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Women and Work: Findings from a study on the work aspirations of Maltese women 2007 Monitoring and Evaluation Unit Business Development Division Employment and Training Corporation (ETC) Head Office Hal-Far BBG 06 Tel: (+356) 22201126 Fax: (+356) 22201805 Email: meu@etc.org.mt URL: www.etc.gov.mt © ETC 2007 All rights reserved.
No part of this report may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means without prior permission in writing of the author, and of the publisher, which must be obtained beforehand.
Author: Antonella Borg, Senior Executive, Research and Development, ETC Research assistant: Mariella Vella, Executive, Research and Development, ETC The researchers wish to acknowledge the assistance of the following: Dr. Sue Vella, Employment and Training Corporation Anna Borg, Employment and Training Corporation Sina Bugeja, National Commission for the Promotion of Equality 2 Foreword Malta's membership in the European Union has brought with it a number of challenges to the country particularly those related to the labour market.
The European Union has set itself the target to raise its employment rate to 70% by 2010 and that of women to 60%.

Malta too has committed itself to raise its employment rate to 57%, which currently stands at a low 53.7%.

It has also bound itself to raise the female employment rate to 41%.

This is considered by many as a major challenge for Malta since for long decades the employment participation of women has been low.

In Malta, women's role has been primarily tied to the home and the care of children.
This is also reflected in the way social institutions, until recently, used to view women's position in the family.

Women were considered to be solely dependent on their husbands and were required to leave employment upon marriage to take care of the home and children.

The above challenges have led the Employment and Training Corporation to involve itself directly in the issue of facilitating women's entry into the labour market.
As Malta's public employment service, ETC is responsible of helping all jobseekers, including women, to obtain a job and be able to retain it even if this entails the provision of adequate training.

As a result the ETC took the initiative to launch a series of gender equality plans in order to help it obtain better results in the field of gender equality in employment.

The action plans comprised various initiatives from information campaigns to training sessions covering gender issues.
The principal aim of all measures listed in the plans was to raise awareness on gender equality in employment and to encourage the various stakeholders to provide more and better work opportunities to females.

The results obtained so far are quite encouraging.

More individuals are aware about the importance of increasing female participation in the workforce.
Moreover a series of policies and measures were introduced by government such as those covering childcare, taxes and national insurance contributions in order to encourage more women to eventually take up employment.

Initiatives have also been launched by private agencies such as the setting up of childcare centres by private firms and entities.

ETC was also directly involved in the drafting of the first National Action Plan for Employment 2004.
The ETC ensured that the Plan would include a series of actions that target the raising of the female employment rate.

Measures comprised changes in tax rates, a tax holiday for inactive women who decided to return to the labour market and the introduction of childcare regulations and a childcare subsidy.

It is to ETC's satisfaction to note that government has introduced all three measures.
This scenario has led the Corporation to conduct a study among women to study women's motivation towards work and what conditions would encourage them to start or continue working.

The results of this study show that a significant number of women are interested to take up work, however a number of conditions need to be addressed if women are to enter and remain in the labour force.
ETC hopes that the findings of this study will assist policy makers and all those interested in the subject to obtain a better picture of Maltese women's work aspirations and to devise relevant and effective policies and strategies.
Michael Balzan Chairman 3 Contents Foreword List of Tables List of Charts Executive Summary Chapter 1: Introduction Chapter 2: Women and Work The employment situation of women in Europe Policy responses to the employment of women Policy responses in the European Union Policy responses in Malta Research scope and methodology Chapter 3: Research Findings Age, civil status and children Education Occupations and sectors Career interruptions Motivation to work Preferred conditions Childcare Chapter 4: Conclusion Bibliography 3 5 6 7 9 11 11 17 22 24 29 31 31 32 32 35 39 43 50 56 59 4 List of Tables 15 Table 1: Births per 1000 female workers 15 Table 2: Fertility ideals, women below 35 and women over 55 16 Table 3: Economic activity of total employed persons by gender 16 Table 4: Main occupation of total employed persons by gender Table 5: Relative incomes of two-earner couples with different employment patterns, 1997 18 Table 6: Indicators of work/family reconciliation policies and relevant flexible work arrangements.
21 26 Table 7: EU and Maltese employment target for 2010.

27 Table 8: Children’s allowance rates 2005 28 Table 9: Income tax rates 2005 30 Table 10: Sample distribution 33 Table 11: Respondents by survey and occupation 34 Table 12: Respondents by survey and sector 42 Table 13: Women’s work orientations by survey 44 Table 14: Preferred conditions by survey 45 Table 14: Preferred conditions by survey continued.

47 Table 15: Preferred conditions considered as very important by survey and age.
Table 15: Preferred conditions considered as very important by survey and age continued.
48 5 List of Charts Chart 1: EU employment rates by gender, 1997-2004 Chart 2: Age distribution of total employed persons by gender in Malta, 2005 Chart 3: Part-time employment (% of total employment) in the EU and Malta, 2004 Chart 4: Total and part-time women employment rates by country, 2004 Chart 5: Inactive women and their willingness to work by age Chart 6: Inactive women and their willingness to work by age of youngest child 11 12 13 13 40 41 6 Executive Summary Women's labour market participation is characterised by a number of features.
The percentage of women workers tends to be lower than that of men.

In certain European countries including Malta women's employment rate tends to be significantly low.

This difference tends to be more marked with age where once they reach childbearing age, women start leaving the labour market.

In order to be able to combine work and family responsibilities a significant number of women tend to opt for part-time employment.
Indeed the majority of workers who have part- time work as their primary employment are women.

In turn studies show that part-time work is characterised by unfavourable working conditions for workers including low prospects for career advancement.

Meanwhile apart from low labour market participation, women's employment is also characterised by a certain degree of segregation.
A significant number of women tend to be employed in the public sector, they tend to be employed in stereotypically female occupations such as clerks, nurses and teachers while few work in high ranking jobs.

When faced with such a situation countries tend to adopt different policies and programmes with respect to the labour market participation of females.

Four such mechanisms as outlined by Hakim (2004) would be ideological reform; legislation; fiscal policy; and institutional change.
Lewis (1992) outlines three main state policies, the 'strong', 'modified' and 'weak' male breadwinner policy frameworks which can either inhibit or encourage female participation.

However, as explained by Fagan (2001), despite these models a great deal of variation exists between countries and there is no clear cut solution as to which policies correlate positively with higher labour market participation by women.
The European Union has tried to increase female labour market participation among European countries by introducing legislation that promotes gender equality at the workplace followed by gender equality strategies.

It has also set targets to raise female employment.

The present target establishes the attainment of 60% employment rate for females.
Other targets include the provision of childcare which by 2010 should cover 90% of children between three years old and the mandatory school age and at least 33% of children under three years of age.

In Malta female labour market participation is still low when compared to other European countries.

Women’s employment rate in Malta currently stands at a low 32.8%.

Policies in Malta in this regard are relatively recent.
Legislation pertaining to gender equality at the workplace and the provision of family-friendly provisions has been enacted in 2002 and 2003.

Policies that attract more women workers to the labour market as suggested in the National Action Plan for Employment 2004 such as tax incentives and the introduction of childcare regulations have been enacted these past two years.
These initiatives were accompanied by various strategies adopted by bodies such as the Employment and Training Corporation and the National Commission for the Promotion for Equality to encourage more women to take up employment.

It is still early to assess whether such initiatives had a positive impact on women's participation in the labour market.
The above considerations have led the Employment and Training Corporation to investigate women’s motivation to work as well as the conditions that would encourage them to obtain a job or remain working.

The study comprised the results of three surveys conducted among employed, registered unemployed and inactive women.
Samples of employed and inactive women were derived from the Labour Force Survey whilst a random sample of registered unemployed women was derived from administrative records held by the ETC.

7 Findings of this study suggest that a significant number of Maltese women hold positive views in relation to working.

The absolute majority of employed women and unemployed women wish to continue working in the future or to start working respectively.
On the other hand almost half of the inactive women were interested to take up a job.

The latter result may be attributed to the inactive women's age since a significant number were older women who stated that they were not interested in joining the workforce.

When presented with a number of conditions that would encourage them to start working or retain their job, women tended to prefer a combination of family-friendly measures, fiscal arrangements as well as good working conditions.
Some of the arrangements preferred by women include family-friendly hours of work, the provision of parental leave and the possibility to work from home.

They also wished for a good pay and the possibility for promotion.

Unemployed women mentioned specifically that they prefer work that is different from their previous job.
As regards fiscal measures women gave high ratings to the lowering of national insurance contributions and a system were the tax rate of their husband is not affected once they decide to start working.

An analysis of women's characteristics tended to confirm patterns outlined above where employed and unemployed women who participated in the surveys tended to be younger, mostly single, had fewer children and had corresponding higher levels of education than inactive women.
Most employed women worked in female stereotyped jobs as clerks followed by professionals and associate professionals and then plant and machine operators.

They mostly worked in the education, health and manufacturing sectors.

A significant number of non-employed women used to work as plant and machine operators in the manufacturing sector reflecting women's vulnerable employment situation in times of restructuring.
The most significant reason apart from redundancy for having a career break as mentioned by women participating in this study is that tied to marriage and childbirth.

Maltese women are still considered as the principal home carers and thus they feel obliged to stop their careers in order to take care of their children and home.

In fact few women mentioned using childcare in the past.

However, more women (particularly young ones) mentioned that they intended to use childcare in the future.
This figure could be on the increase, especially in light of subsequent studies such as the one conducted by the ETC in 2007 where higher figures were reported of individuals considering making use of childcare facilities.

A number of factors need to be addressed in order to continue raising female labour market participation in Malta.

As outlined by the women themselves, a holistic approach is required that takes into account the various factors that may impinge on women's labour market participation.
Policy recommendations outlined by this study include the provision, monitoring and extension of current family-friendly measures together with the monitoring of childcare regulations and standards.

It also suggests the improvement of working conditions of part-time workers, better vocational guidance to young females, better working conditions to female employees in terms of career advancement as well as fiscal measures that encourage both parents with young children to take up employment.
8 Chapter 1: Introduction Maltese women’s participation in the labour market has been at the forefront for quite some time now.

Women’s employment rate in Malta stands at a low 32.8%, the lowest when compared to the rates of other European countries.

This situation has remained stable for the past few years.

Women’s full participation in the labour market is important for a number of reasons.

Their participation could help them attain better quality of life both for themselves and their families.
This is particularly relevant to lone mothers who are the sole breadwinners.

Women who work become more independent and fulfilled.

By having a job women would acquire both financial independence as well as enhance their skills and personal development.

The skills of women are also of great benefit to the Maltese economy in general particularly at this stage when the Maltese working population is slowly shrinking and the number of persons of pension age is increasing drastically.
If women decide not to work their skills would be wasted.

In this respect one also has to consider the lost returns of education.

For the past few years the number of Maltese women graduates has been on the increase.

However, if a large majority of women graduates opt not to continue with their careers and leave the labour market entirely, the degree of waste for the economy in general would be greater.
The above considerations have led the Employment and Training Corporation to investigate women’s motivation to work as well as the conditions that would encourage them to obtain a job or remain working.

This study seeks to analyse whether women wish to work or remain in employment and whether they have the same attitudes towards work.
Once a clear picture of women’s work aspirations is obtained, the study assesses, from the point of view of the women themselves, what would be the best policies and measures that would encourage them to take up work or continue working in the future.

Women were presented with a set of measures covering both fiscal and other policies such as those falling under work-life balance to state which would be the most helpful for them when deciding to opt for employment.
As outlined in ETC’s first Gender Equality Action Plan 2003-2004, the Corporation is committed at enabling more female labour market participation.

ETC believes that women should have equal access to employment opportunities as men, be provided with decent working conditions, enjoy rewards for work of equal value and be able to balance one’s work with one’s family responsibilities.
ETC believes that policies and measures in favour of women’s employment would somewhat encourage those women who wish to stay in employment.

Measures such as flexible working and reduced hours timetables, parental leave, high quality childcare services and fiscal incentives to name a few may provide the right amount of flexibility to parents when trying to find a balance between work and family life.

This report is mainly divided into three main chapters.
The following chapter provides information on the employment situation of women as well as policy responses by European countries including Malta in favour of women’s labour market participation.

The chapter also outlines the scope and methodology used in this research study.

