW/DON’T REMEMBER ............................ 8 REFUSED/NO ANSWER............................................. 9 SON ............................................................................. 1 DAUGHTER ................................................................. 2 DID NOT MATTER....................................................... 3 DON’T KNOW/DON’T REMEMBER ............................ 8 REFUSED/NO ANSWER............................................. 9 Page 213 of 249 Page 212 of 246 412 During this pregnancy, did you drink any alcohol, home brew or NO .....................................................................A kava?
IF YES: Which ones did you drink during this pregnancy?

MARK ALL THAT APPLY 413 During this pregnancy, did you smoke any cigarettes or use tobacco or marijuana?

IF YES: Which ones did you smoke?

MARK ALL THAT APPLY 414 Were you given a (postnatal) check-up at any time during the 6 weeks after delivery?

415 Was this child (NAME) weighed at birth?

416 How much did he/she weigh?

RECORD FROM HEALTH CARD WHERE POSSIBLE 417 Do you have any children aged between 6 and 14 years?

How many?
How many?

(include 6-year-old and 14-year-old children) 418 a) How many are boys?

b) How many are girls?

419 How many of these children (ages 6-14 years) currently live with you?

PROBE: a) How many boys?

b) How many girls?
420 Do any of these children (ages 6-14 years): ALOCOHOL ................................................................B HOME BREW...............................................................C KAVA .....................................................................D OTHER (specify)_______________________ ............X .....................................................................A NO CIGARETTES/TOBACCO............................................B MARIJUANA ................................................................C OTHER (specify)_______________________ ............X YES .............................................................................. 1 NO................................................................................ 2 NO, CHILD NOT YET SIX WEEKS OLD ..................... 3 DON’T KNOW/DON’T REMEMBER ............................ 8 REFUSED/NO ANSWER............................................. 9 YES .............................................................................. 1 NO .............................................................................. 2 DON’T KNOW /DON’T REMEMBER ........................... 8 REFUSED/NO ANSWER............................................. 9 KG FROM CARD [ ].
[ ] ..................... 1 KG FROM RECALL [ ].
[ ]...................... 2 DON’T KNOW/DON’T REMEMBER ............................ 8 REFUSED/NO ANSWER............................................. 9 NUMBER ....................................................... [ ][ ] YS.5 NONE......................................................................... 00 S.5 a) BOYS .................................................................... [ ] b) GIRLS ................................................................... [ ] Y417 417 Y417 417 a) BOYS .................................................................... [ ] b) GIRLS ................................................................... [ ] IF “0” FOR BOTH SEXES ==== GO TO  YS.5 S.5 YES NO DK 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 8 8 8 8 a) Have nightmares often?
b) Suck their thumbs or fingers?

c) Wet their bed often?

d) Are any of these children very quiet or withdrawn, or find it a) NIGHTMARES b) SUCK THUMB c) WET BED d) QUIET/ALONE difficult to talk to or play with other children?

e) Are any of them aggressive with you or other children?

421 Of these children (ages 6-14 years), how many of your boys and how many of your girls have ever run away from home?
422 Of these children (ages 6-14 years), how many of your boys and how many of your girls are studying/in school?

423 Have any of these children had to repeat (failed) a year at school?

MAKE SURE ONLY CHILDREN AGED 6-14 YEARS.

424 Have any of these children stopped school for a while or dropped out of school?

MAKE SURE ONLY CHILDREN AGED 6-14 YEARS.
8 2 1 e) AGGRESSIVE a) NUMBER OF BOYS RUN AWAY ......................... [ ] b) NUMBER OF GIRLS RUN AWAY ........................ [ ] IF NONE ENTER ‘0’ a) BOYS .................................................................... [ ] b) GIRLS ................................................................... [ ] IF “0” FOR BOTH SEXES ==== GO TO  YES .............................................................................. 1 NO................................................................................ 2 DON’T KNOW/DON’T REMEMBER ............................ 8 REFUSED/NO ANSWER............................................. 9 YES .............................................................................. 1 NO................................................................................ 2 DON’T KNOW/DON’T REMEMBER ............................ 8 REFUSED/NO ANSWER............................................. 9 YS.5 S.5 Page 214 of 249 Page 213 of 246 SECTION 5 CURRENT OR MOST RECENT HUSBAND/PARTNER CHECK: Ref.
sheet, Box A CURRENTLY MARRIED, OR LIVING WITH A MAN/WITH SEXUAL PARTNER (Options K, L) [ ]  FORMERLY MARRIED/ LIVING WITH A MAN/ WITH SEXUAL PARTNER (Option M) [ ]  NEVER MARRIED/ NEVER LIVED WITH A MAN (NEVER SEXUAL PARTNER) (Option N) [ ]  (3) YS.5 S.6 (s5mar) 501 (1) (2) I would now like you to tell me a little about your current/most recent husband/partner.

How old was your husband/partner on his last birthday?

PROBE: IF SHE DOES NOT KNOW HIS AGE: Is he much older or younger than you?
IF MOST RECENT PARTNER DIED: How old would he be now if he were alive?

502 In what year was he born?

503 Can (could) he read and write?

504 Did he ever attend school?

505 What is the highest level of education that he achieved?

MARK HIGHEST LEVEL.

CONVERT TO YEARS IN SCHOOL 506 IF CURRENTLY WITH PARTNER: Is he currently working, looking for work or unemployed, retired or studying?
IF NOT CURRENTLY WITH PARTNER: Towards the end of your relationship was he working, looking for work or unemployed, retired or studying?

507 When did his last job finish?

Was it in the past 4 weeks, between 4 weeks and 12 months ago, or before that?

(FOR MOST RECENT HUSBAND/PARTNER: in the last 4 weeks or in the last 12 months of your relationship?)

508 What kind of work does/did he normally do?
SPECIFY KIND OF WORK FOR EACH ANSWER AGE (YEARS) .............................................. [ ][ ] MUCH OLDER THAN HER..................................... 1 A BIT OLDER ......................................................... 2 MUCH YOUNGER THAN HER............................... 3 A BIT YOUNGER ................................................... 4 DON’T KNOW/DON’T REMEMBER ....................... 8 REFUSED/NO ANSWER........................................ 9 YEAR ................................................ [ ][ ][ ][ ] DON’T KNOW/DON’T REMEMBER ................. 9998 REFUSED/NO ANSWER.................................. 9999 YES ......................................................................... 1 NO .......................................................................... 2 DON’T KNOW/DON’T REMEMBER ....................... 8 REFUSED/NO ANSWER........................................ 9 1 YES NO ................................................................ 2 DON’T KNOW/DON’T REMEMBER ....................... 8 REFUSED/NO ANSWER........................................ 9 PRIMARY ___________ year ................................ 1 SECONDARY _________ year .............................. 2 TERTIARY _________ year ................................... 3 DON’T KNOW ......................................................... 8 NUMBER OF YEARS SCHOOLING............... [ ][ ] DON’T KNOW/DON’T REMEMBER ..................... 98 REFUSED/NO ANSWER...................................... 99 WORKING .............................................................. 1 LOOKING FOR WORK/UNEMPLOYED................. 2 RETIRED ............................................................... 3 STUDENT .............................................................. 4 DISABLED/LONG TERM SICK............................... 5 DON’T KNOW/DON’T REMEMBER ....................... 8 REFUSED/NO ANSWER........................................ 9 IN THE PAST 4 WEEKS ......................................... 1 4 WKS - 12 MONTHS AGO .................................... 2 MORE THAN 12 MONTHS AGO ............................ 3 NEVER HAD A JOB................................................ 4 DON’T KNOW/DON’T REMEMBER ....................... 8 REFUSED/NO ANSWER........................................ 9 PROFESSIONAL: ____________________ ........ 01 OWN BUSINESS: ____________________ ........ 02 LABOURER: _______________________ 03 MILITARY/POLICE: _________________ 04 SELF EMPLOYED: __________________ 05 (agriculture, fishing, forestry, carving, vending, sewing) CIVIL SERVANT: ___________________.
06 (national, provincial, area) POLITICIAN: ______________________... 07 OTHER: ____________________________96 DON’T KNOW/DON’T REMEMBER ..................... 98 REFUSED/NO ANSWER ............................ 99 Y506 506 Y508 508 Y508 508 Y509 509 Y509 509 Page 215 of 249 Page 214 of 246 509 How often does/did your husband drink alcohol/home brew?

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.
1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Every day Once or twice a week Once or twice a month Occasionally, about once or twice a year Never 510 511 511 a 511 b 511 c In the past 12 months (In the last 12 months of your last relationship), how often have you seen (did you see) your husband/partner drunk on alcohol or home brew?

Would you say most days, once or twice a week, once or twice a month, once or twice a year, or never?
In the past 12 months (In the last 12 months of your relationship), have you experienced any of the following problems, related to your husband/partner’s drinking of alcohol or home brew?

a) Money problems b) Family problems PROBE: What kind of family problems?

(damage to property, quarrelling, threat to her/children/relatives/others, assault to her/children/relatives/others, going with another woman, sexual harassment, sexual violence, STIs, loss of job, his health) x) Any other problems, specify.
How often does/did your husband drink kava?

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Every day Once or twice a week Once or twice a month Occasionally, about once or twice a year Never In the past 12 months (In the last 12 months of your last relationship), how often have you seen (did you see) your husband/partner drunk on kava?

Would you say most days, once or twice a week, once or once or twice a month, once or twice a year, or never?
In the past 12 months (In the last 12 months of your relationship), have you experienced any of the following problems, related to your husband/partner’s drinking of kava?

a) Money problems b) Family problems PROBE: What kind of family problems?

(damage to property, quarrelling, threat to her/children/relatives/others, assault to her/children/relatives/others, going with another woman, sexual harassment, sexual violence, STIs, loss of job, his health) y) Any other problems, specify.
512 Does/did your husband/partner ever use drugs?

Would you Every day say: 1.

2.

Once or twice a week 3.

Once or twice a month 4.

Occasionally, about once or twice a year 5.

