Source document: https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1697639710467.pdf (Australia)
a.

The prevalence and impact of domestic violence in Australia as it affects all Australians and, in particular, as it affects: I. II.

women living with a disability, and women from Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander backgrounds; Defining domestic violence: The contemporary understanding of domestic violence is any individual being subjected to ongoing abusive behaviour by an intimate partner or family member.

The term violence is used to describe the use of physical force with the intent to injure.
However, abusive behaviours do not always involve the infliction of physical harm.

It is evident that impacts of domestic and intimate partner violence correlate with a wider range of abusing behaviours beyond physical violence.

This broader understanding of domestic violence correlates with The Australian Law Reform Commission’s 2010 report Family Violence – A National Legal Response in which a wider definition of domestic violence was recommended.
Domestic violence therefore involves any emotional, verbal, social, economic, psychological, psychosocial, spiritual, physical and sexual abuse by an intimate partner or family member.

Overall this encompasses any behaviours used by perpetrators to obtain an imbalance in power, control and cause any level of fear in victims.
This wider breadth of behaviours allows for services to address any behaviour used to dominate victims in abusive relationships and therefore creates a heightened ability to minimize adverse health outcomes.

Pregnancy  The Personal Safety Survey 2006 found that 59% of women who experienced violence by a previous partner were pregnant at some time during the relationship.

o o 36% of these women the violence occurred during pregnancy.

17%, experienced violence for the first time while they were pregnant.
 Increased adverse mental health outcomes of pregnant women o o Levels of depression 75% in abused, 30.6% in non-abused Levels of anxiety 75% in abused, 11.9% in non-abused o Only 12.9% of abused felt emotional support provided by partner (Anderson, Marshak, & Hebbeler, 2002) Domestic violence in AustraliaSubmission 37 Queensland Mining Regions   11.5% of women surveyed experienced physical abuse Non-physical forms of abuse were reported by 31.4% of women o Women whose partners were in the mining industry were significantly more likely to experience socio-psychological abuse (Nancarrow, Lockie & Sharma, 2009) b.
The factors contributing to the present levels of domestic violence; Pregnancy and mothering  Women already experiencing physical violence in their relationship, are at risk of this increasing during pregnancy (Walsh, 2008).

 Entrapment occurs during pregnancy, unique time when women may be financially, physically and emotionally dependent on their partner.

 Women gain fulfilment and affirmation from their role as a mother.
o This can be used by perpetrators through directing attacks towards this aspect of their life in order to undermine a woman’s identity as a mother and her relationship with her children.

(Fish, McKenzie, & MacDonald, 2009)  Maternal Alienation: A term used to describe the use of mother blaming as a strategy for abuse.

Isolates mother and therefore she feels disconnected from her children.

Form of gendered violence aimed at mothers and mothering.
(Morris, 1999) o Recommendations of interventions to support mothers to help rebuild their relationships with their children and pregnancy, mothers can be therefore enabled to support and protect their children in the future.

(Morris, 2004) Lack of Support/Isolation  Cross sectional study showed that abused women identified only friends as key source of support.
Minimal intimate partner emotional support, fear of their partner, depression, anxiety, and stressful life situations were reported more frequently in women in unhealthy or violent relationships.
(Anderson, Marshak, & Hebbeler, 2002) Domestic violence in AustraliaSubmission 37  Stress and lack of perceived support found to correspond with women who had been victims of domestic violence during pregnancy o Victims reported having fewer people with whom they could talk about personal issues or get together to have fun or to relax.

o Women who were not abused tended to have a wider network of friends or support services with whom they could speak to.
(Muhajarine & D’Arcy, 1999)  Women able to leave unhealthy or violent relationships reported more interpersonal strengths; fewer mental health problems, strong family support, someone they could talk to about their problems, and the presence of a supportive female figure.

(Libbus, Bullock, Nelson, Robrecht, Curry, & Bloom, 2006)  Support interventions increased perceptions of availability of support services, reduced feelings of isolation and increased sense of not being alone and belonging.
(Constantino & Crane, 2005)  Qualitative studies report women’s positive experiences with community resources that provided support and offered options.