Chapter Three presents findings of the research conducted by the Corporation’s Research and Development Division among employed, unemployed and inactive women.
Findings cover issues such as the similarities and differences between the personal characteristics of the three groups of women, their motivation to work, their preferred conditions that would help them start working or retain their job as well as their use of childcare services.

In Chapter Four a number of possible recommendations based on the findings of the study are presented for 9 discussion.
The recommendations are intended to help improve policies and strategies that target women’s employment situation.

10 Chapter 2: Women and Work The aim of this study is to explore the aspirations of Maltese women with regard to employment.

The issue is believed to require attention both in terms of equal opportunities to the labour market as well as the need to raise the employment rate and to ensure a full utilisation of the potential of the Maltese labour supply.
While there has been a great increase in the uptake of post-secondary and tertiary education by women over recent decades, the female employment rate currently stands at 32.8% , which is the lowest rate in the European Union.

While this is explicable in terms of social and historical factors, it is believed important to make it easier for women wishing to work, to be able to access, retain and progress within employment.
The employment situation of women in Europe Women’s labour market participation in the European Union has been on the increase.

Data for the period 1997 to 2004 reveals that in the European Union the employment rates of women increased more than men’s (refer to chart 1).

A 4.6% increase was registered in the women’s employment rate whereas the rate for men increased by a mere 0.7% during the period in question.
Chart 1: EU employment rates by gender, 1997-2004 T otal Men Women t n e c r e P 80 75 70 65 60 55 50 45 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 Ye ar Source: Employment in Europe 2005, European Commission With respect to Malta, data collected by the Labour Force Survey registered a decrease in the employment rates of both men and women.

Despite this contraction, the rate for women contracted at a slightly lower rate than that of men.
Women’s employment rate in December 2000 stood at 33.1% while in December 2005 the rate stood at 32.8% or 0.3 percentage points lower.

On the other hand the rate for men decreased by 1.7% from 75.8% in 2000 to 74.1% in 2005.

The gap between the employment rates of women and men is very high when compared to that of other European Union countries.
In 2004 the difference for Malta stood at 42.4 percentage points while for all EU Member States it was much lower and stood at 15.2 percentage points (European Commission 2005a).

11 This difference becomes more marked with age.

In Malta female participation in the labour market decreases with age particularly when women start reaching childbearing age (refer to chart 1).

In other EU countries women tend to opt to remain in the labour market much more than Maltese women.
However, gaps in employment rates still exist even in other EU countries particularly in the 20 to 40 age group.

Research by the European Foundation reveals (2002) that there is a significant gap in the employment rates of women and men who are in this age bracket compared to that registered for other age groups.

As a result as middle age approaches almost all men are in paid work (90%) but over a third of women are not.
Chart 2: Age distribution of total employed persons by gender in Malta, 2005 Total Men Women t n e c r e P 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 15-24 25-34 35-44 45-54 55-64 65+ Age group Source: Labour Force Survey December 2005, National Statistics Office, Malta The most common reason cited by women for leaving the labour market is usually tied to domestic responsibilities.
Greater involvement in the care of children and elderly relatives, and domestic responsibilities, result in lower female participation rates in most EU countries.

As outlined by Fagan (2001) when couples have dependent children the woman is less likely to work or work on a full-time basis.

Various studies reveal that women with younger children tend to dedicate more hours to childcare and domestic work than men and women with older children or none at all (Hakim 2004; OECD 2001).
Countries with strong support infrastructures (such as care services and more mutual responsibility for care and domestic work in the home) have lower employment rate differentials.

In 2003, for example, in Sweden the employment rate of women aged between 25 and 54 years of age stood at 80.9% or 12.4 percentage points higher than the EU average.

As to the overall difference in the employment rates of men and women in Sweden this stood at a low 3.1% (European Commission 2005a).
The need for women to achieve a balance between working life and home life may be partly reflected in the high proportion of women who opt to work on a part-time basis.

In the EU the rate of women working on a part-time basis only, is significantly higher than that of men (refer to chart 3).

Similarly in Malta 19.3% of employed women work on a part-time basis compared to only 4.1% of men (European Commission 2005a).
The figure for Malta is relatively low when compared to the EU standard, however it is in line with that of other Mediterranean countries such as Italy and Spain.

An analysis of women’s total employment rates and part-time rates across all EU countries shows that in countries with high female employment rates there is not always a high incidence of part-time work (refer to chart 4).
As outlined previously, women’s participation 12 in the labour market is the result of a combination of factors and not only the provision of part-time work arrangements.

Figure 1 refers to a list of factors outlined by Fagan (2001) that may act as disincentives or deterrents to women’s participation.

Fagan argues, “state policies play a major role in explaining international differences in women’s employment patterns” (p.63).
Chart 3: Part-time employment (% of total employment) in the EU and Malta, 2004 t n e c r e P 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 Total Men Women EU Malta Source: Employment in Europe 2005, European Commission Chart 4: Total and part-time women employment rates by country, 2004 t n e c r e P 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 Total Part-time Source: Employment in Europe 2005, European Commission 13 Figure 1: Main factors that influence societal differences in the labour supply of mothers • • • • Childcare availability as an alternative to mothers providing childcare The extent of state provision or subsidies The availability and price of childcare services in the market The availability of family members and informal networks to help with childcare The compatibility of the organisation of working time with care responsibilities • Regulations on the length of full-time hours (statutory and collective agreements) • • • Entitlements to work reduced full-time or part-time hours (statutory and collective agreements) The amount and type of part-time jobs in the economy (regulations and employers’ policies) The amount and type of other working time patterns (regulations and employers’ policies) The financial feasibility (or necessity) of a ‘male breadwinner’ arrangement Financial transfers through state fiscal policies and social protection systems to ‘male breadwinners’ to support non-employed partners, and/or to non-employed mothers (including lone parents) • Marginal tax rates on earnings (including earning-related loss of social benefits) • Men’s wage levels in the case of couple households • Women’s wage levels • Unemployment levels Social norms concerning maternal employment • Whether or not it is common practice for women with young children to be employed, and whether full- time or part-time employment is acceptable.
Source: Fagan, 2001 Another statistic of interest related to the issue of domestic and childcare responsibilities and women’s employment rates, is the number of births per thousand full time female workers (National Statistics Office 2004).

As may be seen in table 1, in Malta, over the past eight years this figure has fallen from 0.15 in 1994 to 0.10 in 2002.

Similarly the fertility rate for Malta has also been on the decrease.

Whereas in 1990 the rate stood at 2.06 in 2005 the rate went down to 1.37.
Whether and to what extent the decision to have children is influenced by the degree to which conditions enable a work-life balance is a much-debated question.

A recent study by the European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions (Fahey and Speder 2004) based on the European Commission’s Eurobarometer Survey looks at the family size ideals of women of different ages across Europe (EU15, AC10, CC3).
The data for Malta indicate that the ideal number of children that Maltese women under 35 would like is 1.85, the lowest but for Romania (1.85) and Austria (1.75).

Also, the discrepancy between the ideal number of children among women aged 55 and over, and those aged under 35, is high in Malta (only surpassed by Ireland, Cyprus and Greece).

This difference indicates a relatively rapid change in the fertility aspirations of Maltese women.
Table 2 reproduces data for a few European countries as well as the averages.

While fertility behaviour is freely chosen and beyond the scope of government intervention, in a number of countries it appears to be the case that the growth of initiatives to assist women and men to balance work and family life is positively correlated to a rise in fertility.
The study by the European Foundation suggests “in cases of relatively high total fertility rate there is support for ‘flexible working hours’ and to some extent, ‘childcare arrangements’” (p. 77).
14 Table 1: Births per 1000 female workers Year Births per thousand female workers ratio 0.15 0.13 0.14 0.13 0.12 0.11 0.11 0.10 0.10 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 Source: National Statistics Office, 2004 Table 2: Fertility ideals, women below 35 and women over 55 Country Austria Belgium Cyprus France Greece Ireland Italy Malta Poland Romania Spain Sweden UK Averages: EU15+AC10+CC3 Source: Fahey and Speder, 2004 Under 35 1.72 2.19 2.52 2.56 2.28 2.58 2.12 1.85 2.14 1.85 2.07 2.44 2.44 2.14 55 and over 2.41 2.42 3.77 2.46 3.03 3.68 2.63 2.58 2.63 2.33 2.6 2.51 2.67 2.47 Difference -0.69 -0.23 -1.25 -0.10 -0.75 -1.1 -0.51 -0.73 -0.49 -0.48 -0.53 -0.07 -0.23 -0.33 Differences in the labour market position of women and men also exist by occupation, sector and position held.
First, a significant proportion of women tend to be employed in the public sector.

While less true than of Scandinavian countries, the Labour Force Survey of December 2005 shows that in Malta 26.5% of employed women were engaged with the public sector compared to 17.9% of employed men A similar situation exists in the EU where 32% of women work in the public sector (European Foundation 2002).

The percentage for men stands at 19%.


Second, more women than men tend to be employed within the service sector, particularly in those areas that are care-related.

These include education, health and social work as well as other service-related activities such as sales, personal and service activities.

Men predominate more in sectors such as construction, electricity, gas and water supply and transport (refer to table 3).
Third, women tend to be employed in stereotypically female occupations such as clerks and secretaries, medical doctors, teachers and nurses.

In December 2004 the proportion of Maltese employed women was highest in the following categories: clerks, professionals, technicians and associate professionals followed by sales and service workers (refer to table 4).

Fewer women were employed in the armed forces, as legislators, managers or senior officials, skilled agricultural workers or crafts workers.
Since the education and health sectors are those that employ a significant number of women, one can easily assume that most 15 women professionals, technicians and associate professionals refer to women teachers, medical doctors and nurses.
Table 3: Economic activity of total employed persons by gender Economic activity Males Males % Females Females % Agriculture, hunting and forestry Fishing Mining and quarrying Manufacturing Electricity, gas and water supply Construction Wholesale and retail trade, repairs Hotels and restaurants Transport, storage and communication Financial intermediation Real estate, renting and business activities Public admin.
and defence: compulsory social security Education Health and social work Other community, social and personal service activities Private households with employed persons Extra-territorial organisations and bodies 2804 533 491 21,730 2,985 12,456 14,368 7,906 9,986 3,122 5,901 8,771 3,854 4,954 3,651 0 186 Total Source: Labour Force Survey December 2005 u - under-represented Total 2,915 533 491 27,295 3,294 12,739 21,133 13,017 11,982 6,075 8,276 11,405 11,079 10,579 7,230 0 186 148,229 Total % 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 0.0 100.0 100.0 Table 4: Main occupation of total employed persons by gender Occupation Armed forces Males u 1,173 Legislators, senior officials and managers 10,199 Professionals Technicians and associate professionals Clerks 9,448 14,723 6,934 Service workers and shop and sales workers 13,088 Skilled agricultural and fishery workers Craft and related trades workers 2,914 19,817 Plant and machine operators and assemblers 11,234 Elementary occupations 14,168 Total Source: Labour Force Survey December 2005 u - under-represented 103,698 Males % Females Females % 100.0 76.9 58.4 67.0 40.9 56.7 100.0 98.7 77.0 78.7 70.0 0 3,068 6,739 7,252 10,031 9,976 0 u 263 3,363 3,839 44,531 0.0 23.1 41.6 33.0 59.1 43.3 0.0 1.3 23.0 21.3 30.0 Total u 1,173 13,267 16,187 21,975 16,965 23,064 2,914 20,080 14,597 18,007 148,229 Total % 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 Apart from showing a certain degree of occupational segregation among the sexes, these figures also reveal that despite the rise in the number of women professionals registered 16 during the past years, few women are managing to obtain high status and managerial posts.
Despite the increasing number of women who continue their studies at post-secondary and tertiary levels, women are still finding it difficult to break the ‘glass ceiling’.

As shown in table 3 only 23.1% of Maltese women are working as legislators, senior officials and managers.
This pattern is very similar to that found in other EU countries where vertical and horizontal segregation by gender in occupations and sectors is still one of the factors that characterises women’s employment in Europe (European Commission 2004a).

Moreover differences also tend to exist in wages paid to women and men.

Women tend to be paid lower wages than men working in similar occupations.

Currently the average gender pay gap for all EU countries stands at 16% (European Commission 2004a).
In 2005 the pay gap in Malta stood much lower – at 4.4% (National Statistics Office 2005).

Various factors have been identified to explain differences in wages.