Never IF YES, PROBE: What kind of drug?
Y512a 511a EVERY DAY .......................................................... 1 ONCE OR TWICE A WEEK ................................... 2 ONCE OR TWICE A MONTH ................................ 3 ONCE OR TWICE A YEAR .................................... 4 NEVER ................................................................... 5 DON’T KNOW/DON’T REMEMBER ...................... 8 REFUSED/NO ANSWER ....................................... 9 MOST DAYS ........................................................... 1 ONCE OR TWICE A WEEK .................................... 2 ONCE OR TWICE A MONTH ................................. 3 ONCE OR TWICE A YEAR .................................... .4 NEVER .................................................................... 5 DON’T KNOW/DON’T REMEMBER ....................... 8 REFUSED/NO ANSWER ........................................ 9 YES NO 1 1 2 2 a) MONEY PROBLEMS b) FAMILY PROBLEMS TYPE OF FAMILY PROBLEM: ___________ ________________________ 1 2 x) OTHER: _______________ EVERY DAY ............................................................ 1 ONCE OR TWICE A WEEK .................................... 2 ONCE OR TWICE A MONTH ................................. 3 ONCE OR TWICE A YEAR ..................................... 4 NEVER .................................................................... 5 DON’T KNOW/DON’T REMEMBER ....................... 8 REFUSED/NO ANSWER ........................................ 9 MOST DAYS ........................................................... 1 ONCE OR TWICE A WEEK .................................... 2 ONCE OR TWICE A MONTH ................................. 3 ONCE OR TWICE A YEAR ..................................... 4 NEVER .................................................................... 5 DON’T KNOW/DON’T REMEMBER ....................... 8 REFUSED/NO ANSWER ........................................ 9 Y512 512 YES NO 1 1 1 2 2 2 a) MONEY PROBLEMS b) FAMILY PROBLEMS TYPE OF FAMILY PROBLEM: ___________ ________________________ x) OTHER: _______________ EVERY DAY............................................................ 1 ONCE OR TWICE A WEEK.................................... 2 ONCE OR TWICE A MONTH ................................. 3 ONCE OR TWICE A YEAR..................................... 4 NEVER ................................................................... 5 IN THE PAST, NOT NOW ............................ 6 TYPE OF DRUG ___________________ DON’T KNOW /DON’T REMEMBER ...................... 8 REFUSED/NO ANSWER........................................ 9 Page 216 of 249 Page 215 of 246 512 a 512 b Every day How often does/did your husband gamble?
1.

2.

Once or twice a week 3.

Once or twice a month 4.

Occasionally, about once or twice a year 5.

Never In the past 12 months (In the last 12 months of your relationship), have you experienced any of the following problems, related to your husband/partner’s gambling?

a) Money problems b) Family problems PROBE: What kind of family problems?

(e.g.
(e.g.

damage to property, quarrelling, threat to her/children/relatives/others, assault to her/children/relatives/others, loss of job, his health) x) Any other problems, specify.

513 Since you have known him, has he ever been involved in a physical fight with another man?

514 In the past 12 months (In the last 12 months of the relationship), has this happened never, once or twice, a few times or many times?
515 Has your current/most recent husband/partner had a relationship with any other women while being with you?

516 Has your current/most recent husband/partner had children with any other woman while being with you?
EVERY DAY............................................................ 1 ONCE OR TWICE A WEEK.................................... 2 ONCE OR TWICE A MONTH ................................. 3 ONCE OR TWICE A YEAR..................................... 4 NEVER ................................................................... 5 IN THE PAST, NOT NOW ............................ 6 DON’T KNOW /DON’T REMEMBER ...................... 8 REFUSED/NO ANSWER .............................. 9 YES NO Y513 513 2 1 1 1 2 2 a) MONEY PROBLEMS b) FAMILY PROBLEMS TYPE OF FAMILY PROBLEM (specify): _____ ________________________ x) OTHER: _____________________ YES ................................................................ 1 NO ......................................................................... 2 DON’T KNOW /DON’T REMEMBER ...................... 8 REFUSED/NO ANSWER........................................ 9 NEVER.................................................................... 1 ONCE OR TWICE................................................... 2 A FEW (3-5) TIMES ................................................ 3 MANY (MORE THAN 5) TIMES.............................. 4 DON’T KNOW /DON’T REMEMBER ...................... 8 REFUSED/NO ANSWER........................................ 9 YES ......................................................................... 1 NO........................................................................... 2 MAY HAVE ............................................................. 3 DON’T KNOW /DON’T REMEMBER ...................... 8 REFUSED/NO ANSWER........................................ 9 1 YES NO ................................................................ 2 MAY HAVE.............................................................. 3 DON’T KNOW /DON’T REMEMBER ...................... 8 REFUSED/NO ANSWER........................................ 9 Y515 515 Y515 515 S.6 YS.6 YS.6 S.6 Page 217 of 249 Page 216 of 246 SECTION 6 ATTITUDES In this community and everywhere, people have different ideas about families and what is acceptable behaviour for men and women in the home.
I am going to read you a list of statements, and I would like you to tell me whether you generally agree or disagree with the statement.

I am interested in your opinion, not community opinions.

There are no right or wrong answers.
601 A good wife/partner obeys her husband/partner even if she disagrees 602 Family problems should only be discussed with people in the family 603 It is important for a man to show his wife/partner that he is the boss 604 A woman should be able to choose her own friends even if her husband/partner disapproves 605 It’s a wife’s obligation to have sex with her husband/partner even if she doesn’t feel like it 606 If a man mistreats his wife/partner, others outside of the family should intervene 606 a 606 b 606 c 607 A woman or girl should not touch food when she has her monthly period/menstruation It is all right for a woman or girl to be swapped or exchanged for marriage If bride price has been paid, a wife becomes the property of the husband In your opinion, does a man have a good reason to hit his wife/partner if: a) She does not complete her household work to his satisfaction b) She disobeys him c) She refuses to have sexual relations with him d) She asks him whether he has other girlfriends e) He suspects that she is unfaithful f) g) Brideprice HAS NOT been paid h) Brideprice HAS been paid i) j) He finds out that she has been unfaithful She is living in his house or on his land He thinks she needs to be disciplined, taught a lesson or educated She is unable to get pregnant k) AGREE ................................................................................... 1 DISAGREE ............................................................................. 2 DON’T KNOW......................................................................... 8 REFUSED/NO ANSWER........................................................ 9 AGREE ................................................................................... 1 DISAGREE ............................................................................. 2 DON’T KNOW......................................................................... 8 REFUSED/NO ANSWER........................................................ 9 AGREE
 ................................................................................... 1 DISAGREE ............................................................................. 2 DON’T KNOW......................................................................... 8 REFUSED/NO ANSWER........................................................ 9 AGREE ................................................................................... 1 DISAGREE ............................................................................. 2 DON’T KNOW......................................................................... 8 REFUSED/NO ANSWER........................................................ 9 AGREE ................................................................................... 1 DISAGREE ............................................................................. 2 DON’T KNOW......................................................................... 8 REFUSED/NO ANSWER........................................................ 9 AGREE ................................................................................... 1 DISAGREE ............................................................................. 2 DON’T KNOW......................................................................... 8 REFUSED/NO ANSWER........................................................ 9 AGREE ................................................................................... 1 DISAGREE ............................................................................. 2 DON’T KNOW......................................................................... 8 REFUSED/NO
 ANSWER........................................................ 9 UNFAITHFUL a) HOUSEHOLD b) DISOBEYS c) NO SEX d) GIRLFRIENDS e) SUSPECTS f) g) NOT PAID h) BRIDEPRICE PAID HIS HOUSE/LAND i) DISCIPLINE/ j) TEACHING k) NOT PREGNANT/ BARREN YES NO DK Page 218 of 249 Page 217 of 246 608 In your opinion, can a married woman refuse to have sex with her husband if: a) She doesn’t want to b) He is drunk c) She is sick d) He mistreats her e) f) g) He has sex with other women h) He has sex with men i) j) k) She does not want to get pregnant Brideprice HAS NOT been paid Brideprice HAS been paid If she suspects/knows that he is HIV+ She suspects/knows he has an STI a) NOT WANT b) DRUNK c) SICK d) MISTREAT e) HIV+ STI f) g) OTHER WOMEN h) SEX WITH MEN PREGNANT i) NOT PAID j) BRIDEPRICE k) YES 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 NO 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 DK 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 Page 219 of 249 Page 218 of 246 SECTION 7 RESPONDENT AND HER PARTNER CHECK: Ref.
sheet, Box A EVER MARRIED/EVER LIVING WITH A MAN/SEXUAL PARTNER (Options K, L, M) [ ]  (s7mar) (1) NEVER MARRIED/NEVER LIVED WITH A MAN/NEVER SEXUAL PARTNER (Option N) [ ]  (2) S.10 701 When two people marry or live together, they usually share both good and bad moments.

I would now like to ask you some questions about your current and past relationships and how your husband/partner treats (treated) you.

If anyone interrupts us I will change the topic of conversation.
I would again like to assure you that your answers will be kept secret, and that you do not have to answer any questions that you do not want to.

May I continue?
May I continue?

In general, do (did) you and your (current or most recent) husband/partner discuss the following topics together: Things that have happened to him in the day a) Things that happen to you during the day b) c) Your worries or feelings d) His worries or feelings a) HIS DAY b) YOUR DAY c) d) HIS WORRIES YOUR WORRIES 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 8 8 8 8 YES NO DK 702 In your relationship with your (current or most recent) husband/partner, how often would you say that you quarrelled?
Would you say rarely, sometimes or often?

703 I am now going to ask you about some situations that are true for many women.
Thinking about your (current or most recent) husband/partner, would you say it is generally true that he: Tries to keep you from seeing your friends a) Tries to restrict contact with your family of birth b) Insists on knowing where you are at all times c) d) Ignores you and treats you indifferently e) Gets angry if you speak with another man f) Is often suspicious that you are unfaithful g) Expects you to ask his permission before seeking health care for yourself h) Expects you to ask his permission before you do anything RARELY ...........................................................................1 SOMETIMES.....................................................................2 OFTEN ..............................................................................3 DON’T KNOW/DON’T REMEMBER..................................8 REFUSED/NO ANSWER ..................................................9 a) SEEING FRIENDS b) CONTACT FAMILY c) WANTS TO KNOW d) IGNORES YOU e) GETS ANGRY SUSPICIOUS f) g) HEALTH CARE h) DO ANYTHING YES NO DK 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 704 The next questions are about things that happen to many women, and that your current partner, or any other partner may have done to you.
Has your current husband/partner, or any other partner ever….

a) Insulted you or made you feel bad about yourself?

b) Belittled or humiliated you in front of your c) parents or family?

Belittled or humiliated you in front of other people?

d) Done things to scare or intimidate you on purpose (e.g.

by the way he looked at you, by yelling and smashing things)?

Threatened to hurt you or someone you care about?

e) A) (If YES continue with B.


If NO skip to next item) YES NO 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 B) Has this happened in the past 12 months?

(If YES ask C only.

If NO ask D only) YES NO 2 1 C) In the past 12 months would you say that this has happened once, a few times or many times?

(after answering C, go to next item) One Few Many 3 2 1 D) Before the past 12 months would you say that this has happened once, a few times or many times?
One Few Many Page 220 of 249 Page 219 of 246 705 Has he or any other partner ever….

A) (If YES continue with B.

If NO skip to next item) YES NO a) Slapped you or thrown something at you that could hurt you?

b) Pushed you or shoved you or pulled your hair?

c) Hit you with his fist or with something else that could hurt you?

d) Kicked you, dragged you or beaten you up?

e) Choked or burnt you on purpose?


f) Threatened to use a gun, knife, wood, iron, axe or other weapon against you?

g) Actually used a gun, knife, wood, iron, axe or other weapon against you?

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 B) Has this happened in the past 12 months?

(If YES ask C only.