(McLeod, Hays & Chang, 2010).
 Factors that compound the already existent feelings of isolation in DV victims: o o o o Access to services A perceived lack of confidentiality and anonymity Stigma attached to the public disclosure of violence Lack of transport and telecommunications (Morgan & Chadwick, 2009) Unhealthy relationships  Women often did not identify their partners’ behaviour as being violent in studies  Women may be seeking assurance that the behaviour directed towards them by their intimate partner is considered by others as violent and abusive.
o Having their experience acknowledged and validated may be the first step in a long walk to safety.
(Walsh, 2008) Access to resources  Qualitative study of women with personal experience of domestic violence, recommendation to services by women studied: Domestic violence in AustraliaSubmission 37   Create an atmosphere of safety and support Provide information, support and access to resources regardless of whether the woman discloses their exposure to domestic violence (Chang, Decker, Moracco, Martin, Petersen & Frasier, 2005)  Majority of women interviewed from Queensland mining regions who had experienced physical abuse or nonphysical abuse, and who knew about local services, had not sought assistance from those services.
o Services need to consider the implications for the way in which their services are promoted to local communities.

 Access and confidentiality (Nancarrow, Lockie & Sharma, 2009) Help seeking  Most pregnant women are not averse to being asked, by a midwife, about their exposure to violence.

(Stenson, Saarinen, Heimer & Sidenvall, 2001)    Desires of personal validation through community response and help seeking.
Victims identified experiences with community resources that contributed to feelings of validation, including being encouraged to express emotions, having someone express care and concern for them, having someone acknowledge their pain and suffering.

(McLeod, Hays& Chang, 2010).

The presence of children identified as a predictor of help-seeking.
While women may not always seek the support they need for their own wellbeing, findings show their likelihood to do so increases when their children’s wellbeing is at risk.
(Meyer, 2010) The WHO multi-country study identified barriers to disclosure and help seeking: • • • • • • A lack of availability of services A lack of or cost of transport A perception that services will be unsympathetic A lack of awareness about the availability of services Fear of not being believed and A perception that no one can assist.
(Garcia-Moreno, Jansen, Ellsberg, Heise, & Watts, 2005) c. d. the adequacy of policy and community responses to domestic violence; the effects of policy decisions regarding housing, legal services, and women‘s economic independence on the ability of women to escape domestic violence; Domestic violence in AustraliaSubmission 37 e. how the Federal Government can best support, contribute to and drive the social, cultural and behavioural shifts required to eliminate violence against women and their children Suggestions for future implications show that it is particularly important that there are programs targeted towards and tailored to the needs of women at an increased risk of domestic violence or who may be less likely to access support services:   Pregnant women Younger women  Women living in rural and remote communities.
 Indigenous women (Morgan & Chadwick, 2009) Continued development toward innovative responses to domestic violence that attend to the safety and wellbeing of women and their children, support mothers in their parenting role, and rebuild a positive mother-child relationship where necessary.

 In turn can look to minimise the effects that violence has on mothering, self-perceptions and the relationships women form with their children.
(Fish, McKenzie, & MacDonald, 2009) Need for interventions: To identify factors that increase the risk of intimate partner violence or have a protective effect (Harvey, Garcia, & Butchart, 2007) o To consider the importance of victim’s protective attitudes towards their children as a tool for intervention.
(Meyer, 2010) Address dysfunctional, unhealthy relationships characterized by inequality, power imbalance and conflict and therefore to promote healthy and equal relationships To be implemented through a wide range of settings and avenues (Harvey, Garcia, & Butchart, 2007)    Accommodate the needs of victims with children to further encourage help seeking and utilisation of services.

(Meyer, 2010)  Need for prevention   Educate to promote respectful, healthy non-violent relationships.
Engage organisations and communities Domestic violence in AustraliaSubmission 37  Early intervention: o Identify women and children at greatest risk of violence.

Such factors known to increase the risk of women experiencing violence include pregnancy and social isolation.

 Response focus: o Empower women through life stages (Victorian Government, 2012) f. Any other related matters Domestic violence in AustraliaSubmission 37 References Anderson, B.

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