These include: age, family situation and number of children, educational attainment and level, career interruptions, job security, contract type, working time and contract status, sectors (in particular, the private and public sector), occupation, firm size and gender concentration (European Commission 2002).
Finally, women’s vulnerable employment situation is also reflected in differences in unemployment and activity rates.

Women tend to experience higher unemployment rates than men in general.

In the EU in 2004 the gap stood at 2.1 percentage points.

The figure for Malta for the same period stood at 1.4% (European Commission 2005).

Women seem to be more vulnerable to unemployment and economic inactivity particularly women with a low level of education and older women.
The differences highlighted above in the employment situation of women and men have led countries, particularly EU Member States, to promote further the need for equality between men and women in employment.

Targets and policies have been set to encourage more women to remain working and achieve better work-life balance.

Policy responses to the employment of women Women’s participation in the labour market is considered important for many reasons.
There is the social argument for equal opportunities to fulfilling work, a return on one’s educational investment and to financial independence.

There is also the economic argument for a greater labour supply and higher employment rates in view of the need to raise productivity.

Furthermore, demographic change such as the ageing of the population and the challenge to the sustainability of welfare requires that the ratio of workers to pensioners be increased.
Countries differ in the policy approaches, and programme instruments, which affect female employment.

A range of programme instruments have been introduced to raise female employment rates.

Hakim (2004) describes four such mechanisms: ideological reform and moral exhortation; legislation; fiscal policy; and institutional change.

These are not mutually exclusive.


Ideological reform and moral exhortation usually involve government campaigns that influence citizens’ behaviour including women’s decision to take up work.

Hakim cites the example of government campaigns during the Second World War that encouraged women to take up work previously done by men and then the ideology of domesticity that was revived after the war.

Another example of effective ideological reform is China’s one child per couple policy.
Hakim states that by 1993, four-fifths of men and women in Beijing accepted to have only one child.

Legislation is another method by which states introduce policies that influence citizens’ behaviour in particular women’s entry in the labour market.

This method is particularly used 17 by the European Union where legislation prohibiting sex discrimination and promoting equality between men and women is common for all EU Member States.
Gender equality legislation would usually cover areas such as the promotion of equality at the workplace, health and safety regulations and minimum standards in employment contracts.

After introducing such legislation, countries would have to set up systems that implement and Usually bodies such as Equal Opportunity Commissions and enforce ombudspersons are put in place to check that laws are adhered to.
However, as noted by Hakim, in the European Union for example, there is much variation across countries when it comes to the implementation of legislation.

Not all countries have bodies charged with enforcing equal opportunities laws.

Moreover the law also tends to be interpreted differently due to the broad nature of equality laws in general.

laws.

the States also tend to opt for a number of fiscal policies in order to encourage more women to enter the labour market.
Fiscal policies would usually involve the alteration of tax and benefit rules that influence the net income earned by one or both partners in a couple.

For example couples may be taxed separately or jointly while benefits and allowances may be transferable or not from one partner to another.
As outlined by Hakim some countries such as Britain require that a person has a certain work record and that he/she has a number of contributions for him/her to be eligible for a pension while others as in Japan allow wives to benefit from their husband’s work record.

It is unclear whether fiscal policies have a direct impact on women’s employment rates and other decisions such as fertility and family formation.
Moreover some fiscal policies such as homecare allowances tend to be controversial due to spill over effects such as the reduction of young women’s employment rates.

Studies carried out by OECD (2001) reveal that there has been a general trend towards separate taxation across OECD countries.

By 1999 only a few countries, such as the United States, Portugal, Poland, Ireland, Germany and Malta, provided the option for joint taxation.
Generally separate taxation systems tend to imply a greater incentive for partners of already- employed people to work than family-based taxation.

However, the existence of family-based tax reliefs and benefits for families with children also influence partners’ decision to take up work irrespective of the type of taxation system adopted in the country.
Given that these benefits target low-income households particularly those with children, parents in these households are less likely to take up work than other parents (OECD 2005).

On a cross- country level OECD (2001) studies found out that European countries tend to provide far less incentives for both couples to work than countries such as USA, Canada and Australia (refer to table 5).

Social institutions too can have a direct impact on women’s decision to enter the labour market (Hakim 2004).
Social institutions would cover the provision of childcare services or other arrangements such as flexi-time or home working offered by firms.

The presence and design of such institutions may vary across countries depending on the kind of state policies adopted.
18 Table 5: Relative incomes of two-earner couples with different employment patterns, 1997 Earned income levels, relative to APW level, by employment pattern of household a Type of taxation system 1999 Full-time employed/non- employed (100/0) Full-time employed/part- time employed (100/40) Full-time employed/full- time employed (100/100) Country North America Canada Mexico Separate Separate United States Optional/Joint Asia Japan Korea Europe Denmark Finland Iceland Norway Sweden Greece Italy Portugal Spain Czech Republic Hungary Poland Ireland Separate Separate Separate Separate Separate Optional Separate Separate Separate Joint Separate (Joint) Separate Separate Optional Optional/Joint United Kingdom Separate Austria Germany Netherlands Switzerland Belgium France Luxembourg Turkey Oceania Australia Separate Joint Separate Joint Separate Joint Joint Separate/Joint Separate 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 145 .. 143 140 .. 130 142 117 127 131 133 137 139 137 142 140 136 135 141 135 126 132 132 120 127 135 .. 140 177 .. 199 197 .. 172 186 154 163 183 183 183 188 188 187 180 189 179 192 178 163 179 176 154 179 172 .. 183 Separate New Zealand Source: OECD (2001) .. Data not available.
APW: OECD average production worker (APW) earnings.

a) 100/0 refers to a situation where one member of the couple works full-time and the other couple does not work at all; 100/40 implies that one member works full time hours and the other 40% of full-time hours and so on.

100 .. .. 19 Lewis (1992) outlines three types of state policies that can inhibit or encourage women to seek and take up work, namely the ‘strong’, ‘modified’ and ‘weak’ male breadwinner policy frameworks.
A ‘strong’ breadwinner state emphasises women’s position as dependent on a working partner.

In this case financial benefits would generally be distributed through the male partner and the provision of childcare and other support for working women by the state is generally low.

Countries that fall within this category would include the former West Germany, Austria and Southern European countries such as Italy, Greece, Portugal and Spain.
On the other hand the ‘weak’ breadwinner state views women as individual labour market participants rather than dependents of male breadwinners.

This type of state is especially present in Nordic countries that provide comprehensive public childcare services and statutory family leave provisions.

Finally the ‘modified’ breadwinner state falls between these two models and incorporates some support for working mothers but also a general notion of the male breadwinner model.
Countries that fall within this category would include France and Belgium.

Generally countries pertaining to the ‘weak’ model state tend to have high female employment rates followed by the ‘modified’ and ‘strong’ models with lower rates.

Although such models offer a useful explanation of the kind of policies that may help bring about higher female employment rates, as explained by Fagan (2001), there still exist a number of variations among countries within the same model.
For example countries pertaining to the ‘strong’ male breadwinner model have different policies concerning social protection and fiscal transfers for families.

Moreover they also vary in the amount of working time options available to women, and the extent and quality of part-time work in general.

Moreover Smith (2003) argues that countries such as Sweden classified as ‘weak’ male breadwinner states have faced a number of repercussions as a result of policies that promote work-life balance.
The promotion of part-time work among women resulted into a high degree of segregation between the jobs occupied by men and women.

Additionally restrictions in the times of available childcare has created some problems for families with young children while economic pressures have led to restrictions in the coverage or financial support for policies that help women and men with care responsibilities.
On a more general level Hakim (2004) argues that changes in institutions do not always lead to social change.

She cites the example of countries such as Britain, Portugal and the USA, which despite the relative absence of public childcare services and/or childcare services in general, still have relatively high female employment rates.
She concludes that “the choices made by individuals and couples can change much faster than social institutions, and thus need to be explained by other factors.” (Hakim 2004:187) Despite the above contention, other studies assert that greater flexibility in employment patterns and a myriad of incentives available to individuals to attain a better work-life balance can still have positive effects on women’s employment rates (OECD 2001; Fagan 2001).
Incentives would include both statutory benefits such as childcare coverage by the state, maternity and childcare leave entitlement as well as provisions by firms such as leave from work for family reasons; flexible working hours; voluntary part-time working; practical help with child-care and eldercare; and the provision of training and information.

Organisational practices are also considered as important in building an environment that encourages more women to enter the labour market.
However, evidence from OECD studies reveals that firms in countries with high state provision rely almost entirely on that provision while in countries where state provision is low, firms add little to measures provided by the state.

Table 6 20 Table 6: Indicators of work/family reconciliation policies and relevant flexible work arrangements.
Child-care coverage for under-3s Child-care coverage for over-3s Maternity pay entitlement b Indicators a Total maternity/ child-care leave Voluntary family leave in firms c Flexi-time working Voluntary part-time working Composite index d Employment rates for women aged 30 - 34 (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) 1.1 1.6 -1.2 -0.1 -0.7 -1.4 -0.8 -1.6 .. -0.8 -0.5 2.0 0.2 -0.5 0.2 1.2 71.8 72.0 -0.6 -2.1 -0.7 -0.6 -2.1 -0.9 0.3 -2.9 52.6 2.1 -0.1 1.3 -1.1 -1.0 -0.7 -1.0 0.7 0.5 -1.1 -0.8 -1.0 0.3 0.3 1.0 -0.3 0.4 -1.4 1.2 0.1 0.6 -0.9 -0.7 -0.2 0.3 1.3 1.3 1.4 1.3 1.9 2.3 -0.7 0.2 0.8 0.0 -0.5 -0.7 0.0 -0.1 0.0 -0.4 0.0 -0.1 1.6 0.0 -0.9 -0.5 0.9 1.6 -0.9 -0.9 0.5 1.6 -0.4 -0.4 1.6 -0.4 -0.6 -1.9 1.1 1.2 -0.1 0.6 -0.5 -0.2 1.5 1.5 0.3 0.4 0.2 -0.3 -0.6 0.6 -0.5 -0.9 -0.9 -0.8 -0.1 -1.2 0.2 -1.6 -0.7 -1.3 -1.0 -0.9 -0.2 0.5 1.1 -0.6 0.7 1.0 -0.1 -0.2 0.3 0.8 2.5 0.2 -0.3 2.9 -0.3 3.3 -3.4 -1.9 -2.2 -2.5 -1.1 1.3 -0.6 1.3 2.7 0.2 -0.1 78.8 70.7 76.7 57.1 52.6 75.7 49.3 69.1 69.4 72.6 68.6 71.5 70.8 65.6 -0.5 -0.7 -1.4 -0.7 -0.1 2.6 1.3 1.9 64.2 Countries North America Canada United States Asia Japan Europe Denmark Finland Sweden Greece Italy Portugal Spain Ireland United Kingdom Austria Germany Netherlands Belgium France Oceania Australia 0.20 0.59 0.36 Correlation with the employment rate of women aged 30-34 Source: OECD (2001) .. Data not available.
a) All indicators scaled so as to have a mean zero and standard deviation unity, across the countries included.

This is designed to put the indicators onto a common scale.

A value of zero implies that the country concerned is at the average value for the countries in the table.

b) Calculated as the product of the duration of maternity leave and the earnings replacement rate.

c) Average of data for sick child leave, maternity leave and parental leave offered by firms apart from statutory family leave.
d) Calculated as the sum of the indicators in columns (1), (3), (6) and (7), plus half of that in column (5).

Indicator (4) had to be left out since it does not cover educational provision while the take-up rate of the total period of indicator (4) is unknown.
-0.18 -0.04 0.68 0.25 0.26 21 produced by OECD in its study on balancing work and family (OECD 2001) shows the provision of a number of measures offered by the state and firms in various OECD countries as well as the employment rates of women aged 30 to 34.
Although it is difficult to infer the degree of causality between such policies and the employment rates of women, in countries with relatively well-developed work/family reconciliation policies, women tend to have higher employment rates as in the case of North American countries and Nordic countries.

On a more general level the composite index presented in the table, which stands at 0.7, seems to suggest a fairly high correlation with the employment rate.
OECD suggests that measures of this type are important in order to increase female employment rates.

Moreover it is also important to include a range of such policies since the correlation is higher than that with any of the individual indicators.

Policy responses in the European Union The European Union considers female employment as crucial in attaining the full participation of its citizens.
As outlined in its Communication of June 2000 ‘Towards a Community Framework Strategy on Gender Equality’, the participation of all citizens both men and women in the economy, decision-making and social, cultural and civil life, helps the Union in realising democracy, a fundamental value for all European Member States and applicant countries.
These principles are embedded in the Union’s European Community Treaty where the promotion of equality between men and women is recognised as one of the Community’s essential tasks.