If NO ask D only) YES NO 2 1 C) In the past 12 months would you say that this has happened once, a few times or many times?
(after answering C, go to next item) One Few Many 3 2 1 D) Before the past 12 months would you say that this has happened once, a few times or many times?
One Few Many 705 h VERIFY WHETHER RESPONDENT ANSWERED YES TO ANY QUESTION ON PHYSICAL VIOLENCE - QUESTIONS 705 (a) to (g) MARK IN BOX C OF REFERENCE SHEET YES, PHYSICAL VIOLENCE ........................... 1 NO PHYSICAL VIOLENCE .......................................... 2  706 MARK BOX C IN 705i Was the behaviour you just talked about (mention actions reported in 705), by your current or most recent husband/partner, by any other partner that you may have had before, or both?
706 A) (If YES continue with B.

If NO skip to next item) YES NO a) Did your current husband/partner or any other partner ever physically force you to have sexual intercourse when you did not want to?

b) Did you ever have sexual intercourse when you did not want to because you were afraid of what your partner or any other partner might do?

c) Did your partner or any other partner ever forced you to do something sexual that you found degrading or humiliating?
1 1 1 2 2 2 706 d 706 e VERIFY WHETHER ANSWERED YES TO ANY QUESTION ON SEXUAL VIOLENCE - QUESTIONS 706 (a) to (c) MARK IN BOX C OF REFERENCE SHEET Was the behaviour you just talked about (mention actions reported in 706), by your current or most recent husband/partner, by any other partner that you may have had before, or both?
...………………………………... 9 CURRENT/MOST RECENT PARTNER……………………1 PREVIOUS PARTNER………………………………………2 BOTH…………………………………………………………3 DON’T KNOW/DON’T REMEMBER………………………8 REFUSED/NO ANSWER B) Has this happened in the past 12 months?

(If YES ask C only.

If NO ask D only) D) Before the past 12 months would you say that this has happened once, a few times or many times?

C) In the past 12 months would you say that this has happened once, a few times or many times?
(after answering C, go to next item) One Few Many 3 2 One Few Many 2 1 3 YES NO 2 1 1 1 1 2 2 1 1 2 2 3 1 3 1 2 2 YES, SEXUAL VIOLENCE ............................... 1 NO SEXUAL VIOLENCE ............................................. 2  709 MARK BOX C 3 3 IN CURRENT/MOST RECENT PARTNER……………………1 PREVIOUS PARTNER………………………………………2 BOTH…………………………………………………………3 DON’T KNOW/DON’T REMEMBER………………………8 REFUSED/NO ANSWER ...………………………………... 9 Page 221 of 249 Page 220 of 246 (s7preg) EVER BEEN PREGNANT (option P) CHECK : Ref.
sheet, Box B (1) [ ]  NEVER PREGNANT (2) [ ]   S.8 (s7prnum) NUMBER OF PREGNANCIES (option T) [ ][ ] (s7prcur) CURRENTLY PREGNANT?

(option S)  YES….1 NO….

2  709 You said that you have been pregnant TOTAL times.

Were you ever slapped, hit, beaten, punched, kicked or hit/beaten with anything by (any of) your partner(s) while you were pregnant?

710 IF RESPONDENT WAS PREGNANT ONLY ONCE, ENTER “01” IF RESPONDENT WAS PREGNANT MORE THAN ONCE: Did this happen in one pregnancy, or more than one pregnancy?
In how many pregnancies were you beaten?

Did this happen in the last pregnancy?

710 a IF RESPONDENT WAS PREGNANT ONLY ONCE, CIRCLE CODE ‘1’.

711 Were you ever slapped, hit, beaten, punched or kicked in the stomach while you were pregnant (or hit with any other thing in the stomach, such as wood, iron or pipe)?

711 a Has anyone ever penetrated your vagina against your will with their hand or an object when you were pregnant, in order to harm you or your baby?
YES ........................................................................ 1 NO.......................................................................... 2 DON’T KNOW/DON’T REMEMBER ...................... 8 REFUSED/NO ANSWER .......................................9  S.8  S.8  S.8 NUMBER OF PREGNANCIES BEATEN ............... [ ][ ] YES ................................................................................. 1 NO................................................................................... 2 DON’T KNOW/DON’T REMEMBER ............................... 8 REFUSED/NO ANSWER ................................................ 9 YES ................................................................................. 1 NO................................................................................... 2 DON’T KNOW/DON’T REMEMBER ............................... 8 REFUSED/NO ANSWER ................................................ 9 YES ................................................................................. 1 NO................................................................................... 2 DON’T KNOW/DON’T REMEMBER ............................... 8 REFUSED/NO ANSWER ................................................ 9 IF VIOLENCE REPORTED IN MORE THAN ONE PREGNANCY, THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS REFER TO THE LAST/MOST RECENT PREGNANCY IN WHICH VIOLENCE REPORTED 712 During the most recent pregnancy in which you were beaten, was the person who slapped, hit, punched, kicked or beat you (with any object) the father of the child?
713 Were you living with this person when it happened?

714 Had the same person also done this you before you were pregnant?

715 Compared to before you were pregnant, did the slapping/beating (REFER TO RESPONDENT’S PREVIOUS ANSWERS) get less, stay about the same, or get worse while you were pregnant?

By worse I mean, more frequent or more severe.
......................................................................... 1 YES NO ......................................................................... 2 DON’T KNOW /DON’T REMEMBER .............................. 8 REFUSED/NO ANSWER ................................................ 9 1 YES NO ......................................................................... 2 DON’T KNOW/DON’T REMEMBER ............................... 8 REFUSED/NO ANSWER ................................................ 9 1 YES NO ....................................................................2 DON’T KNOW/DON’T REMEMBER ..........................8 REFUSED/NO ANSWER ...........................................9  S.8  S.8 GOT LESS ................................................................ 1 STAYED ABOUT THE SAME ................................... 2 GOT WORSE.............................................................3 DON’T KNOW/DON’T REMEMBER ..........................8 REFUSED/NO ANSWER ...........................................9 Page 222 of 249 Page 221 of 246 SECTION 8 INJURIES CHECK: Ref.
sheet Box C WOMAN EXPERIENCED PHYSICAL OR SEXUAL VIOLENCE WOMAN HAS NOT EXPERIENCED PHYSICAL OR SEXUAL VIOLENCE (“NO” to BOTH Option U and V) (“YES” TO Option U or V) [ ] (S8phsex) (1)  (2) [ ]  YS.10 S.10 I would now like to learn more about the injuries that you experienced from (any of) your partner’s actions that we have talked about (MAY NEED TO REFER TO SPECIFIC ACTIONS RESPONDENT MENTIONED IN SECTION 7).
By injury, I mean any form of physical harm, including cuts, sprains, burns, broken bones or broken teeth, or other things like this.

801 Have you ever been injured as a result of these actions by (any of) your husband/partner(s).

Please think of the actions that we talked about before.

802 a In your life, how many times were you injured by (any of) your husband(s)/partner(s)?

Would you say once or twice, several times (3 to 5 times) or many times?

802 b Has this happened in the past 12 months?
Y804a 804a YES.................................................................. 1 NO ............................................................................ 2 DON’T KNOW/DON’T REMEMBER......................... 8 REFUSED/NO ANSWER ......................................... 9 ONCE/TWICE................................................. 1 SEVERAL (3-5) TIMES ............................................ 2 MANY (MORE THAN 5) TIMES ............................... 3 DON’T KNOW/DON’T REMEMBER......................... 8 REFUSED/NO ANSWER ......................................... 9 YES.................................................................. 1 NO ............................................................................ 2 DON’T KNOW/DON’T REMEMBER......................... 8 REFUSED/NO ANSWER ......................................... 9 b) ONLY ASK FOR RESPONSES MARKED IN 803a: Has this happened in the past 12 months?
YES NO DK 8 8 8 8 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 803 a What type of injury did you have?

Please mention any injury due to (any of) your husband/partners actions, no matter how long ago it happened.

MARK ALL MENTIONED PROBE: Any other injury?
SMALL CUTS, PUNCTURES, BITES......... A SCRATCH, ABRASION, BRUISES...............B SPRAINS, DISLOCATIONS .................................... C BURNS .................................................................... D PENETRATING INJURY, DEEP CUTS, GASHES...E BROKEN EARDRUM, EYE INJURIES.....................F FRACTURES, BROKEN BONES ................. G BROKEN TEETH........................................... H INTERNAL INJURIES FROM SEXUAL VIOLENCE ......................................................I INTERNAL INJURY REQUIRING SPLEEN TO BE REMOVED ........................................J OTHER INTERNAL INJURIES ................... K OTHER (specify): ____________________ .
X 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 803 c Have you got any permanent disability from any of your injuries?

Please mention any permanent disability due to (any of) your husband/partners actions, no matter how long ago it happened.

1 YES NO .................................................................. 2 DON’T KNOW/DON’T REMEMBER ........................ 8 REFUSED/NO ANSWER......................................... 9 PROBE: IF YES, WHAT TYPE OF DISABILITY?
(for example, loss of hearing, loss of sight in 1 or 2 eyes, loss of voice, loss of limbs, unable to bear children, unable to walk) TYPE OF DISABILITY _________________ Page 223 of 249 Page 222 of 246 804 a In your life, did you ever lose consciousness because of what (any of your) your husband/partner(s) did to you?

YES NO 1 .................................................................. 3 804 b Has this happened in the past 12 months?
805 a 805 b 806 In your life, were you ever hurt badly enough by (any of ) your husband/partner(s) that you needed health care (even if you did not receive it)?

IF YES: How many times?

IF NOT SURE: Estimate how many times?

Has this happened in the past 12 months?

In your life, did you ever receive health care for this injury (these injuries)?

Would you say, sometimes or always or never?


807 808 In your life, have you ever had to spend any nights in a hospital, clinic, aid post, or health centre due to the injury/injuries?

IF YES: How many nights?

IF NOT SURE: Estimate how many times?

Did you tell a health worker the real cause of your injury?
Y805a 805a 805a Y805a DON’T KNOW/DON’T REMEMBER ........................ 8 REFUSED/NO ANSWER......................................... 9 YES .................................................................. 1 NO............................................................................ 2 DON’T KNOW/DON’T REMEMBER ........................ 8 REFUSED/NO ANSWER......................................... 9 TIMES NEEDED HEALTH CARE .................... [ ][ ] REFUSED/NO ANSWER....................................... 99 YS.9 NOT NEEDED........................................................ 00 S.9 YES .................................................................. 1 NO............................................................................ 2 DON’T KNOW/DON’T REMEMBER ........................ 8 REFUSED/NO ANSWER......................................... 9 YES, SOMETIMES................................................... 1 YES, ALWAYS ......................................................... 2 NO, NEVER.............................................................. 3 DON’T KNOW/DON’T REMEMBER ....................... 8 REFUSED/NO ANSWER......................................... 9 NUMBER OF NIGHTS IN HOSPITAL..[ ][ ] IF NONE ENTER ‘00’ DON’T KNOW/DON’T REMEMBER ...................... 98 REFUSED/NO ANSWER....................................... 99 YES ........................................................................... 1 NO............................................................................. 2 DON’T KNOW/DON’T REMEMBER ......................... 8 REFUSED/NO ANSWER.......................................... 9 YS.9 S.9 Page 224 of 249 Page 223 of 246 SECTION 9 IMPACT AND COPING I would now like to ask you some questions about what effects your husband/partner’s actions has had on you.
By actions, I mean… (REFER TO SPECIFIC ACTIONS THE RESPONDENT HAS MENTIONED IN SECTION 7).

IF SHE REPORTED MORE THAN ONE VIOLENT PARTNER, ADD: I would like you to answer these questions in relation to the most recent/last partner who did these things to you.

CHECK: Ref.
CHECK: Ref.

sheet Box C WOMAN EXPERIENCED PHYSICAL VIOLENCE WOMAN HAS EXPERIENCED SEXUAL VIOLENCE ONLY (“NO” to Option U and “YES” to option V) (S9phys) 901 (“YES” TO Option U) (1) [ ]  (2) [ ]  Y906 906 Are there any particular situations that tend to lead to your husband/partner’s behaviour?

REFER TO ACTIONS OF PHYSICAL VIOLENCE MENTIONED BEFORE.

PROBE: Any other situation?
MARK ALL MENTIONED NO PARTICULAR REASON ............................................ A WHEN HE IS DRUNK ON ALCOHOL.............................. B WHEN HE HAS HAD KAVA............................................. C MONEY PROBLEMS ....................................................... D DIFFICULTIES AT HIS WORK ........................................ E WHEN HE IS UNEMPLOYED...........................................F NO FOOD AT HOME .......................................................G PROBLEMS WITH HIS OR HER FAMILY ....................... H SHE IS PREGNANT...........................................................I HE IS JEALOUS OF HER ................................................. J SHE REFUSES SEX........................................................ K SHE IS DISOBEDIENT .....................................................L DURING FESTIVITIES ....................................................M HE WANTS TO TEACH HER A LESSON, EDUCATE OR DISCIPLINE HER............................................................. N SHE IS UNABLE TO GET PREGNANT ………..O CHECK: (Ref.
sheet, Box B, option R) CHILDREN LIVING [ ] NO CHILDREN ALIVE [ ]  Y903 903 OTHER (specify):__________________________ ......... X  (s9child) 902 (1) For any of these incidents, were your children present or did they overhear you being beaten?

IF YES: How often?

Would you say once or twice, sometimes or most of the time?

902 a For any of these incidents, were your children also beaten?

IF YES: How often?

Would you say once or twice, sometimes or most of the time?
903 During or after a violent incident, does (did) he ever force you to have sex?

PROBE: Make you have sex with him against your will?

IF YES: How often?

Would you say once or twice, sometimes or most of the time?
(2) NEVER.............................................................................. 1 ONCE OR TWICE............................................................. 2 SOMETIMES..................................................................... 3 MANY TIMES/MOST OF THE TIME................................. 4 DON’T KNOW................................................................... 8 REFUSED/NO ANSWER.................................................. 9 NEVER.............................................................................. 1 ONCE OR TWICE............................................................. 2 SOMETIMES..................................................................... 3 MANY TIMES/MOST OF THE TIME................................. 4 DON’T KNOW................................................................... 8 REFUSED/NO ANSWER.................................................. 9 NEVER ..............................................................................1 ONCE OR TWICE .............................................................2 SOMETIMES .....................................................................3 MANY TIMES/MOST OF THE TIME .................................4 DON’T KNOW/DON’T REMEMBER..................................8 REFUSED/NO ANSWER ..................................................9 Page 225 of 249 Page 224 of 246 904 During the times that you were hit, did you ever fight back physically or to defend yourself?
IF YES: How often?

Would you say once or twice, sometimes or most of the time?

904 a What was the effect of you fighting back on the violence at the time?

Would you say, that it had no effect, the violence became worse, the violence became less, or that the violence stopped, at least for the moment.

905 906 907 Have you ever hit or physically mistreated your husband/partner when he was not hitting or physically mistreating you?

IF YES: How often?

Would you say once or twice, sometimes or many times?
Would you say that your husband /partner’s behaviour towards you has affected your physical or emotional health, or your spiritual well-being?

Would you say, that it has had no effect, a little effect or a large effect?

REFER TO SPECIFIC ACTIONS OF PHYSICAL AND/OR SEXUAL VIOLENCE SHE DESCRIBED EARLIER In what way, if any, has your husband/partner’s behaviour (the violence) disrupted your work or other income- generating activities?

MARK ALL THAT APPLY 908 Who have you told about his behaviour?
MARK ALL MENTIONED PROBE: Anyone else?
Y905 905 NEVER.............................................................................. 1 ONCE OR TWICE............................................................. 2 SOMETIMES..................................................................... 3 MANY TIMES/MOST OF THE TIME................................. 4 DON’T KNOW/DON’T REMEMBER ................................. 8 REFUSED/NO ANSWER.................................................. 9 NO CHANGE/NO EFFECT............................................... 1 VIOLENCE BECAME WORSE ......................................... 2 VIOLENCE BECAME LESS.............................................. 3 VIOLENCE STOPPED...................................................... 4 DON’T KNOW/DON’T REMEMBER ................................. 8 REFUSED/NO ANSWER.................................................. 9 NEVER.............................................................................. 1 ONCE OR TWICE............................................................. 2 SOMETIMES..................................................................... 3 MANY TIMES.................................................................... 4 DON’T KNOW/DON’T REMEMBER ................................. 8 REFUSED/NO ANSWER.................................................. 9 NO EFFECT ......................................................................1 A LITTLE............................................................................2 A LOT ................................................................................3 DON’T KNOW/DON’T REMEMBER..................................8 REFUSED/NO ANSWER ..................................................9 N/A (NO WORK FOR MONEY)........................................ A WORK NOT DISRUPTED ................................................ B PARTNER INTERRUPTED WORK..................................C UNABLE TO CONCENTRATE.........................................D UNABLE TO WORK/SICK LEAVE ................................... E LOST CONFIDENCE IN OWN ABILITY........................... F PARTNER STOPPED HER FROM WORKING ...............G OTHER (specify): _________________________........... X NO ONE............................................................................ A FRIENDS.......................................................................... B PARENTS.........................................................................C BROTHER OR SISTER....................................................D UNCLE OR AUNT ............................................................ E HUSBAND/PARTNER’S FAMILY..................................... F HER FAMILY ....................................................................G CHILDREN .......................................................................H NEIGHBOURS....................................................................I POLICE..............................................................................J DOCTOR/HEALTH WORKER.......................................... K CHURCH LEADER............................................................L COUNSELLOR FROM VWC NETWORK.........................M OTHER COUNSELLOR ...................................................N OTHER NGO/WOMEN’S ORGANIZATION .....................O CHIEF............................................................................... P OTHER COMMUNITY LEADER.......................................Q OTHER (specify):__________________________.......... X Page 226 of 249 Page 225 of 246 909 Did anyone ever try to help you?
IF YES, Who helped you?

MARK ALL MENTIONED PROBE: Anyone else?
NO ONE............................................................................A FRIENDS ..........................................................................B PARENTS .........................................................................C BROTHER OR SISTER ....................................................D UNCLE OR AUNT.............................................................E HUSBAND/PARTNER’S FAMILY .....................................F HER FAMILY.................................................................... G CHILDREN........................................................................H NEIGHBOURS...................................................................
I POLICE............................................................................. J DOCTOR/HEALTH WORKER ..........................................K CHURCH LEADER ........................................................... L COUNSELLOR FROM VWC NETWORK........................ M OTHER COUNSELLOR....................................................N OTHER NGO/WOMEN’S ORGANIZATION..................... O CHIEF ...............................................................................P OTHER COMMUNITY LEADER...................................... Q 910 a Did you ever go to any of the following for help?
READ EACH ONE OTHER (specify):__________________________..........X 910 b.

ASK ONLY FOR THOSE MARKED YES in 910a.

Were you satisfied with the help given?
YES NO YES NO a) Police b) Hospital/health centre/aid post Public solicitor/lawyers c) d) Court a) POLICE b) HOSPITAL/ HEALTH CENTRE c) d) COURT PUB SOL/LAWYERS e) Chief f) g) Other community leader Church leader e) CHIEF CHUCH LEADER f) g) OTHER LEADER h) VWC network (for example Vanuatu h) VWC NETWORK (specify): Women’s Centre, Sanma Counselling Centre, Tafea Counselling Centre, Committee Against Violence Against Women, male advocate) Other women’s organization i) x) Anywhere else?

Where?
Where?

________________________ i) WOMEN’S ORGANIZATION (specify): __________________ x) ELSEWHERE (specify) :_____ _________________________ 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 * 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 ** 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 CHECK: Question 910a * ** MARK WHEN YES FOR ANY IN Q.
910a (AT LEAST ONE “1” CIRCLED IN COLUMN MARKED WITH *) [ ]  MARK WHEN ALL ANSWERS NO CIRCLED (ONLY “2” CIRCLED **) [ ] Y912 912 (s9check) (1) (2) Page 227 of 249 Page 226 of 246 911 What were the reasons that made you go for help?

MARK ALL MENTIONED AND GO TO 913 912 What were the reasons that you did not go to any of these?

MARK ALL MENTIONED 913 Is there anyone that you would like (have liked) to receive (more) help from?

Who?
MARK ALL MENTIONED FOR ALL OPTIONS GO TO 913 ENCOURAGED BY FRIENDS/HER FAMILY......................................A ENCOURAGED BY HIS FAMILY ........................................................B HAD INFORMATION ABOUT WHERE TO GO.................................. C AWARE OF HER RIGHTS ................................................................. D KNEW OTHER WOMEN WHO HAD BENEFITED..............................E COULD NOT TAKE ANY MORE .........................................................F BADLY INJURED ............................................................................... G HE THREATENED OR TRIED TO KILL HER .................................... H HE THREATENED OR HIT CHILDREN...............................................
I SAW THAT CHILDREN SUFFERING ................................................. J THROWN OUT OF THE HOME ..........................................................K AFRAID SHE WOULD KILL HIM......................................................... L AFRAID HE WOULD KILL HER ........................................................ M OTHER (specify): _______________________________ _______________________________________...............................X DON’T KNOW/NO ANSWER ...............................................A FEAR OF THREATS/CONSEQUENCES/ MORE VIOLENCE .................................................................B HE STOPPED HER FROM GOING .......................................C HE THREATENED TO KILL HER .......................................D VIOLENCE NORMAL/NOT SERIOUS ................................................ E EMBARRASSED/ASHAMED/AFRAID WOULD NOT BE BELIEVED OR WOULD BE BLAMED .................. F BELIEVED NOT HELP/KNOW OTHER WOMEN NOT HELPED ......................................................................................G AFRAID WOULD END RELATIONSHIP ............................................H AFRAID WOULD LOSE CHILDREN....................................................
I BRING BAD NAME TO FAMILY .........................................................J OTHER (specify): ________________________________ ________________________________________________ .
X NO ONE MENTIONED .......................................................... A HER FAMILY........................................................................................B HIS FAMILY .........................................................................................C HEALTH CENTRE/AID POST/HOSPITAL...........................................D POLICE ..............................................................................................E PUBLIC SOLICITOR/LAWYERS ........................................................F CHIEF ............................................................................................. G CHURCH LEADER ..............................................................................H OTHER COMMUNITY LEADER_________________ .........................
I VWC NETWORK___________________________............................ J OTHER (specify): _________________________________ .