Article 3(2) aims specifically at eliminating inequalities and promote equality between women and men in all the Union’s activities.

Other articles such as article 13, 137, and 141 also cover the subject of equal treatment of men and women especially at the place of work.
The Union has also ensured that equality between men and women is also included in the Treaty establishing a constitution for Europe where all Member States, in accordance with their constitutional rules, include equal treatment of men and women.

A series of measures have been introduced by the Union in order to ensure that the articles mentioned in the Treaty are adhered to and implemented in all EU Member States.
Directives cover issues such as equal pay (Directive 75/117/EEC), equal access to employment, vocational training and promotion and working conditions (Directives 2002/73/EC and 76/207/EEC), better protection to employees suffering from sexual harassment (Directive 97/80/EC), equal treatment in self-employment (Directive 86/613/EEC) and social security systems (Directives 79/7/EEC and 86/378/EEC).
It has also issued directives in areas covering health and safety and specific working conditions such as the protection of pregnant workers and workers who have recently given birth and are breastfeeding (Directive 92/85/EEC), parental leave provision (Directive 96/34/EC), and the removal of discrimination against part-time workers (Directive 97/81/EC).
Meanwhile in 1996 the European Commission in its Communication entitled ‘Incorporating equal opportunities for women and men into all community policies and activities’ adopted a gender mainstreaming approach in all its policies and measures that may have a direct and indirect impact on the lives of men and women.

The Community Framework Strategy of June 2000 referred to above is intended to operate and consolidate such an approach across all Member States.
The five main principal areas of the strategy cover gender equality in economic life, participation and representation, social rights, civil life and gender roles and stereotypes.

Each area incorporates a series of objectives and actions, which the Commission, Member States and key actors need to take into account and implement as appropriate.

Under economic life the strategy makes direct reference to the European Employment Strategy and how it should strengthen the gender dimension.
22 The European Employment Strategy was officially launched at the Amsterdam European Council of 1997 where in article 125 it was declared that employment should be a matter of common concern and that a co-ordinated employment strategy is developed at EU level.

At the Luxembourg Summit the same year a new set of employment guidelines was developed with the aim of combating the high levels of unemployment across the European Union Member States.
The guidelines included a pillar specifically dedicated to equal opportunities in employment making the latter a central part of the strategy.

The pillar called for an increase in women’s employment rate and the reduction of gender segregation in economic sectors and occupations.

It stressed the need for more reconciliation policies such as parental leave and childcare services and the regular monitoring of such policies.
Finally the pillar also emphasised the need to facilitate the integration of women and men wishing to return to the labour market.

Meanwhile Member States had to submit on a yearly basis action plans which present policies that fall directly under each guideline and methods of implementation.

The Commission could revise guidelines on a yearly basis.
Following the launch of the strategy, at the Lisbon European Council of 2000, the European Union continued to emphasise the need to strengthen labour market functioning by introducing a set of quantified targets.

The targets included the attainment of a 70% employment rate by 2010 covering all persons of working age, and complementary targets of 60% for females and 50% for older workers.
The participation of women in the labour market was considered as crucial by the Union in obtaining higher employment rates since they are the largest potential source of labour (Smith 2003).

Further targets were introduced in 2003 concerning childcare provision.

Targets for childcare state that by 2010 the provision of childcare should cover 90% of children between three years old and the mandatory school age and at least 33% of children under three years of age.
These targets have been retained in the employment guidelines of 2005.

In 2005 the Lisbon strategy has been re-launched with a growing emphasis on the need for an integrated approach to growth and employment.

To this end a new set of integrated guidelines were produced that cover both economic and employment issues.
The new employment guidelines cover three main objectives mainly full employment, improving quality and productivity at work and strengthening social and territorial cohesion (European Commission 2005).

Despite the fact that no single objective refers directly to gender equality in employment, the guidelines emphasise the need for gender mainstreaming and the promotion for gender equality in all action taken.

The above pan-European gender policies do not rule out variations across EU Member States.
As described by Smith (2003) and Hakim (2004) gender mainstreaming is very much a political issue and Member States have their own interpretations of what it entails.

The influence of national systems can be seen in the different policies and measures adopted in the various countries.
For example, certain countries such as Belgium, Sweden and France have taken an active part in trying to reduce the gender pay gap through greater use of wage statistics, job evaluation systems and the participation of the social partners.

On the other hand other countries that tend to have the highest gaps, such as Denmark and Portugal, have piece-meal actions to reduce the gender pay gap.

A similar situation exists on reconciliation policies.
Some countries have tried to improve part-time employment opportunities and flexible work arrangements such as Greece, Italy, Austria and the UK, some emphasised the role of men in care and family responsibilities by encouraging the take-up of paternity leave such as Sweden but others still consider reconciliation of family life as a women’s issue (European Commission 2004b).

Meanwhile Hakim (2004) also makes reference to the diverse application of gender discrimination laws in EU countries.
She states that courts at national level tend to interpret gender discrimination laws differently resulting into different employment practices across EU countries.

Moreover when it comes to gender policy areas emphasised by the EU, both 23 Smith and Hakim describe how EU legislation has placed much emphasis on areas such as work and employment, leaving out other important spheres such as sexual division of labour in the household.
These areas, particularly those pertaining to the private sphere, also have a great impact on the employment behaviour of individuals, particularly that of women.

As a result the current strategy adopted by the EU may be too narrow to be able to achieve greater gender equality in employment.

However, as outlined by both authors in their discussion of EU gender policies, notable positive achievements have been attained in the field of gender equality in the EU.
The strong emphasis and rigorous application of gender equality rules and measures has led social partners to re-think ordinary practices and try to change them for more gender friendly ones.

This method has encouraged countries, particularly those with low histories of gender equality, to introduce new measures and practices in the area.
Smith identifies 6 main policy areas where measures have been introduced by various EU countries during the past years mainly: (1) labour market integration of women through active labour market policies; (2) tax and benefit reforms; (3) working time and reconciliation policies; (4) gender segregation in employment; (5) gender pay gap; and (6) care services.
As outlined in the 2005 report on gender equality by the European Commission more needs to be done to attain equality between men and women (European Commission 2005c).

To this end the European Commission continues to urge all Member States to pursue their efforts to integrate the gender dimension across all policy areas with a view to achieving gender equality particularly in the field of employment.
Policy responses in Malta Malta’s commitment towards gender equality has been in the forefront since 1989 when, in a circular from the Office of the Prime Minister, government had declared its policy towards the promotion of gender equality and the elimination of gender discrimination.

Subsequently the Constitution of Malta was amended in 1991 to include the prohibition of sex discrimination.

The Constitution refers specifically to the protection of women workers and that they enjoy equal rights as men.
It states that: The State shall promote the equal right of men and women to enjoy all economic, social, cultural, civil and political rights and for this purpose shall take appropriate measures to eliminate all forms of discrimination between the sexes by any person, organisation or enterprise; the State shall in particular aim at ensuring that women workers enjoy equal rights and the same wages for the same work as men.
(Maltese Constitution, Article 14, 1991) Following this initial step, a number of legislative amendments were introduced in order to ensure that gender equality is present across all spheres of life including employment.

Malta’s accession to the European Union accelerated the introduction of these amendments.

The Employment and Industrial Relations Act of 2002 contains articles on the prohibition of gender discrimination in employment.
Articles 26 to 32 state that it is unlawful to discriminate on the basis of gender in all areas of employment including recruitment, training and conditions of work.

Articles 27 and 29 refer specifically to the right of all workers to be entitled to the same rate of remuneration for work of equal value and the protection of employees against sexual harassment at work.
The Part-time Regulations of 2002 protect part-time employees against discrimination while in 2003 other regulations were introduced covering the provision of urgent family leave, parental leave, and the protection of pregnant workers and workers who have recently given birth and are breastfeeding.
Moreover the Equality of Men and Women Act of 2003 outlines further the protection against discrimination in employment on the grounds of sex including areas such as work management, promotions, and task distribution.

Other clauses refer to protection against neglect and suppression of sexual harassment, the rights of spouses of self-employed workers 24 working in company activities, discrimination in the issuing of business start-up grants, and the right to access equally educational and training courses.
The main body responsible for gender equality issues in Malta is the National Commission for the Promotion of Equality for Men and Women.

The Commission was officially set up in 2003 by law and replaced the existing Commission for the Advancement of Women.

The latter acted as an advisory body to government and aimed at promoting and disseminating information on equal opportunities for women and men.
Since 1989 the Commission for the Advancement of Women together with its executive arm the Department for Women in Society had influenced government to introduce a number of measures such as gender equality legislation, family-friendly practices and gender equality provisions within the public service as well as gender disaggregated statistics among other issues.
The new Commission now acts as an independent and autonomous authority as required by the EU and has the power to investigate whether the provisions of the Equality for Men and Women Act are being adhered to and take action accordingly.

Apart from monitoring the provisions of the Equality for Men and Women Act, the Commission is also responsible of identifying, establishing and monitoring policies in the field of gender equality.
It also has to co-ordinate all the measures launched by government departments and agencies in the field among other responsibilities.

Since its setting up in 2003 the Commission issued its strategic policy directions covering the period 2004-2006.

The main policy areas covered by the strategy include gender equality in economic life, representation and civil life.

The former covers directly employment issues and states that gender equality in the labour market is a priority issue for Malta.
Measures listed under this policy direction include: the access to affordable and reliable childcare facilities; encouraging employers to provide work-life balance provisions for their employees; reviews of income tax and social security benefits; and the promotion of entrepreneurship and self-employment opportunities for women.
Apart from the strategy outlined by the Commission, the Employment and Training Corporation, Malta’s public employment service, issued its own strategy on gender and employment with the aim of increasing further women’s labour market participation.

The first ‘Gender Equality Action Plan’ covering the period 2003-2004 contained a series of measures aimed at increasing the participation of women in the labour market.

The first set of measures targeted the ETC directly.
Measures were based on the need to mainstream gender issues throughout ETC services.

They consisted of setting up a unit within the Corporation responsible of gender issues, drafting of gender impact assessment guidelines and setting targets that measure results by gender.
It also contained other initiatives which did not concern ETC services directly but sought to encourage women’s participation in general such as media campaigns, assistance on gender equality issues to employers and women alike, studies on gender equality, and training opportunities on gender issues.

Measures covered three areas of interest mainly: equal access to employment, work retention and progression at work.
Following its first Gender Equality Action Plan the ETC launched two other plans covering 2005-2006 and 2007-2008 respectively.

The plans provide for the consolidation of the measures set in the first plan but include other new measures such as projects promoting childcare centres at the workplace, new training and employment schemes for women as well as seminars on gender issues.
Malta’s membership in the European Union brought with it a new set of guidelines and targets in the field of gender and employment.

Malta has started to abide by the EU employment guidelines, which as noted above emphasise the need to increase the overall employment rate particularly that of women.
In 2004, the year in which Malta officially became a member of the European Union, the Maltese government drew up a National Action Plan on Employment (NAP), wherein government committed itself to a set of national quantified targets that are in line with those of the EU but which take into consideration 25 Malta’s context.
The targets included raising the overall employment rate by 3.3% from 53.7% in 2003 to 57% in 2010 and that of women by 7% from 33.7% to 41% as well as increasing the formal provision of childcare to 1,800 places for children under three years of age (refer to table 7).

As described in the Plan these targets are below those projected by the EU for all Member States, due to Malta’s different starting place and the historical and cultural reality of low female employment rates.
The same targets were retained in the National Reform Programme (NRP) of 2005.

Table 7: EU and Maltese employment target for 2010.

Target Situation December 2003 Malta target 2010 EU target 2010 Raising the overall employment rate by 3% 53.7% Raising the female employment rate by 7% Increase the formal provision of childcare to 1,800 places, i.e.
300 per annum, for children Not available under 3 Source: National Action Plan for Employment 2004, Malta 33.7% 57% 41% 15% 70% 60% 33% In view of the above targets, government committed itself to introduce a set of measures to encourage more women to take up work.