X PROBE: How would you like them to help more?

914 Did you ever leave, even if only overnight, because of his behaviour?

IF YES: How many times?

IF NOT SURE: Estimate how many times?


HOW: ____________________________________________ __________________________________________________ NUMBER OF TIMES LEFT .......................................................... [ ][ ] NEVER ............................................................................................... 00 N.A.
(NOT LIVING TOGETHER) ....................................................... 97 DON’T KNOW/DON’T REMEMBER................................................... 98 REFUSED/NO ANSWER ................................................................... 99 Y919 919 YS.10 S.10 Page 228 of 249 Page 227 of 246 915 What were the reasons why you left the last time?

MARK ALL MENTIONED 916 Where did you go the last time?
MARK ONE VWC network: specify VWC, SCC, TCC, CAVAW, male advocate NO PARTICULAR INCIDENT ..............................................................A ENCOURAGED BY FRIENDS/HER FAMILY...................................... B ENCOURAGED BY HIS FAMILY........................................................C HAD INFORMATION ABOUT WHERE TO GO ..................................D AWARE OF HER RIGHTS .................................................................. E KNEW OTHER WOMEN WHO HAD BENEFITED ............................. F COULD NOT TAKE ANY MORE.........................................................G BADLY INJURED ................................................................................H HE THREATENED OR TRIED TO KILL HER......................................
I HE THREATENED OR HIT CHILDREN...............................................J SAW THAT CHILDREN SUFFERING................................................. K THROWN OUT OF THE HOME.......................................................... L AFRAID SHE WOULD KILL HIM........................................................ M AFRAID HE WOULD KILL HER .........................................................N ENCOURAGED BY ORGANIZATION (specify): __________________________________________ ........................ O OTHER (specify): ________________________________ ................X HER RELATIVES ............................................................................... 01 HIS RELATIVES................................................................................. 02 HER FRIENDS/NEIGHBOURS.......................................................... 03 HOTEL ............................................................................................... 04 STREET ............................................................................................. 05 CHIEF................................................................................................. 06 CHURCH LEADER ............................................................................ 07 VWC NETWORK (specify): ________________________ ............... 08 OTHER (specify): ________________________________ .............. 96 DON’T KNOW/DON’T REMEMBER................................................... 98 REFUSED/NO ANSWER ................................................................... 99 NUMBER OF DAYS (IF LESS THAN 1 MONTH)............................. [ ][ ] ..1 NUMBER OF MONTHS (IF 1 MONTH OR MORE).......................... [ ][ ] ..2 917 How long did you stay away the last time?
RECORD NUMBER OF DAYS OR MONTHS CHECK: (Ref.

sheet, Box B, option R) (s9child) 917a CHILDREN LIVING [ ] YS.10 LEFT PARTNER/DID NOT RETURN/NOT WITH PARTNER .... 3 S.10 Y918  918 NO CHILDREN ALIVE [ ]   (1) (2) The last time that you left, did you take any of the children with you?

Did you take all of the, some of them or none of them?
ALL CHILDREN...................................................................... 1 SOME CHILDREN ............................................................................... 2 NONE OF CHILDREN ......................................................................... 3 N/A HAD NO CHILDREN AT THE TIME ............................................. 7 DON’T KNOW/DON’T REMEMBER..................................................... 8 REFUSED/NO ANSWER ..................................................................... 9 Y918 918 Y918 918 917b What was the reason that you did not take any/all of your child/children with you when you left?
PROBE: Any other reasons CHILDREN NOT HOME AT THE TIME ............................. A PREVENTED FROM TAKING CHILDREN ..........................................B CHILDREN REFUSED TO LEAVE ......................................................C NO TRANSPORT TO TAKE CHILDREN .............................................D OTHER (specify): _________________________________ .

X Page 229 of 249 Page 228 of 246 918 What were the reasons that you returned?
MARK ALL MENTIONED AND GO TO SECTION 10 919 What were the reasons that made you stay?
MARK ALL MENTIONED FOR ALL OPTIONS GO TO Section 10 DIDN’T WANT TO LEAVE CHILDREN ................................................A SANCTITY OF MARRIAGE .................................................................B FOR SAKE OF FAMILY/CHILDREN (FAMILY HONOUR) .............................................................................C COULDN’T SUPPORT CHILDREN......................................................D LOVED HIM..........................................................................................E HE ASKED HER TO GO BACK ...........................................................F FAMILY SAID TO RETURN ................................................................ G FORGAVE HIM ....................................................................................H THOUGHT HE WOULD CHANGE........................................................
I THREATENED HER/CHILDREN/FAMILY ........................................... J COULD NOT STAY THERE (WHERE SHE WENT)............................K VIOLENCE NORMAL/NOT SERIOUS ................................................ L BRIDEPRICE WAS PAID ................................................................... M FEAR OF BLACK MAGIC/SORCERY .................................................N HE USED A LOVE SPELL ................................................................. O OBTAINED A DOMESTIC VIOLENCE, FAMILY PROTECTION OR RESTRAINING ORDER ......................................................................P RECEIVED COUNSELLING FROM (specify): _________ ................ Q OTHER (specify): _____________________________ .....................X DIDN’T WANT TO LEAVE CHILDREN ................................................A SANCTITY OF MARRIAGE ..................................................B DIDN’T WANT TO BRING SHAME ON FAMILY ...................................................................C COULDN’T SUPPORT CHILDREN......................................................D LOVED HIM..........................................................................................E DIDN’T WANT TO BE SINGLE ............................................................F FAMILY SAID TO STAY...................................................................... G FORGAVE HIM ....................................................................................H THOUGHT HE WOULD CHANGE........................................................
I THREATENED HER/CHILDREN/FAMILY ........................................... J NOWHERE TO GO ..............................................................................K VIOLENCE NORMAL/NOT SERIOUS ................................................ L BRIDEPRICE WAS PAID ................................................................... M FEAR OF BLACK MAGIC/ SORCERY ................................................N HE USED A LOVE SPELL ................................................................. O OBTAINED A DOMESTIC VIOLENCE, FAMILY PROTECTION OR RESTRAINING ORDER ......................................................................P RECEIVED COUNSELLING FROM (specify): _________ ................ Q OTHER (specify): ______________________________ ....................X Page 230 of 249 Page 229 of 246 1001 a 1002 a SECTION 10 OTHER EXPERIENCES In their lives, many women experience different forms of violence from relatives, other people that they know, and/or from strangers.
If you don’t mind, I would like to briefly ask you about some of these situations.

Everything that you say will be kept private.

May I continue?

NO ONE.............................................................A  1002 Since the age of 15 years, has anyone (FOR WOMEN WITH CURRENT OR PAST PARTNER: other than your partner/husband) ever beaten or physically mistreated you in any way?

IF YES: Who did this to you?

PROBE: How about a relative?

How about someone at school or work?


How about a friend or neighbour?

A stranger or anyone else?

Since the age of 15 years, has anyone (FOR WOMEN WITH CURRENT OR PAST PARTNER: other than your partner/husband) ever forced you to have sex or to perform a sexual act when you did not want to?

IF YES: Who did this to you?

PROBE: How about a relative?

How about someone at school or work?

How about a friend or neighbour?

A stranger or anyone else?


FATHER.................................................... B STEPFATHER ...................................................C OTHER MALE FAMILY MEMBER ....................D FEMALE FAMILY MEMBER: ________ ...........E TEACHER.......................................................... F POLICE/ SOLDIER ........................................... G MALE FRIEND OF FAMILY ..............................H FEMALE FRIEND OF FAMILY ..........................
I BOYFRIEND ...................................................... J STRANGER .......................................................K SOMEONE AT WORK....................................... L CHURCH LEADER ................................. M CHIEF........................................................N OTHER (specify): _______________ ...............X NO ONE.............................................................A FATHER.................................................... B STEPFATHER ...................................................C GRANDFATHER ...............................................D BROTHER .........................................................E OTHER MALE FAMILY MEMBER _______________________ ............................. F FEMALE FAMILY MEMBER: ______ .............. G TEACHER..........................................................H POLICE/ SOLDIER .............................................
I MALE FRIEND OF FAMILY .............................. J FEMALE FRIEND OF FAMILY .........................K BOYFRIEND ...................................................... L STRANGER ...................................................... M SOMEONE AT WORK .......................................N CHURCH LEADER ..................................O CHIEF........................................................ P OTHER (specify): __________________ ..........X b) ASK ONLY FOR THOSE MARKED.
How many times did this happen?

Once or twice, a few times, or many times A few times 2 2 2 2 Once or twice 1 1 1 1 Many times  1003 b) ASK ONLY FOR THOSE MARKED.

How many times did this happen?


Once or twice, a few times, or many times A few times 2 2 2 2 Once or twice 1 1 1 1 Many times Page 231 of 249 Page 230 of 246 Before the age of 15 years, do you remember if any- one in your family ever touched you sexually, or made you do something sexual that you didn’t want to?

IF YES: Who did this to you?

IF YES OR NO CONTINUE: How about someone at school?

How about a friend or neighbour?


Has anyone else done this to you?

IF YES: Who did this to you?

NO ONE ............................................................ A d) How many times did this happen?

 1004 ASK ONLY FOR THOSE MARKED IN 1003a b) How old were you when it happened with this person for the first time?

(estimate) c) How old was this person?

PROBE: Estimate the age if not sure.
Once/ twice Few times FATHER ....................................................B STEPFATHER................................................... C GRANDFATHER .............................................. D BROTHER ........................................................ E OTHER MALE FAMILY MEMBER _______________________..............................F FEMALE FAMILY MEMBER: ______ ..............G TEACHER ......................................................... H POLICE/ SOLDIER....................................
I MALE FRIEND OF FAMILY .............................. J FEMALE FRIEND OF FAMILY ......................... K BOYFRIEND.......................................................L STRANGER.......................................................M SOMEONE AT WORK ...................................... N CHURCH LEADER ..................................O CHIEF ........................................................ P [ ][ ] [ ][ ] [ ][ ] [ ][ ] [ ][ ] [ ][ ] [ ][ ] [ ][ ] [ ][ ] [ ][ ] [ ][ ] [ ][ ] [ ][ ] [ ][ ] [ ][ ] OTHER (specify): _________________ ........... X [ ][ ] [ ][ ] [ ][ ] [ ][ ] [ ][ ] [ ][ ] [ ][ ] [ ][ ] [ ][ ] [ ][ ] [ ][ ] [ ][ ] [ ][ ] [ ][ ] [ ][ ] [ ][ ] [ ][ ] DK = 98 Many times 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 How old were you when you first had sex?
IF SHE IS NOT SURE: About how old?