Measures listed in the NAP of 2004 and NRP of 2005 cover fiscal measures, training courses, childcare provision as well as studies on gender equality.
The three principal measures concerning women are: (1) changes in the tax system where spouses working on a full-time basis can continue to pay married tax rates even if their spouse starts working on a part-time basis.
The latter would have to pay 15% of tax on earnings earned from his/her part-time job; (2) women who were inactive for a period of at least five years and return to employment have their income tax credited to a maximum amount of Lm700 over a period of two consecutive years; (3) and the introduction of childcare regulations and childcare subsidy schemes to working parents making use of childcare.
The latter initiative is to be accompanied by a European Social Fund project covering assistance to employers who are interested to open childcare centres as well as training to prospective child carers.

All measures have already been launched since the compilation of this report.

The introduction of work and family reconciliation policies such as parental leave, career breaks and reduced hours timetables is relatively recent particularly for individuals working within the private sector.
Prior to the legislative amendments of 2003, it was left to the discretion of the employer whether to provide measures that enable staff to reconcile work and family responsibilities.

At present, Maltese workers wishing to avail themselves of family reconciliation policies may do so for a minimum period of three months unpaid parental leave on the birth of a child until he/she is eight years of age.

Mothers are also entitled to an uninterrupted maternity leave of 14 weeks on the birth of a child.
Full wages are paid for 13 weeks of maternity leave.

Employees can also avail themselves of 15 paid hours per year of urgent family leave in case of accidents, sickness, births and deaths of immediate family members.

Employees working in the public sector tend to benefit from reconciliation measures that are above statutory requirements.
Employees are provided with a one-year unpaid parental leave per child to look after children below four years and they also may avail themselves of a career break of five years without pay to take care of children less than 6 years of age.

They can work on a reduced hours timetable (20/25/30 hours per week) to look after their children below twelve years of age and they are also entitled to special leave depending on family circumstances.
26 However, employees on contract basis are not entitled to most measures.

Studies on whether similar or other work reconciliation measures are being adopted by private firms in Malta are lacking.

A small qualitative study commissioned by the National Commission for the Promotion of Equality among five firms and its employees concluded that the availability of family friendly measures among private firms in Malta is limited.

Among the firms studied only part-time work was offered across firms.
Not all firms offered reduced hours, flexitime parental leave and career breaks among other measures.

Researchers recommended that the legal obligations of employers regarding family-friendly measures at the workplace need to be enforced better (NCPE 2006).

On the other hand more information is needed on the kinds of measures offered by firms and whether the minimum requirements set by law are being adhered to.

Meanwhile the provision of childcare in Malta is still in its early stages.
Public childcare provision is very limited and childcare allowances were introduced only recently.

In 2006 Government published a set of childcare standards with the aim of improving childhood services.

The document proposes the basic standards that are essential for the delivery of quality day care to children.

Standards cover qualifications of child carers, the physical environment of childcare centres and home-based care, health and safety, and child development issues among others.
Government also announced that parents will be allowed to deduct Lm400 from the taxable amount to make good for part of the expenses incurred in licensed childcare services.

Moreover expenses related to childcare services by employers and payments received by employees to cover childcare expenses will be considered as non- taxable income In addition to childcare benefits, parents will be able to continue availing themselves of children’s allowance.
Children’s allowance is paid to parents of children under sixteen.

At present couples who jointly earn a maximum of Lm10,270 are entitled to such allowance.

The rate of allowance is worked out as a percentage of the difference between annual reckonable income and Lm10,270.

Couples with four children or more benefit from children allowance if their income does not exceed Lm13,270.

Table 8 describes rates of children’s allowance paid per child.
Although children’s allowance maybe considered as an important financial aid to couples raising children, it may also act as a disincentive to couples wishing to increase their income through a secondary wage.

In the latter case the secondary wage needs to be substantial enough to make good for the lost children’s allowance.
Table 8: Children’s allowance rates 2006 Number of children in household under 16 years of age Percentage rate on difference obtained between annual reckonable income and Lm10,270 1 2 3 4 5th and other subsequent child Over 16years of age but under 21 years and still in full- time education, training or is registering unemployed Source: Social Security Act, Chapter 318 6% 9% 12% 14% 3% for each such child 2% for each such child As regards the taxation system, the one currently adopted in Malta provides dual-earner couples with the option to choose between single and married taxation rates.
The former provides couples with the option to have their incomes taxed separately using single rates while the latter requires couples to sum their incomes and compute tax using the married rate 27 on their joint income.

If couples do not indicate their preference, the Inland Revenue Department chooses the option that is most favourable for the couple.

On the other hand couples with a sole breadwinner have their tax automatically computed using the married rate.
Table 9: Income tax rates 2007 Single Rates Married Rates Chargeable Income Lm Tax Rate (multiplied by income) Chargeable Income Lm Tax Rate (multiplied by income) 0 – 3250 3251 – 5500 5501 – 6750 > 6751 0 0.15 0.25 0.35 0 – 4500 4501 – 8000 8001 – 10,000 > 10,001 0 0.15 0.25 0.35 Usually single rates tend to be more advantageous for dual-earner couples than married rates.
However, the system of retaining the preferential married rate in case of couples with one dependent spouse may act as a disincentive for secondary earners to enter the labour market or declare their employment.

The latter’s decision to opt for work would usually have a direct affect on the rate of taxation of the primary earner.
In order to minimise such a disincentive government introduced a third option for dual earner couples where the primary earner can retain the married rate of taxation while the secondary earner working on a part-time basis is taxed at a flat rate of 15% on his/her income.

Moreover Government has also announced new tax bands in order to encourage more individuals to work (refer to table 9).

Through this reform a number of bands have been extended.
Changes were introduced to both the single and joint declarations.

Government envisages that these reforms will encourage more individuals to work.

It is too early to assess whether such incentives will encourage more couples to opt for a secondary income.

Malta’s national insurance contribution system may also have a direct impact on mothers’ incentive to work.
Malta’s current system is usually defined as a ‘pay as you go’ system where employees have to pay national insurance contributions on a regular basis while at work.

Payment of national insurance contributions entitles workers for a retirement pension as well as other benefits such as sickness benefits and unemployment benefits.

The amount of retirement pension received depends on the amount of contributions paid.
Until recently no credit system existed for those individuals who stopped working because of family responsibilities which could eventually affect the amount of retirement pension received On a positive note by the time of publishing this study, government introduced a new measure that credits social security contributions to parents wishing to leave work for a period of time to rear their children.
As from January 2007 parents may benefit from a maximum of two years accredited social security contributions for each child or four years credits in the case of children suffering from serious disability.

Meanwhile other benefits such as unemployment benefits are not earnings related and are paid at a fixed rate.

This final arrangement tends to influence the way contributions are calculated requiring individuals to pay a minimum amount per contribution irrespective of amount of hours worked.
To date, anyone in formal employment has had to pay a minimum of ten percent of the minimum wage by way of weekly national insurance contributions.

This has been a disincentive for secondary workers to do (or to declare) part-time work.

Moreover these workers would have their children’s allowance deducted while their husband may be taxed at higher rates.
In addition, as stipulated in the Part-Time Employees Regulations of 2002 those part-time workers who worked less than 20 hours per week were not entitled to pro-rata public holidays, vacation, sick, birth, bereavement, marriage, injury leave and bonuses.

28 While having to pay high rates of national insurance contributions, part-time employees were not entitled to workplace benefits as other workers.
However, in the Budget of 2007 this situation has been partly addressed as workers earning below the minimum wage can pay a rate of ten percent on their actual earnings rather than on the minimum wage.
Moreover the publishing of the Legal Notice 140 of 2007 has amended the Part-time Employees Regulations of 2003 by giving all part-time employees working eight hours or more per week, a pro-rata entitlement to annual vacation leave, sick leave, birth leave, bereavement leave, marriage leave and injury leave as well as to statutory bonuses and other income supplements offered to comparable whole-time employees on similar duties with the same employer.
On a related note government is also giving the opportunity to family workers, both men and women, to register themselves as employees for fiscal purposes.

This measure will ensure that such workers are entitled to all social benefits including a retirement pension on payment of social security benefits.

Research scope and methodology The scope of this study was to take a closer look at the work aspirations of women.

The study sought to answer two main research questions.
The first question was whether women wish to work or intend to continue working and whether differences between categories of women can be identified.

The second question related to the conditions that respondents believe would most facilitate their entry into the labour market or their decision to remain at work.
This study is one in a series of research studies conducted by the Research and Development Division of the Employment and Training Corporation concerning labour market issues particularly job search experience and labour market participation of certain client groups.

The study comprised three separate telephone surveys conducted among inactive, employed and unemployed women.
The target population of the first survey consisted of all women who participated in the Labour Force Survey of September 2003 and who stated that they were not in full-time studies, searching for work or in regular employment.

A sample of 913 women was randomly selected for the survey.

The survey was administered in April and May 2004 and had a response rate of 89.8% or 820 women.
The second survey targeted all employed women who were less than 65 years of age and participated in the Labour Force Surveys of March and June 2003.

The reason behind choosing two surveys was to have an adequate sample population since the total population of employed women was much lower than that of inactive women.

Moreover for the second and third surveys it was decided that only women of working age were to be included in the target population.
A sample of 1380 women was randomly selected for the survey.

The survey was administered in August and September 2004 and had a response rate of 57.4% or 792 women.

The target population of the third survey consisted of all unemployed women registering with the Employment and Training Corporation.

The population of unemployed women participating in the Labour Force Surveys was considered as too low to ensure adequate representation of unemployed women.
Moreover all registering unemployed women were included in the population targeted by the survey since there were no women who were 65 years and over.

Thus a random sample of 767 women was chosen from the list of registering women as at October 2004.

The survey was administered in November and December 2004 and had a response rate of 86.7% or 665 women.

Survey respondents were asked whether they wished to take up work or intended to continue working.
They were also asked to state their level of agreement to a list of conditions related 29 to this decision.

A Likert scale was adopted for the purpose.

Women were also given the opportunity to express their views on the subject at the end of the survey.

Surveys for employed and unemployed women also contained questions on the use of childcare services.
A profile of inactive and employed women was obtained using data already captured by the Labour Force Survey while a profile of unemployed women was gathered by asking questions directly to respondents.

The National Statistics Office was commissioned to conduct the telephone surveys and input the data.

All data was analysed by ETC’s Research and Development Division using SPSS software.
Respondents aged 65 and over were omitted from the inactive women’s sample in order to better compare results with those of the other two surveys.

Table 10 shows the sampling distribution of women participating in the three surveys by age.
Table 10: Sample distribution Inactive women survey Employed women survey Unemployed women survey Age 15-24 25-34 35-44 45-54 55-64 65+ Total Frequency Percent 19 106 186 240 217 52 820 2.3 12.9 22.7 29.3 26.5 6.3 100.0 Age 15-24 25-34 35-44 45-54 55-64 65+ Total Frequency Percent Age Frequency Percent 240 192 169 143 46 0 790 30.4 24.3 21.4 18.1 5.8 0.0 15-24 25-34 35-44 45-54 55-64 65+ 100.0 Total 370 93 70 101 31 0 665 55.6 14.0 10.5 15.2 4.7 0.0 100.0 30 Chapter 3: Research Findings Age, civil status and children A profile of inactive and employed women was gathered through data captured by the Labour Force Surveys while information on unemployed women was gathered directly from respondents.
The data confirm general trends about women’s behaviour in relation to employment.

Maltese women tend to leave the labour market on marriage and as soon as they have children.

Most are unlikely to return back to work.

When comparing the age, civil status, and number of children of the three groups of women participating in the surveys, inactive women tended to be the eldest, mostly married and have children more than employed and unemployed women respectively.
More specifically the mean age of inactive women stood at 48.7 (median = 49) followed by that of employed respondents, which stood at 34.2 (median = 32) and unemployed respondents with a mean age of 29.0 years (median = 32).

A strong correlation exists with civil status, with inactive women most likely to be married of the three groups of women.

Nine in ten inactive respondents were married (88.4%), followed by 5.3% who were single, 3.8% widowed and 2.5% no longer married.
On the other hand less employed respondents were married (50.6%), widowed (1.4%) or no longer married (1.9%) while more were single (46.1%) than the inactive group.

Similarly the rate of single unemployed respondents stood at a high 71.9% followed by married (23.2%), no longer married (4.8%) and widowed (0.2%).

Directly related to marriage is childrearing with more inactive women stating that they have children than employed and unemployed women.
92.1% of inactive respondents stated that they had children with the mean number of children standing at 2.3 (median = 2).

Less employed (49.1%) and unemployed (24.5%) women stated that they had children.

The mean number of children recorded for both groups was slightly less than that recorded for the inactive group standing at 1.99 (median = 2) and 1.98 (median = 2) respectively.
These differences between groups in age, civil status and childcare responsibilities tend to reflect the overall general notion that in Malta childcare is still considered as the primary responsibility of women.

For most Maltese women the onset of marriage and childbearing means that they have to leave the labour market.

Similar findings have been recorded by other studies on women’s labour market participation.
Thewlis et al (2004) note that while the gap between male and female activity rates in the EU is small in the 15-19 age band, the divergence between the two sexes increases after this age and never converges.

They remark that family caring responsibilities are likely to be the main reason for differences between male and female activity rates and that women are less likely to return to the labour market once family caring activities have ended.
Thewlis et al also note differences in the employment rates of married and single individuals.

In their analysis of labour market statistics for the year 2001 they note the difference in the activity rates of married men and married women which is considerably higher than the difference between those for single men and single women.

Married women are more likely to stop working and actively seek work while married men are more likely to work and search for a job than single women and men respectively.
Marriage impacts on the economic activity rates of both sexes, albeit differently, across the EU.

Rubery and Fagan (1998) contend that despite the constant rise in women’s labour market involvement that has been registered in the past few years, the participation of women with 31 dependent children is lower than of those with no dependent children.

They state that motherhood is still associated with a marked reduction in employment in many, but not all, countries.
Employment rates for mothers in countries such as Austria, Denmark, Finland, and Portugal exceed 65% but fall below 50% in Spain, Greece, and Italy.

Most of the countries that manage to obtain high maternal employment rates tend to offer more measures that help work and family reconciliation such as parental leave.

Rubery and Fagan also note that the sharp drop in women’s employment rates is also strongly associated in certain countries with strong shifts to part-time work.
In countries such as the Netherlands and the UK the strong shifts to part-time work by women has resulted into low women full-time employment rates.

Education Differences among the three groups of women were also obtained by education.

Education has a strong influence on women’s decision to take up work and continue working.

Women with higher levels of education are more likely to continue working than other women.
In this study lower levels of education were more characteristic among inactive women than employed and unemployed women.

Inactive women were almost equally divided between those who had obtained primary level of education or no schooling (46.3%) and secondary education or higher (53.7%).
On the other hand most employed women had obtained secondary level of schooling (47.7%) followed by post-secondary level (23.1%) and tertiary level (19.5%) with the least number stating that they had obtained primary level of education (9.6%).

Similarly unemployed women had higher levels of schooling with 65.6% having obtained secondary level followed by post-secondary level (14.7%), primary level or lower (14.3%) and tertiary level of schooling (5.5%).
The increase in levels of education obtained by women in general tends to have a direct positive effect on women’s employment rates.

Thewlis et al (2004) remark that the influence of education on employment participation is particularly strong for women.

In 2001 the activity rates of women with 0-2 level of education stood at 52.0% rising to 75.8% for women with level 3 education and 86.4% to those with 5-7 level.
The difference in activity rates between women with tertiary education and lower secondary education across the EU stood at 34.4% while that for men was 23.7% points lower standing at 10.7%.

Studies by OECD (2001) also attribute the closure in the employment gaps of men and women to higher growth in the high and medium education groups.
When focusing on the labour market participation of mothers, the OECD study reveals that the employment rates of mothers in the highest education group had reached 70% by 1999 but tended to stagnate at a low 40% for the lowest group.

However, Rubery and Fagan (1998) note cross-country variations in the level of participation of mothers by education level.
They contend that in countries such as Spain, Italy and the Netherlands graduate mothers have lower participation rates when compared to those of graduate mothers in other countries.

The extent to which education affects women’s employment rates differs across countries.

In 1996 for example employment rates of graduate mothers across most EU countries (no data for Sweden) ranged from 66-92% (Rubery and Fagan 1998).
Occupations and sectors Despite the rise in women’s employment rates, there still exists strong gender segregation between the jobs occupied by men and women.

Gender segregation refers to the pattern whereby women are under-represented in some jobs and over-represented in others (Fagan and Burchell 2002).

This feature tends to be persistent across countries around the world.

32 Occupational segregation by sex may be of two types: horizontal and vertical.
The former refers to women’s concentration in particular jobs, sectors and employment status while the latter emphasises women’s under-representation in senior positions and well-paid jobs.

This situation results into people working in jobs that are done mainly or almost entirely by their own sex with occupations being labelled as ‘female’ or ‘male’ dominated (Fagan and Burchell 2002).

An analysis of Europe’s labour market situation suggests that gender segregation is still an important issue.
In 2000 most women worked in the public sector, occupied jobs in the services sector or more specifically the care-related sector such as health, education, sales, hotels and catering (European Foundation 2002).

Fewer women worked in construction, manufacture, transport, agriculture and financial services.
Moreover they worked in occupations that mostly involve caring, nurturing and service activities such as life science and health related occupations, teaching, clerks, and occupations related to service work and sales.

Results of this study reveal that Maltese women tend to conform to this pattern whereby a significant number occupy care and service-related jobs and work in the services sector.
Table 11 shows how most women participating in this study worked or used to be employed as clerks, service and sales workers, plant and machine operators or worked in elementary jobs.

Fewer women worked as senior officials, skilled agriculture and fishery workers or craft and related trades workers.
An analysis of respondents by sector (refer to table 12) reveals that the five most important sectors mentioned by respondents were manufacturing, wholesale and retail trade, education, health and social work, and hotels and restaurants.

Fewer women mentioned working in sectors such as transport and communications, construction or agriculture and fisheries.
Table 11: Respondents by survey and occupation Occupation Senior officials, managers, professionals and associate professionals Clerks, service and sales workers Skilled agriculture and fishery workers and craft and related trades workers Plant and machine operators and elementary occupations Total Inactive women Employed women Unemployed women Frequency Percent Frequency Percent Frequency Percent Interesting differences tend to emerge by sub-sample.
The data suggests that women working in high-level occupations tend to retain their jobs more than women who work in low-paid or manual jobs.

The latter are more vulnerable to unemployment and inactivity.

Rubery and Fagan (1998) relate the differences in the employment status of women to restructuring in the labour market.

They explain that the restructuring that took place in the manufacturing sector these last few years has resulted into a significant number of job losses both for men and women.
Malta experienced a similar situation where in the past few years manufacturing companies, particularly those operating in the textiles sector, closed down or reduced their number of employees.

Rubery and Fagan contend that this situation may slowly 33 lead to a significant gap between the employment situation of highly qualified and lesser qualified women.
They cite the example of clerical work and how this is also expanding at a lower pace than the previous years in favour of more technical and middle level jobs.

This is especially the case with the public sector and current reforms that are taking place to reduce public expenditure.

The public sector has provided a significant number of women employees with stable employment and reasonably well-paid jobs.

This situation may alter if fewer employees are engaged with the public service.
Restructuring in general may lead to workers with low qualifications and skills finding difficulties in the future to retain or find alternative jobs.

While women’s presence in particular sectors and jobs may be directly related to restructuring, it can also be attributed to job conditions.

Indeed an analysis by sector reveals that most employed women participating in this study worked in the education sector followed by manufacturing, health and social work sectors.
One may fairly assume that most professionals identified in the employed sample worked as teachers or nurses.

These occupations tend to provide more flexible working conditions to women since they can adjust their working hours to family responsibilities.
Neo-classical theories on occupational segregation retain that women tend to choose their occupations on a rational basis, choosing those which are flexible in terms of entry and working hours (Anker 2001) and which enable them to undertake housework and childcare.
Table 12: Respondents by survey and sector Sample Inactive women Employed women Unemployed women Three most important areas of economic activity Manufacturing Wholesale and retail trade Hotels and restaurants Education Manufacturing Health and social work Manufacturing Hotels and restaurants Wholesale and retail trade % 52.8 11.2 8.6 19.6 16.6 11.8 34.1 18.9 18.1 Gender differences also appear in employment status, where more women tend to be employed in part-time jobs and definite contracts.
Women tend to take up self-employment to a lesser degree than men.

Indeed the absolute majority of respondents participating in this study worked as employees, and only a small percentage of respondents mentioned working as self-employed in their current or previous occupation (4.2% inactive women, 5.9% employed women and 1.4% unemployed women).

A significant number of employed women stated that they worked on reduced hours (18.1%) and on a part-time basis (5.6%).
The most common reasons why women opted to work part-time or on a reduced hours timetable were because they did not want a full-time job (39%) and/or they had to care for children and/or disabled persons (21.9%).

Part-time work has been on the increase these past few years and has been largely associated with women’s work.

The growth in part-time work has also been directly attributed to the growth in the services sector.
During the post-war period areas such as retail, banking, public administration and other forms of clerical and service work required more personnel thus 34 women’s share in white-collar work increased significantly.

While providing more work opportunities for women in general, the sector also gave workers the opportunity to work on a part-time basis (Yeandle 1984; Fagan and Burchell 2002).
Overall in 2004 31.4% of employed women and only 7.0% of employed men in Europe were part-timers (Employment in Europe 2005).

Women tend to work fewer hours per week than men usually less than 20 hours per week (Fagan and Burchell 2002).

While providing a certain amount of flexibility to workers, part-time work may also result in a trap.

Part-time workers may very often be at a disadvantage in comparison with colleagues who do equivalent full-time work (Bolle 2001; Walby and Olsen 2002).
Part-time workers are very often paid lower hourly rates, are ineligible for certain social benefits; they are rarely offered training and their career prospects are more limited.

Certain labour market segmentation theories have even associated part-time work to secondary markets, which are characterised by precarious and poorly paid jobs in general (Bolle 2001).

Employers operating in secondary sectors usually retort to part-time work in order to cope with fierce competition.
Other ILO studies however reveal that this association is not always true and that part-time work is not always associated with job insecurity or unemployment.

On the other hand they still confirm that part-time work lowers the employment prospects of employees in terms of pay and lifetime career prospects.

This situation is especially relevant to women since a significant number of them opt for part-time work and work shorter number of hours (Bolle 2001:228).
As regards vertical segregation, Fagan and Burchell (2002) note that there has been an increase in the number of women managers in the past few years.

Reasons for this increase could be the growing proportion of women that are highly educated and who have started to occupy a number of professional occupations.
It has also been associated to the creation of new jobs that are usually associated with women such as those related to customer service or men shifting to better paid jobs in sectors such as IT and other activities in the private sector.

Despite these positive trends, women in high-status jobs still occupy jobs that are mostly female-oriented.

Women tend to occupy jobs related to care such as doctors and nurses; less are engineers or architects.
Moreover few women tend to occupy senior positions within organisations and they are mostly under-represented in senior grades.

Results of this study tend to confirm this trend.

When analysing employed women’s occupations by economic sector the results showed that those women employed in high status jobs were mostly employed in the education (45.8%) and health and social work sectors (17.4%).
Most women working in high status jobs who participated in this study were largely professionals employed in female occupations such as doctors, nurses and teachers.

Career interruptions Women’s labour market experience tends to be shorter and characterised by a series of breaks.

Women tend to leave and re-enter the workforce more than men.

This behaviour is usually attributed to care and family responsibilities.
Almost half of employed women participating in this study stated that they had experienced a career break (49.7%).

When asked about the number of career breaks taken, 74.5% of employed women participating in this study stated that they had experienced one career break followed by two career breaks (15.3%), three career breaks (7.4%) and 2.9% stating that they experienced more than three career breaks.
Women were also asked, either through information gathered by the Labour Force Survey (employed and inactive women) or directly (unemployed women), the reasons why they have left their employment or the labour market entirely.

A significant number of inactive women stated that they left their last employment due to personal or family responsibilities (81%) 35 followed by ‘other reasons’ (5.5%), illness or disability (4.4%), retirement (4.2%) and redundancy or dismissal (3.3%).
Similarly most employed women stated that they had experienced a career break due to childcare or marriage.

The four most common reasons for experiencing a career break were related to care of children (54.6%), marriage (20%), temporary job (8%) and redundancy or dismissal (7.3%).

On the other hand unemployed women mentioned dismissal or redundancy as the most common reason why they left their last job (44.6%) followed by termination of a temporary job (12.6%).
The latter can be attributed to the fact that during the time of the survey a number of manufacturing companies had made redundant a significant number of employees.

Since most of the unemployed respondents worked in the manufacturing sector one may assume that most of these respondents had experienced redundancy.