AGE YEARS ..................................................................... [ ][ ] NOT HAD SEX.......................................................................... 95 Y1006 1006 1003 a 1004 1005 How would you describe the first time that you had sex?

Would you say that you wanted to have sex, you did not want to have sex but it happened anyway, or were you forced to have sex?
1006 When you were a child, was your mother hit by your father (or her husband or boyfriend)?

1007 As a child, did you see or hear this violence?
REFUSED/NO ANSWER.......................................................... 99 WANTED TO HAVE SEX .......................................................... 1 NOT WANT BUT HAD SEX ....................................................... 2 FORCED TO HAVE SEX .......................................................... 3 DON’T KNOW/DON’T REMEMBER........................................... 8 REFUSED/NO ANSWER............................................................ 9 YES....................................................................................... 1 NO......................................................................................... 2 PARENTS DID NOT LIVE TOGETHER ............................... 3 DON’T KNOW....................................................................... 8 REFUSED/NO ANSWER...................................................... 9 Ys10mar* s10mar* Ys10mar* s10mar* Ys10mar* s10mar* YES............................................................................................. 1 NO............................................................................................... 2 DON’T KNOW............................................................................. 8 REFUSED/NO ANSWER............................................................ 9 Page 232 of 249 Page 231 of 246 * CHECK: Ref.
sheet Box A EVER MARRIED/EVER LIVING WITH A MAN/SEXUAL PARTNER NEVER MARRIED/NEVER LIVED WITH A MAN (Option N) [ ]  (Options K,L,M) [ ]  (2) (s10mar) 1008 1009 1010 (1) As far as you know, was your (most recent) partner’s mother hit or beaten by her husband?

Did your (most recent) husband/partner see or hear this violence?

As far as you know, was your (most recent) husband/partner himself hit or beaten regularly by someone in his family?
YES............................................................................................. 1 NO .............................................................................................. 2 PARENTS DID NOT LIVE TOGETHER .................................... 3 DON’T KNOW ............................................................................ 8 REFUSED/NO ANSWER............................................................ 9 YES............................................................................................. 1 NO............................................................................................... 2 DON’T KNOW............................................................................. 8 REFUSED/NO ANSWER............................................................ 9 YES............................................................................................. 1 NO............................................................................................... 2 DON’T KNOW............................................................................. 8 REFUSED/NO ANSWER............................................................ 9 YS.11 S.11 1010 Y1010 Y1010 1010 Y1010 1010 Page 233 of 249 Page 232 of 246 SECTION 11 FINANCIAL AUTONOMY Now I would like to ask you some questions about things that you own and your earnings.
We need this information to understand the financial position of women nowadays.
1101 Please tell me if you own any of the following, either by yourself or with someone else: YES YES NO Own Own with Don’t by self others own a) LAND b) HOUSE c) COMPANY 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 d) LARGE ANIMALS e) SMALL ANIMALS f) g) HANDCRAFGTS VEGETABLES,FRUIT h) HOUSEHOLD ITEMS i) JEWELLERY j) WATER TANK/WELL LAWN MOWER k) CAR/TRUCK l) m) BICYCLE n) CANOE o) BOAT WITH MOTOR p) SAVINGS IN BANK q) OTHER SAVINGS x) OTHER PROPERTY: _____________________ a) Land b) Your house c) A company or business Large animals (cows, horses, pigs etc.)
d) e) Small animals (chickens, goats, etc.)

f) g) Handcrafts (mats, baskets etc) Vegetables/fruits from gardens or trees Large household items (TV, bed, cooker) Jewellery, gold or other valuables h) i) j) Water tank/well Lawn mower k) l) Motor car/Hilux/4 wheel drive/Truck m) Bicycle n) Canoe o) Boat with motor p) Savings in the bank?

q) Other savings?

x) Other property, specify yourself?

Job IF YES: What exactly do you do to earn money?

ASK ALL.
ASK ALL.

SPECIFY: b) c) Selling things, market, trading d) Seasonal work in Vanuatu e) Seasonal work overseas x) Any other activity, specify FOR EACH, PROBE: Do you own this on your own, or do you own it with others?
a) Do you earn money by 1102 NO .................................................................................... A  *s11mar YES NO b) JOB: __________________________............................ c) SELLING/MARKET/TRADING: ___________ ................ d) SEASONAL WORK VANUATU: ____________ e) SEASONAL WORK OVERSEAS:____________ x) OTHER: _______________________________ ............ 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 * CHECK: Ref.
sheet, Box A (s11mar) CHECK 1102 CURRENTLY MARRIED/CURRENTLY LIVING WITH A MAN (Option K) [ ]  (1) 1.

OPTIONS b) to e) or x) MARKED [ ]  1103 Are you able to spend the money you earn how you want yourself, or do you have to give all or part of the money to your husband/partner?

1104 Would you say that the money that you bring into the family is more than what your husband/partner contributes, less than what he contributes, or about the same as he contributes?
NOT CURRENTLY MARRIED OR LIVING WITH A MAN/CURRENT OR PAST SEXUAL PARTNER (Options L, M, N) [ ]  (2) 2.
OPTION a) MARKED [ ]  YS.12 S.12 Y1105 1105 SELF/OWN CHOICE ........................................................ 1 GIVE PART TO HUSBAND/PARTNER ............................ 2 GIVE ALL TO HUSBAND/PARTNER ............................... 3 DON’T KNOW................................................................... 8 REFUSED/NO ANSWER.................................................. 9 MORE THAN HUSBAND/PARTNER................................ 1 LESS THAN HUSBAND/PARTNER ................................. 2 ABOUT THE SAME .......................................................... 3 DO NOT KNOW................................................................ 8 REFUSED/NO ANSWER.................................................. 9 Page 234 of 249 Page 233 of 246 1105 Have you ever given up/refused a job for money because your husband/partner did not want you to work?
1106 Has your husband/partner ever taken your earnings or savings from you against your will?

IF YES: Has he done this once or twice, several times (5 to 10 times) or many times?

1107 1108 Does your husband /partner ever refuse to give you money for household expenses, even when he has money for other things?

IF YES: Has he done this once or twice, several times (5 to 10 times) or many times?
In case of emergency, do you think that you alone could raise enough money to house and feed your family for 4 weeks?

This could be for example by selling things that you own, or by borrowing money from people you know, or from a bank or moneylender?

1108 a Do you think you alone could raise enough money to pay back the brideprice if you were asked to?
YES................................................................................... 1 NO..................................................................................... 2 DON’T KNOW/DON’T REMEMBER ................................. 8 REFUSED/NO ANSWER.................................................. 9 NEVER.............................................................................. 1 ONCE OR TWICE............................................................. 2 SEVERAL TIMES (5-10 TIMES)....................................... 3 MANY TIMES/ALL OF THE TIME..................................... 4 N/A (DOES NOT HAVE SAVINGS/EARNINGS) .............. 7 DON’T KNOW/DON’T REMEMBER ................................. 8 REFUSED/NO ANSWER.................................................. 9 NEVER.............................................................................. 1 ONCE OR TWICE............................................................. 2 SEVERAL TIMES (5-10 TIMES)....................................... 3 MANY TIMES/ALL OF THE TIME..................................... 4 N/A (PARTNER DOES NOT EARN MONEY)................... 7 DON’T KNOW/DON’T REMEMBER ................................. 8 REFUSED/NO ANSWER.................................................. 9 YES................................................................................... 1 NO..................................................................................... 2 DON’T KNOW .................................................................. 8 REFUSED/NO ANSWER.................................................. 9 YES................................................................................... 1 NO..................................................................................... 2 N/A: NO BRIDEPRICE...................................................... 3 DON’T KNOW .................................................................. 8 REFUSED/NO ANSWER.................................................. 9 Page 235 of 249 Page 234 of 246 SECTION 12 COMPLETION OF INTERVIEW 1201 I would now like to give you a card.
On this card are two pictures.

No other information is written on the card.

The first picture is of a sad face, the second is of a happy face.

No matter what you have already told me, I would like you to put a mark below the sad picture if someone has ever touched you sexually, or made you do something sexual that you didn’t want to, before you were 15 years old.

Please put a mark below the happy face if this has never happened to you.
Once you have marked the card, please fold it over and put it in this envelope.

This will ensure that I do not know your answer.

GIVE RESPONDENT CARD AND PEN.

MAKE SURE THAT THE RESPONDENT FOLDS THE CARD; PUTS IT IN THE ENVELOPE; AND SEALS THE ENVELOPE BEFORE GIVING IT BACK TO YOU.

AFTER LEAVING THE INTERVIEW WRITE THE QUESTIONNAIRE CODE ON THE ENVELOPE IMMEDIATELY.

LATER, SECURELY STAPLE THE ENVELOPE TO THE QUESTIONNAIRE.
CARD GIVEN FOR COMPLETION ...........1 CARD NOT GIVEN FOR COMPLETION ...........2 1202 We have now finished the interview.

Do you have any comments, or is there anything else you would like to add?
____________________________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________ 1203 I have asked you about many difficult things.
How has talking about these things made you feel?
WRITE DOWN ANY SPECIFIC RESPONSE GIVEN BY RESPONDENT ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ GOOD/BETTER......................... 1 BAD/WORSE .............................2 SAME/ NO DIFFERENCE..........3 1204 Finally, do you agree that we may contact you again over the next day or two if we need to ask a few more questions for clarification?
YES....................................1 NO......................................2 Page 236 of 249 Page 235 of 246 FINISH ONE – IF RESPONDENT HAS DISCLOSED PROBLEMS/VIOLENCE I would like to thank you very much for helping us.

I appreciate the time that you have taken.

I realize that these questions may have been difficult for you to answer, but it is only by hearing from women themselves that we can really understand about women’s lives, their health and experiences of violence.
From what you have told us, I can tell that you have had some very difficult times in your life.

No one has the right to treat someone else in that way.

However, from what you have told me I can see also that you are strong, and have survived through some difficult circumstances.

Here is a list of centres and CAVAWs in the VWC network that provide support, legal advice and counselling services to women.

Please do contact them if you would like to talk over your situation with anyone.
Their services are free, and they will keep anything that you say private.

You can go whenever you feel ready to, either soon or later on.

FINISH TWO - IF RESPONDENT HAS NOT DISCLOSED PROBLEMS/VIOLENCE I would like to thank you very much for helping us.

I appreciate the time that you have taken.

I realize that these questions may have been difficult for you to answer, but it is only by hearing from women themselves that we can really understand about women’s lives and family relationships.
In case you ever hear of another woman who needs help, here is a list of centres and CAVAWs in the VWC network that provide support, legal advice and counselling services to women.

Please do contact them if you or any of your friends or relatives need help.

Their services are free, and they will keep anything that anyone says to them private.

FINISH THREE - IF RESPONDENT HAS ANSWERED YES TO QUESTION 209q – SUICIDAL THOUGHTS IN THE LAST 4 WEEKS USE ONE OF THE TWO FINISHES ABOVE, AS APPROPRIATE.
THEN CONTINUE AS FOLLOWS: You mentioned earlier that you have been thinking of ending your life over the last 4 weeks.

Would you like to talk someone else about this - either someone else in our research team, or someone in your community, like a CAVAW member?

The research team is only here for a few days, (or one more day, or they are leaving tomorrow - INSERT AS APPROPRIATE).
If you agree, I can tell my supervisor that you have been thinking of ending your life, and she can try to organise someone to talk to you as soon as possible.

I have promised you that everything you say to me will be kept secret, so if you would like me to follow up on this I need your permission to do so.

Would you like me to tell my supervisor so that she can arrange someone else can talk to you about these feelings?

IF SHE ANSWERS YES – THANK HER AGAIN AND REPORT THIS IMMEDIATELY TO THE SUPERVISOR.
IF SHE ANSWERS NO – THANK HER AGAIN AND GO ON TO YOUR NEXT ASSIGNED HOUSEHOLD.

1205 RECORD TIME OF END OF INTERVIEW: Hour [ ][ ] (24 h) Minutes [ ][ ] 1206 ASK THE RESPONDENT.

How long did you think the interview lasted ?
Hours [ ] Minutes [ ][ ] Page 237 of 249 Page 236 of 246 INTERVIEWER COMMENTS TO BE COMPLETED AFTER INTERVIEW __________________________________________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 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__________________________________________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________ Page 238 of 249 Page 237 of 246 REFERENCE SHEET Box A. MARITAL STATUS Copy exactly from Q119 and 120a.
Follow arrows and mark only ONE of the following for marital status: 119 Are you currently married or do you have a male partner?

CURRENTLY MARRIED.................................1 IF RESPONDENT HAS A MALE PARTNER ASK Do you and your partner live together?
LIVING WITH MAN, NOT MARRIED ..........................3 CURRENTLY HAVING A REGULAR PARTNER (SEXUAL RELATIONSHIP), LIVING APART....................................................4 NOT CURRENTLY MARRIED OR LIVING WITH A MAN (NOT INVOLVED IN A SEXUAL RELATIONSHIP)......................................5 120 a Have you ever been married or lived with a male partner?
YES, MARRIED...........................................................1 LIVED WITH A MAN, NOT MARRIED……..3 120 b Have you ever had a regular male sexual partner?

NO ................................................................................ ....................................................................................5 YES……………………………………………..1 NO………………………………………………2 123.
Number of times married/lived together with man: [ ][ ] (O) [ ] Currently married and/or living with man (K) [ ] Currently with regular sexual partner (dating relationship) (L) [ ] Previously married/previously lived with man (no current sexual relationship) (M1) [ ] Previously had sexual relationship (M2) [ ] Never married /never lived with man (no current or past sexual (N) relationship) Box B.
REPRODUCTIVE HISTORY Check and complete ALL that applies for reproductive history of respondent: (P) Respondent has been pregnant at least once (Question 308, 1 or more) (Q) Respondent had at least one child born alive (Question 301, 1 or more) (R) Respondent has children who are alive (Question 303, 1 or more) (S) Respondent is currently pregnant (Question 310, option 1) (T) Number of pregnancies reported (Question 308): [ ] No [ ] No [ ] No [ ] No [ ] Yes [ ] Yes [ ] Yes [ ] Yes [ ][ ] Box C. VIOLENCE AND INJURIES Check and complete ALL that applies for respondent: (U) Respondent has been victim of physical violence (Question 705h) (V) Respondent has been victim of sexual violence (Question 706d) [ ] Yes [ ] No [ ] Yes [ ] No Page 239 of 249 Page 238 of 246 ANNEX 3: RESEARCH TEAM VWC Research Officer: Sonia Wasi VWC Coordinator: Merilyn Tahi FWCC Project Manger: Edwina Kotoisuva VWC Research Consultant: Dr. Juliet Hunt TORBA Ann Joy (Supervisor) Lynrose Tule (Editor) Folin Joy (Interviewer) Kathy Lerry (Interviewer) Belinda Jack (Interviewer) Serah Malachai (interviewer) SANMA Kathy Bani (Supervisor) Sally Sale (Editor) Josina Erevoke (Interviewer) Emmie John (Interviewer) Jocelyn Naupa (Interviewer) Metty Josiah (Interviewer) Purity Solomon (Interviewer) LUGANVILLE Rocita Vora (Supervisor) Shana Ligo (Editor) Cindy Joe (Interviewer) Sera Asal (Interviewer) Lina Leona (Interviewer) Belina Mabon (Interviewer) PENAMA Elsie Paul (Supervisor) Fridah Butu (Editor) Leah Tari (Interviewer) Charlotte Wai (Interviewer) Harrington Tabi (Interviewer) Fabian Balango (Interviewer) Andrian Vira (Interviewer) MALAMPA Ketty Dick (Supervisor) Shina Timothy (Editor) Lilonto Enid (Interviewer) Asnet Laan (Interviewer) Juliana Andrew (Interviewer) Fabian George (Interviewer) SHEFA Bertha Misseve (Supervisor) Anita Michel (Editor) Judith Waiwo (Interviewer) Janet Kaluat (Interviewer) Alice Daniel (Interviewer) Jeannette Maite (Interviewer) Annie Lorry (Interviewer) PORT VILA Helen Naupa (Supervisor) Miriam Bule (Editor) Tina
 Ishmael (Interviewer) Serah Garae (Interviewer) Melinda Tamara (Interviewer) Loviana Arusiro (Interviewer) TAFEA Kaloka Wilfred (Supervisor) Esther Mete (Supervisor) Isabelle Iavisi (Editor) Ruth Iavilu (Interviewer) Leikoro Dick (Interviewer) Tounga Ben(Interviewer) Mary Johnny (Interviewer) Page 240 of 249 Page 239 of 246 ANNEX 4: GUIDELINES FOR CLASSIFYING SOCIO-ECONOMIC STATUS Codes Socio-economic status was classified by combining and correlating respondents’ answers to four questions on the household questionnaire into a single overall measure.
These questions covered the ANNEX 4: GUIDELINES FOR CLASSIFYING SOCIO-ECONOMIC STATUS main source of drinking water for the household (question 1), the type of toilet used by household members (question 2), the type of household possessions in the household (question 4), and Socio-economic status was classified by combining and correlating respondents’ answers to four ownership of transport-related possessions by any member of the household (question 5).
The questions on the household questionnaire into a single overall measure.
These questions covered the classification followed a three-step process.35 main source of drinking water for the household (question 1), the type of toilet used by household members (question 2), the type of household possessions in the household (question 4), and Step 1: initial classification of answers to questions on the household questionnaire ownership of transport-related possessions by any member of the household (question 5).
The This was done during a workshop with VWC and Branch staff to identify the answers to each question classification followed a three-step process.35 that would be classified as low, medium or high socio-economic status.

Initially, the first 7 questions on the household questionnaire were to be included in the overall single measure of socio-economic Step 1: initial classification of answers to questions on the household questionnaire status.
However, it was not possible to identify unambiguous or mutually exclusive determinations of This was done during a workshop with VWC and Branch staff to identify the answers to each question socio-economic status for questions relating to the following: the main roofing materials used on the that would be classified as low, medium or high socio-economic status.
Initially, the first 7 questions on house (question 3); land ownership by any member of the household (question 6); or the number of the household questionnaire were to be included in the overall single measure of socio-economic rooms in the house used for sleeping (question 7).

The classification of answers according to socio- status.

However, it was not possible to identify unambiguous or mutually exclusive determinations of economic status for questions 1, 2, 4 and 5 are outlined in the tables below.
socio-economic status for questions relating to the following: the main roofing materials used on the house (question 3); land ownership by any member of the household (question 6); or the number of Question 1, drinking water: What is the main source of drinking water for your household?

rooms in the house used for sleeping (question 7).

The classification of answers according to socio- Low socio-economic Coding Categories economic status for questions 1, 2, 4 and 5 are outlined in the tables below.
status Tap/piped water inside the house 01 Question 1, drinking water: What is the main source of drinking water for your household?
02 Outside tap (piped water) with HH Codes Coding Categories 03 Public tap 04 Well-water, with household 01 Tap/piped water inside the house 05 Public well 02 Outside tap (piped water) with HH 06 Handpump well, with household 03 Public tap 07 Public handpump well 04 Well-water, with household 08 Spring water 05 Public well 09 River/small creek/lake 06 Handpump well, with household 10 Rainwater tank 07 Public handpump well 11 Rainwater drum 08 Spring water 12 Bottled water from shop 09 River/small creek/lake 10 Rainwater tank Question 2, toilet: What kind of toilet does your household have?
11 Rainwater drum High socio- Codes Coding Categories  economic status 12 Bottled water from shop  Own flush toilet 01 Question 2, toilet: What kind of toilet does your household have?
02 Shared flush toilet High socio- Codes Coding Categories VIP latrine in the household 03 economic status Public VIP latrine 04  01 Own flush toilet Traditional pit toilet/latrine 05 02 Shared flush toilet 06 River/canal/sea 03 VIP latrine in the household 07 No facility/bush/field 04 Public VIP latrine 05 Traditional pit toilet/latrine 06 River/canal/sea 07 No facility/bush/field Low socio-economic  status        High socio- economic status    Low socio-economic status   Medium socio- economic status   Medium socio- economic status  Medium socio-  economic status High socio- economic status   Low socio-economic status Medium socio- economic status                 35 No questions were asked regarding income levels.
The classification into 3 socio-economic groups was assumed to capture long-term wealth based on ownership of key assets.

The classification is a ranking of households by assets, and does not provide any information on absolute poverty, income or expenditure.

The ranking applies only to the data set from the VWC sample.

However the final classification is consistent with the ranking into 5 socio-economic groups (quintiles) used by the Vanuatu Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey (MOH 2008: 13-14).
35 No questions were asked regarding income levels.

The classification into 3 socio-economic groups was assumed to capture long-term wealth based on ownership of key assets.

The classification is a ranking of households by assets, and does not provide any information on absolute poverty, income or expenditure.

The ranking applies only to the data set from Page 241 of 249 the VWC sample.
However the final classification is consistent with the ranking into 5 socio-economic groups (quintiles) used by the Vanuatu Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey (MOH 2008: 13-14).