A second reason could be attributed to the unemployed women’s personal characteristics.
Women participating in the unemployed survey were younger, mostly single and with fewer children than their counterparts.

Thus these women were less likely to state childcare or marriage as the principal reason why they left their last job.

Similar findings were reported in the OECD study on the labour market behaviour of women (2002).

The study revealed that childbirth is likely to effect women’s decision to remain in employment.
In countries such as Germany and the United Kingdom, one in four women who have a child withdraw from employment the year following birth, whereas in the Netherlands a higher share of women, almost 30%, is associated with shifts to part-time employment.

In France, Greece and Spain the share of childbirths that are followed by an exit from employment is also quite high standing at 20% or more.

The shifts to part-time employment are also high in countries such as Germany, Ireland and the United Kingdom.
Apart from shifts in type of employment and amount of hours worked, Elias (1994) also notes shifts to ‘simple’ occupations by women.

These shifts are usually the result of family formation and childbirth.

Elias defines ‘complex’ occupations as a group of occupations that entail a certain amount of skill and knowledge.
Such occupations would include skilled manual occupations, non-manual occupations that have a significant amount of training or qualification requirement, professional, technical, and managerial jobs.

‘Simple’ occupations are all remaining occupations with a minimum amount of associated skills, training, qualification, or work experience.

Elias states that childbirth has little impact upon the men’s movement from complex to simple occupations.

For women, however, the evidence indicates different trends.
Women are more likely to shift to ‘simple’ occupations with childbirth more particularly with the presence of young children in the household.

This effect tends to be cumulative with number of children.

Elias also notes that these shifts are increasing over time and that the contrast between women’s employment before and after family formation is becoming more marked.
While experiencing a number of career breaks and shifts to alternative types of employment, women also tend to spend longer amounts of time outside work than men.

A study conducted by the European Foundation (1998) found that 30% of women who were currently not in paid work but once had been employed stated that they had breaks of five years or more compared to less than half this proportion among men.

Women respondents participating in this study also reported long periods outside the labour market.
38.4% of employed women stated that globally they spent more than 3 years on a career break, followed by 23.3% between four and 12 months followed by 20.9% three months or less and 17.6% between more than one year and three years.

More specifically those women who mentioned experiencing career breaks because of children or marriage mentioned taking long career breaks of more than three years (48.6% and 75.6% respectively).
Childcare and marriage tend to influence Maltese women to take long career breaks lasting a number of years.

36 The length in career breaks may be directly related to family-friendly policies in the country.

For example in Malta the public service offers women the possibility to opt for one year unpaid parental leave as well as a one-time, five year career break.

A marriage bar was also in place in the public sector until the early eighties.
On the other hand women employed in the private sector may avail themselves of three months parental leave.

The length in career breaks of employed women participating in this study may be attributed in part to these policies.
Since most employed women worked in the education and health and social work sectors which mostly fall under the public sector, one may assume that young women had availed themselves of the family-friendly policies provided by the public sector while older women had experienced the marriage bar.

Others may simply have withdrawn from the labour market for their childrearing years.
While institutions may have a direct impact on women’s take up of career breaks, cultural influences also act as important contributors to women’s labour market behaviour.

Camilleri Cassar describes how in Malta, women’s labour market participation has always been influenced by the cultural assumptions entrenched in Maltese society that define women’s primary role as home and family carer.
The findings of her study among graduate women suggest that woman’s primary role in Maltese society is still seen to be that of care for her children and home, while that of the father is of uninterrupted work patterns and financial provision for his family.

These cultural assumptions influence women’s decision to opt for career breaks on childbirth or to terminate their employment, in order to better fulfil their roles of mother and wife.
Another factor influencing the take up and length of career breaks is education.

Women with a low education level tend to opt for a career break more than women with higher levels of education.

Moreover they are less likely to retain full-time employment and more likely to exit the labour market entirely.
Findings by the OECD (2002) maintain that children have a negative impact on the probability of staying continuously in employment for low-educated women, while women with higher levels of education tend to combine work and family by reducing their working time rather than exiting employment entirely.

Educational level also had a direct impact on the employment status of women participating in this study.
As outlined in the previous section most inactive women who decided to exit the labour market entirely had lower levels of education than unemployed and employed women.

Higher levels of education seem to have a positive impact on Maltese women’s decision to remain or return to the labour market.

Low-educated women are more likely to stop working and remain inactive.
These shifts in women’s labour market participation tend to portray an intermittent kind of employment characterised by a series of breaks and changes in occupations.

The labour market history of a considerable number of women tends to be very different from the continuous full-time employment typical of men.
Women tend to enter and exit the labour market more frequently with the direct consequence of having to change most of the time to occupations that involve less knowledge and skill than those they had occupied before leaving the labour market.

These shifts have been classified by Hakim (1994) into three types of career profiles portraying women’s labour market behaviour.
The first type consists of continuous employment, which is the male stereotypical male employment profile, consisting of full-time employment throughout adult life, from time of leaving full-time education to retirement.

Almost all men in Britain tend to fall in this category while only one quarter of women are found working in continuous employment.

Hakim contends that there has been continuous decline of women working in continuous employment throughout the years.
The second type of career profile is the homemaker career which is typically the female employment profile consisting of a single period of employment exactly after full-time education which ends in 37 early adult life and is never resumed.

This career type has been significantly considered as the ideal type of career for one-third to two-thirds of women in modern societies.
This type of career emphasises a high degree of household division of labour where wives are solely responsible of family and household responsibilities while husbands act as the sole breadwinners of the family.

Similar to the continuous employment profile however, Hakim contends that women were choosing less the homemaker career profile in recent decades.

The last type of career profile and the one that is increasingly being opted for by women is the discontinuous or intermittent employment profile.
This third category consists of work histories with periods of employment broken by domestic breaks or other periods of voluntary non-work periods.

According to Hakim this is the dominant trend in women’s employment patterns.
She states that ‘there is an expanding workforce of women with increasingly numerous breaks in employment, shorter periods of employment and more numerous jobs changes, often associated with part-time work.’ (Hakim 2004:135) Discontinuous and intermittent kind of employment has generally been associated with negative effects on women’s careers (Hakim 2004; Camilleri Cassar 2005; Walby and Olsen 2002).
Women tend to accumulate shorter job tenures and less total work experience than men, which in turn have a direct consequence on wages, chance for promotion and pension rights.

Women’s fragmented work histories tend to explain the pay gap that exists between men and women.

Employers in general tend to reward employees who remain working with their company and gain a significant amount of experience through regular annual increments.
Also individuals who have total years of experience in the same sector tend to enjoy high salaries (Hakim 2004).

Studies in Britain reveal that the longer the gaps the less the wages earned when compared to wages earned in the former job (Walby and Olsen 2002).

These effects tend to be higher for females than males.

Women who spend one year out of the labour market tend to receive 16.1% less than the wage they had before.

Males’ wage penalty for the same period is half the amount.
In general women who manage to maintain their job while having children tend to receive higher wages than women who do not.

Apart from higher wages, experience and job tenure also lead to promotions with the same employer or with a change of job.

Women who decide to opt for a career break reduce their chances for promotion especially if they change jobs and start working in an entirely new job after the career break.
As noted by Camilleri Cassar (2005) in her study of graduate women, the possibility to take parental leave and career breaks on childbirth may have detrimental effects on women’s careers.

Two professional women interviewed by Camilleri Cassar explained how leaving their job for four years because of childbirth was going to reduce their chance for promotion.

Moreover they felt it was unfair to leave their job at the beginning of their career.
This was the time when they had the possibility to advance in their job and make full use of what they studied.

To leave their job entirely and start afresh was even worse because they would have had to start all over again.

Women may also experience financial hardship during career breaks.

For example the provision of unpaid parental leave and career breaks in Malta may put families in a weaker financial position.
Unpaid parental leave may cause financial hardship to those who cannot afford to live on a single wage (Camilleri Cassar 2005).

Moreover women would feel dependent on men since they would have no financial compensation while on career breaks and would have to rely solely on their husband’s wage.

Until recently national insurance contributions and pension rights were also affected when women decided to opt for career breaks.
In Malta for example women working in the public sector who opted to take the four year parental leave/career break on childbirth lost their right to national insurance contributions (Camilleri Cassar 2005).

This had a direct effect on the stipulated number of contributions required for the entitlement of a retirement pension.
In 38 2007 government enacted a new measure that accredits the social security contributions of parents who decide to avail themselves of parental leave or career breaks to rear their children.

Parents may avail themselves up to a maximum of two year national insurance credits, rising to four years in the case of children with serious disability.
This measure is similar to that adopted in other European countries where women who spend time out of the labour market performing care duties have contributions made on their behalf.

The Pensions Working Group set up by government to review retirement pensions in Malta had recognised this fact and proposed to credit a period between two and three years per child to enable mothers and fathers to take care of their children until they start attending childcare or education (Pensions Working Group 2005).
Motivation to work Women’s overall labour market participation in Malta is significantly lower when compared to that of other countries.

Questions arise whether women wish to work in the first place or whether they are facing a number of constraints in their decision to take up work.

Are Maltese women interested in following a career?

Are institutions helping women to enter the labour market?
This study sought to answer such questions by investigating women’s work intentions and identify those conditions, which may encourage women to remain working or take up work.

Women participating in this study were asked whether they wish to take up work (inactive and unemployed) or remain working (employed).

Findings reveal that Maltese women in general tend to hold positive work aspirations.

A significant number stated their intention to remain working or taking up a job.
However, it is important to note that differences emerged among surveys.

Employed and unemployed were more willing to remain working or find a job than inactive women.

Most employed (94.1%) and unemployed (98.2%) women stated that they wished to remain working or to start working respectively.

On the other hand less inactive women stated that they wanted to take up work.

Almost half (47.5%) of inactive women showed an interest in finding a job.
Other studies have recorded a similar widespread desire to work among women in general.

Fagan (2001) in her analysis of the Employment Options of the Future Survey conducted by the European Foundation reports that a significant proportion of non-employed women were ready to take up a job immediately or in the next five years.
Survey results reveal that 51% of women respondents were in employment, 3% had been in employment the previous week, 26% wanted to start working in the short or medium term while 20% were not interested to find a job.

As regards employed women Fagan (2001) notes that they were generally in favour of continuing to work irrespective of childbirth.

In fact some 90% of employed women who expected to have a first child in the next five years wanted to remain working.
The proportion was also high for those women who were already combining work with raising children and who expected to have another child in the near future.

However, despite these positive results, Fagan argues that women’s wish to take up work is still hampered by a number of difficulties.

She states that 70% of non-employed women compared to 6% of non-employed men mentioned family and home as the primary reason why they were not in employment.
Home and family were still considered as the primary responsibility of women.

They were one of the major factors why women had to opt out of employment and delay their entry into the labour market.

She further explains how: The boundary between being ‘unemployed’ and not seeking employment due to ‘domestic responsibilities’ is blurred for women.

Many women in the latter category are the ‘hidden 39 unemployed’, who have domestic responsibilities but also want employment when it is available.
(P. 7) On the other hand she also notes differences by age and how older non-employed women had the lowest inclination to work.

She explains how their lower expectation to work can be associated with both their age and their generation.

Older generations of women used to have a lower degree of labour market attachment in their younger years than more recent generations.

Moreover ageism and lack of recent work experience could also act as deterrents for older women to seek a job.
Similarly Crompton and Harris (1998) argue that women’s orientations to work may vary along the life-cycle.

Work commitment may depend directly on one’s life cycle stage as well as the realities and possibilities for employment available to the individual at that particular stage in life.

Similar findings were reported by this study.

The age factor was the most significant factor in influencing inactive women’s willingness to start working.
The older the women, the less they were interested in taking up a job.

These results were obtained after performing a series of significance tests (relationships were examined by Chi-square tests and association measures by phi and Cramér’s V) on variables such as household size, number of children, age of youngest child, whether respondents had children, district, highest educational level of women and marital status.
Other variables included whether respondents ever worked, economic sector of last job, occupation of last job, partner’s labour status, partner’s annual income, and whether partner has second job.

Although initially a series of variables proved significant, when controlling for age, only three variables remained namely age, age of youngest child and whether partner has a second job.

Age stood as the most significant variable influencing women’s willingness to take up a job.
Inactive women’s willingness to work decreased from two-thirds of women in the 15-24 age bracket, to just over one fifth of the 55 to 64 year old bracket (refer to chart 5).

Also women whose youngest child had 16 years and over were less willing to take up a job than women who had younger children (refer to chart 6).