Page 241 of 249 Page 240 of 246 Question 4, household possessions: Does your household have...?
(code 1 for YES) Questions High socio- economic status Medium socio- economic status  Low socio- economic status  a) electric light b) A radio c) A television d) A telephone e) A refrigerator f) A washing machine g) A microwave oven h) A cooking stove i) A clothes iron j) A table k) A chair l) A bed m) A mattress n) A mat o) A kerosene, hurricane or kolman light p) An axe, big knife, spade, hammer or hoe  Not used for determining socio-economic status             Categories for classifying socio-economic status: o Low: NO (code 2) to all the questions ticked above for high status (f and g); and NO to any 5 out of any of the 7 identified above as medium status (a, c, e, h, i, l and m) o Medium: NO (code 2) to questions f and g identified above as high status; and YES to at least 6 of any of the 7 codes ticked for medium (a, c, e, h, i, l, m) o High: YES (code 1) to questions f and g and to all the questions ticked for Medium (a, c, e, h, i, l, m) Question 5, transport-related possessions: Does any member of your household own...?
(code 1 for YES) Questions a) A bicycle b) A motorcycle c) A car or bus d) A truck, hilux or 4-while drive vehicle e) A speedboat with an engine f) A canoe High socio- economic status Medium socio- economic status  Low socio- economic status   (6 rural samples)    (2 urban samples)  Step 2: analysis of responses to ensure that all possible combinations were covered In this step, all answers were cross-checked by 2 qualified statisticians contracted by VWC, to ensure that all possible combinations of answers were included in the classification system.
Drinking Water and Toilet Type Since only a single answer per household was used for the socio-economic status measure based on water supply and a single measure per household for toilet type, these were straight forward to enumerate and mutually exclusive.
Household Possessions The classification for the socio-economic status rating based on household possessions was based on two sets of questions: Set 1: Q4f, g Set 2: Q4a, c, e, h, i, l, m (indicators of high socio-economic status) (indicators of medium socio-economic status) Page 242 of 249 Page 241 of 246 However, this classification did not cover all combinations of Set 1 and Set 2 responses, and very few households were classified as high socio-economic status (or even medium socio-economic status) making the classification of limited value.
To address this, the following classification was used: 36 However, this classification did not cover all combinations of Set 1 and Set 2 responses, and very few households were classified as high socio-economic status (or even medium socio-economic status) making the classification of limited value.
To address this, the following classification was used: 36 Set 2 Set 1 Items Missing Total 0 2 1 0 1 Set 2 2 0 3 1 4 2 5 3 6 4 7 5 Missing 6 Total 7 Missing 58 Set 1 Items Missing 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 2 0 2 58 235 Total 905 58 302 235 279 905 202 302 166 279 187 202 3 166 2337 187 3 Low Medium High Low Medium High 84 27 2224 Total Transport Information Transport was based on the number of positive responses to two sets of questions: (indicators of high socio-economic status) Transport Information Transport was based on the number of positive responses to two sets of questions: (indicators of high socio-economic status) (indicators of medium socio-economic status) Set 1: Q5b, c (if rural), d, e Set 2: Q5a, c (if urban) 2337 2 (indicators of medium socio-economic status) Set 1: Q5b, c (if rural), d, e Set 2: Q5a, c (if urban) 0 1 Set 1 items Set 2 0 1 Set 2 2 0 Missing 1 Total 2 Missing 1753 353 0 15 1753 1 353 2122 15 1 Set 1 items Missing 0 0 Missing 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 Total 1879 427 Total 29 1879 2 427 2337 29 2 Low Medium High Low Medium High 1 4 31 179 2122 2337 Total Step 3: Combining and correlating all responses into a single overall measure All four measures were observed to be in agreement.
Low, medium, and high socio-economic status were coded as a numeric scale of 1, 2 and 3, and the following Spearman’s correlations were obtained: Step 3: Combining and correlating all responses into a single overall measure All four measures were observed to be in agreement.
Low, medium, and high socio-economic status Correlation matrix (adjusted for ties) were coded as a numeric scale of 1, 2 and 3, and the following Spearman’s correlations were obtained: Water 1.000 Toilet 0.255 Correlation matrix (adjusted for ties) 0.312 HH Possessions Transport 0.106 1.000 Water 1 Toilet 0.255 0.312 HH Possessions 0.106 Transport 1 1.000 0.449 0.193 2 1.000 0.449 0.193 2 1.000 0.385 3 1.000 0.385 3 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1.000 4 1.000 4 36 The tables above showing the distribution for household and transport-related possessions show socio-economic rankings for the 2337 respondents who completed the women’s interview.
However, the socio-economic classification used in Table 3.1 of the report covers the total sample that completed the relevant questions of the household questionnaire (2712 of the 3141 households that completed the household questionnaire).

36 The tables above showing the distribution for household and transport-related possessions show socio-economic rankings for the 2337 respondents who completed the women’s interview.
However, the socio-economic classification used in Table 3.1 of the report covers the total sample that completed the relevant questions of the household questionnaire (2712 of the 3141 households that completed the household questionnaire).

Page 243 of 249 Page 243 of 249 Page 242 of 246 All correlations are highly significant (all P < 0.001), though the transport-related indicators appear to be less correlated.

Nonetheless, this confirmed that they could be combined meaningfully into a single measure.
The one adopted was to take the MEDIAN socio-economic status rank across the four measures for each household.

When this median rank occurs between two values (1.5, 2.5, or 3.5) the transport component is dropped (as this is the least in agreement, and a median based on three will always give a whole number).

Thus, ranks of 1, 2 and 3 are converted back to Low, Medium and High as an overall measure.
Page 244 of 249 Page 243 of 246 Province and Island Torba Province Vanualava Motalava Rah Gaua Sanma Province Santo Aore Malo Penama Province Pentecost Ambae Maewo Malampa Province Ambrym Malekula Uri Uripiv Rano Shefa Province Epi Lamen Tongoa Efate Emae Hideaway Erakor Ifira Pele Nguna Tafea Province Tanna Erromango Aneityum Aniwa Municipalities Port Vila Luganville ANNEX 5: LOCATIONS INCLUDED IN THE SURVEY SAMPLE Area Councils and number of enumeration areas 9 enumeration areas Central Torba Central Torba Central Torba South Torba 29 enumeration areas South Santo, South East Santo, East Santo, North Santo, North West Santo, Canal- Fanafo Canal-Fanafo East Malo, West Malo, 34 enumeration areas Malpangpang, Ulinsalean, Bitakan South Ambae, West Ambae, Lungei Tagaro, West Ambae North Maewo, South Maewo, Vatunmalan 34 enumeration areas South East Ambrym, West Ambrym North West Malekula, North East Malekula, Central Malekula, South East Malekula, South Malekula, South West Malekula Central Malekula Central Malekula North East Malekula 29 enumeration areas Vermali, Vermaul, Varisu Vermali Tongariki, North Tongoa North Efate, Eton, Malorua, Mele, Eratap, Erakor, Pango Emae Mele Erakor Ifira Nguna Nguna 26 enumeration areas West Tanna, Middle Bush, South West Tanna, South Tanna, White Sands, South West Tanna, North Tanna Erromango Aneityum Aniwa 31 enumeration areas 22 enumeration areas Page 245 of 249 Page 244 of 246 ANNEX 6: GLOSSARY OF STATISTICAL TERMS Statistical significance In statistics, a result is statistically significant if it is unlikely to have occurred by chance or coincidence.
Statistical significance is a measure of how strong the evidence is that findings from research are not due to chance, or to other unknown factors that might have arisen in the sampling process or in the process of carrying out the research (for example, in the selection of enumeration areas, the selection of households, the selection of respondents interviewed, any error due to the way the questionnaire was constructed, or any bias or errors by the interviewer).
In the VWC research, one of the aims was to measure what factors tend to increase women’s risk of intimate partner violence (risk factors), what factors help to protect women from violence (protective factors), and the health and other impacts of intimate partner violence on women and children.

These relationships between violence and various factors or impacts are called associations – for example, the association between violence and the risk of someone attempting suicide.
One way of assessing how strong the evidence is between these types of associations is by calculating P values; another is by calculating odds ratios.

Both of these terms are explained below.

The P value A P value is a measure statistical significance.

For example, it is a measure of how strong the association is between the experience of intimate partner violence, and each factor or characteristic (or variable, using the statistical term) that we want to explore.
The lower the P value, the stronger the association between violence and the factor or characteristic.

 A P value higher than 0.05 is usually regarded as not significant.

This means that the association between violence and that particular characteristic or factor (such as age) is not statistically significant.
For example, even though it looks like more women in a particular age group have a higher rate of violence, if the P value is more than 0.05 and if we were to do the survey over and over again, or if we were to survey every woman in Vanuatu, we would most likely find very few differences in the rates of violence between age groups.

The standard measure of significance is usually a P value of less than 0.05 (<0.05).
This means that there is 5% likelihood (or one possibility in every 20) that the result we got from the survey is due to chance, or due to error, rather than being due to a real association between violence and the particular factor or characteristic (or variable) that we are looking at.

  A P value of less than 0.01 (<0.01) is very significant.

It means that there is 1% likelihood (or one possibility in every 100) that the result we got from the survey is due to chance, or due to error.
 A P value of less than 0.001(<0.001) is extremely significant.

It means that there is only 0.1% likelihood (or one possibility in every thousand) that the result we got from the survey is due to chance, or due to error.

So, where we have P values of less than 0.001 we can be very sure that women with that particular factor or characteristic have a greater likelihood of experiencing either physical or sexual violence in their lifetime.
Odds ratio The odds ratio for a factor (or variable) gives an estimate of the likelihood that any woman who has that particular factor (or characteristic) will experience partner violence in her lifetime, compared to any other woman.

Adjusted odds ratio just means that the odds have been adjusted to take into account all the other variables or factors that may be associated with violence – so the adjusted odds ratio gives us a stronger evidence base.
A 95% confidence interval for the odds ratio gives us more evidence of how strong an association is between partner violence and any particular factor, because it gives us a range of error for the odds ratio; and it tells us that there is only once chance in 20 that our odds ratio will be wrong.
Logistic regression analysis This is a method of statistical analysis commonly used in medical and social science research to test a hypothesis (or assumption) about the association between an outcome and various other variables (or factors or characteristics).

In the VWC survey, the outcome was women’s experience of violence by a Page 245 of 246 husband or intimate partner.
This type of mathematical analysis helps understand how likely it is that a woman will experience intimate partner violence, by considering the various factors in her background, or her husband’s/partner’s background.

Page 246 of 249 Page 247 of 249 of error for the odds ratio; and it tells us that there is only once chance in 20 that our odds ratio will be wrong.
Logistic regression analysis This is a method of statistical analysis commonly used in medical and social science research to test a hypothesis (or assumption) about the association between an outcome and various other variables (or factors or characteristics).

In the VWC survey, the outcome was women’s experience of violence by a husband or intimate partner.
This type of mathematical analysis helps understand how likely it is that a woman will experience intimate partner violence, by considering the various factors in her background, or her husband’s/partner’s background.

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