This factor may be directly attributed to the women’s age and the fact that the children would have obtained a certain degree of independence.
The latter required less help and financial assistance from their mothers.

On the contrary most women with younger children were willing to take up a job.

The other independently significant variable is whether the respondent’s partner holds a second job.

The data indicates that the fact that the partner does a second job is associated with a greater willingness to work on the part of the respondents.
In fact, 80.8% of those respondents whose partner has a second job wish to work compared to 58.8% of those respondents whose partner does not have a second job.
Chart 5: Inactive women and their willingness to work by age 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Willing Not willing Don't know Non respondent 15-24 25-34 35-44 Age 45-54 55-64 40 Chart 6: Inactive women and their willingness to work by age of youngest child Willing Not willing Don't know Non respondent 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0-2 3-5 6-10 11-15 16+ Age of youngest child Those inactive respondents who expressed a wish to work were asked how strongly they would rate the following reasons for working: finance, learning and socialising (refer to table 13).
Women rated finance most highly (72.6%) followed by opportunity to socialise (30.1%) and opportunity to learn (24.7%).

It is interesting to note the high rating that inactive women gave to financial reasons and subsequently the relatively lower ratings they gave to socialisation and learning.

It seems that inactive women’s wish to contribute financially to their families is quite strong.
Moreover this finding may also be interpreted as a strong wish by inactive women to change their present state of financial dependency.

Similar questions were posed to employed and unemployed respondents who wished to continue working or to start work.

Almost similar results were obtained in both surveys.

(In the latter surveys the list of options available to women was modified in order to include elements related to experience gained through work and personal development issues.
Also the Likert scale was changed from a five point to a four point scale.)

The absolute majority of unemployed women gave a high rating to the financial element in work (94.6%) followed by the opportunity to gain more experience (69.8%) and an opportunity to socialise (67.2%).
These preferences may be tied directly to the unemployed women’s characteristics as well as their employment status since most were relatively of a young age and thus seeking new work opportunities to further enhance their work experience.

Moreover they also gave a high rating to the socialisation aspect and the fact that work was going to give them the opportunity to meet other people.
While giving financial reasons (79.1%) as high a rating as the other groups of women, employed women tended to value next the opportunity to develop one’s capabilities (45.2%) followed by the opportunity to socialise (42.0%).

Once in employment women seem to value other elements more highly than non-working women, such as personal development and an opportunity to develop one’s knowledge and skills.
Being in employment may mean more financial stability for women and thus their evaluation of work is extended beyond the purely instrumental 41 Table 13: Women’s work orientations by survey Very important % 72.6 30.1 24.7 Inactive women Important and not important % Important % 23.8 51.8 65.5 1.4 0.5 1.6 Unemployed women Not important at all % Non respondents % 0.3 4.9 0.8 0.3 0.0 0.3 Not important % 1.6 12.6 7.1 Financial reasons Meet other people Opportunity to learn Very important % Important % Not important % Don’t know % Financial Meet other people Opportunity to learn Gain more experience Personal development 94.6 67.2 66.8 69.8 61.1 3.5 19.1 17.2 15.9 17.8 1.8 10.9 13.9 12.1 17.8 0.0 0.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 Non respondents % 0.0 2.6 2.1 2.1 3.4 Very important % Employed women Important % Not important % Don’t know % Non respondents % Financial reasons Meet other people Opportunity to learn Gain more experience Personal development 79.1 42.0 36.9 41.2 45.2 6.5 30.1 29.7 29.5 27.2 2.6 15.7 21.3 17.5 15.6 0.0 0.7 0.5 0.5 0.3 11.8 11.4 11.6 11.3 11.7 This overall instrumental orientation to work has also been recorded by other studies conducted in Europe.
Both employed and non-employed respondents of the Employment Options of the Future survey run by the European Foundation stated that earning a living was a major reason why they wanted to work (Fagan 2001).

Since the survey was conducted among men and women it permitted an analysis of the findings by gender.

Interestingly the results of the survey suggest a gender difference in the work orientations of men and women.
Men tend to have a higher instrumental orientation while women tend to value more the socialisation aspect and the fact that they like their job.

Gallie, White, Cheng and Tomlinson (2004) also record such differences in the work orientation of men and women.

While valuing highly the financial aspect of work, men tend to give a higher instrumental value to work then women.
The most plausible explanation for this finding would be the importance given to traditional gender conceptions and how men are still considered as the main family breadwinners.

Despite these findings Fagan also notes that while men and women may have different orientations to work, motivations also tend to be affected by types of work and occupation positions not only by gender.

When occupational positions are taken into account gender differences are reduced.
She gives the example of men and women with high qualifications and better jobs who are least satisfied with their occupations than other individuals due to the juxtaposition of higher expectations with relatively better employment conditions.

42 This element of heterogeneity in work motivations has also been highlighted by other studies which emphasise differences among the work orientations of women themselves.

Women’s knowledge, background and experiences may directly influence their work orientation.
A study of women returners conducted by Doorewaard, Hendrickx and Verschuren (2004) found that the personal, financial and family constraints of women tend to influence their work orientations in a significant way.
Female returners with a lower education level and who have financial difficulties tend to re-enter paid labour for money reasons while older women, women with a higher education and women who are financially well off tend to re- enter the labour force because they are interested in the job they wish to acquire.

On the other hand those women who wish to enter the labour market in order to meet people are more likely to be older and less educated.
The authors argue that distinct background factors tend to account for the job orientation of different subgroups of women returners.

The above findings may help to explain the way women respondents participating in this study rated reasons why they wished to work.

Inactive women participating in this study had significantly lower levels of education and used to work in manual jobs with a low financial return more than other women.
These characteristics may explain why their wish to re-enter the labour market was highly instrumental.

The intrinsic returns of work were considered as less important by these women due to their background and the work opportunities available to them.

A similar explanation may be attributed to that of unemployed women.

The latter were significantly younger than their counterparts and thus were in a stage in their life-cycle which required more financial stability.
They needed money to buy or rent new homes and also start a family.

On the other hand since they were actively seeking work and wished to change their unemployment situation they highly valued the intrinsic rewards of work.

On the other hand most employed women worked in professional jobs that gave them more financial stability and higher intrinsic gains.

As a result they rated different orientations towards work more equally than their counterparts.
However, the fact that they gave lower ratings to the intrinsic rewards of work than unemployed women may also be a reflection of their work experience and the high expectations they placed on their jobs in general.

Preferred conditions Apart from examining their wish to work and their work orientations, study participants were also asked about the conditions they thought would help them to start working or retain their job.
Non-employed respondents who stated that they would like to work as well as those employed women who wanted to continue working were asked to rate a number of conditions in terms of their importance (refer to tables 14 and 15).

The lists of conditions presented to respondents of the three surveys were almost similar.

Since surveys were done in different periods the researcher had the possibility to improve the original list of conditions presented to inactive women.
Thus the ‘good working conditions’ option was further subdivided into ‘good pay’, ‘change in job’, and ‘possibility for promotion’.

This was done to test whether employed and unemployed women rated differently the various aspects of working conditions.

The option on ‘retirement pension’ was removed and changed to ‘parental leave’ since the latter was not included in the original list of conditions and was considered as more important for the purpose of this research than the former option.
The option ‘enough job opportunities’ was removed from the employed women’s list.
43 Table 14: Preferred conditions by survey Inactive women Very important % Important % Important and not important % Not important % Not important at all % Non respondents % Family-friendly hours Work at home Husband’s tax is not effected National insurance contributions were to be lower Good working conditions Partner agrees to my working Work part-time/reduced hours More education and training Enough job opportunities Benefits are not lost/reduced Help with domestic work Childcare Aid to open one’s business Retirement pension is not lost Care of disabled/sick relatives Alimony is not lost Unemployed women Very important % Important % Not important % Don’t know % Non respondents % Good pay Enough job opportunities Job different from last job Family-friendly hours Possibility for promotion Work part-time/reduced hours National insurance contribution were to be lower More education and training Parental leave Partner agrees to my working Work at home Aid to open one’s business Husband’s tax is not effected Childcare Care of disabled/sick relatives Benefits are not lost/reduced Help with domestic work Place of work accessible to persons with disability Table 14: Preferred conditions by survey continued.
Employed women Very important % Important % Not important % Don’t know % Non respondents % Good pay National insurance contribution were to be lower Possibility for promotion Family-friendly hours Parental leave Partner agrees to my working More education and training Work part-time/reduced hours Benefits are not lost/reduced Work at home Husband’s tax is not effected Help with domestic work Childcare Aid to open one’s business Different job Care of disabled/sick relatives Place of work accessible to persons with disability Meanwhile the Likert scale used in the survey among inactive women included five ratings ranging from ‘very important’ to ‘not important at all’ while the second two surveys provided women with three options ranging from ‘very important’ to ‘not important’ as well as a ‘don’t know’ option.
This change was introduced to have more accurate results as well as keep the overall time taken by the telephone survey as low as possible.

Table 14 indicates the percentage of respondents by rating while table 15 provides a break down of respondents who answered very important to the list of conditions by age.
An analysis of the first five conditions ranked as very important reveals that women wish most for more ‘family-friendly’ work arrangements, good working conditions as well as fiscal policies that encourage women to enter the labour market.

The provision of family-friendly hours together with the possibility to work from home and to take parental leave were considered as very important by a significant number of women participating in this study.
54.5% of employed women considered family friendly hours as very important followed by 42.2% of inactive women and 23.0% of unemployed women.

Inactive women also gave a lot of importance to the possibility to work from home (41.4%) while employed women rated highly the provision of parental leave (51.4%).

Interestingly women gave a lower rating to the possibility to work on part-time/reduced hours or to have access to childcare.
From these findings it seems that Maltese women value the need to take care of their children themselves and want the possibility to better combine their work and family life.

Women’s need to reconcile work and family has been widely reported by other studies (Fagan and Burchell 2002; Fagan 2001; Rizzo 2004).

In his study on work-life balance Rizzo (2004) 45 found that employed women tend to feel the lack of work-life balance more than men.
Almost half of women participating in his study (41.8%) stated that they felt squeezed between work and family life when compared to 27.2% of men.

This feeling was more pronounced among workers who worked longer hours than other workers.

Rizzo also notes that the higher the level of education of workers the more they tended to be dissatisfied with the amount of time that they had available to dedicate with their children.
Rizzo states that “more than half of the workers with a post secondary (54%) and tertiary education (57.1%) stated that they either found no time or did not find enough time to spend with their children” (Rizzo 2004:15).

The provision of policies that help women reconcile work and family life may have long term positive effects on women’s employment rates.
As highlighted by OECD (2003), countries that have introduced measures such as flexible working time arrangements and paid maternity leave tend to have higher rates of employment than other countries.

OECD suggests that those countries in which young women’s participation rates is low are also those countries in which there is a relatively wide agreement that women’s employment is detrimental to family life and to young children.
The provision of policy measures that help women achieve more work life balance may help them enter the labour force while continuing to take care of their family and children.

For example OECD mentions the example of paid maternity leave and explains how this measure may give women a job guarantee while ensuring them a certain amount of financial security while on leave.
The length of paid maternity leave is debatable and OECD recommends that a ‘reasonable’ length of paid maternity and/or parental leave should be found.

Too long leave may be detrimental to the women’s career prospects and labour market participation since women would feel less inclined to return to the labour market outright.

On the other hand if the leave is too short women would be denied their wish to care for their children themselves and may decide not to continue working.
The option of working on a part-time basis needs to be considered in its entirety.

While valuing the positive outcomes of working on a part-time basis, women also tend to regret the fact that working on part-time basis may also mean lesser benefits than those enjoyed by full- time workers such as sick leave and vacation leave.
Camilleri (1997) in her study of women working on a part-time basis in the banking sector found that most participants felt that working part-time gave them the possibility to care for their children themselves.

They thought that full-time work would take away time better spent with their children.

They considered raising their children as their primary role and that they should constantly make themselves available to them.
Women felt that “the double burden of work and family would be impossible to cope with under the stress of full-time employment” (Camilleri 1997:185).

Similar findings were reported in a study conducted by the European Foundation on part-time work in Europe (2003).

The study confirmed that a high percentage of women part-time workers reported that the main reason for working part-time was child and adult care.
Despite these positive benefits attributed to part-time work by respondents participating in Camilleri’s study, as well as those in a study conducted by Higgins, Duxbury and Lee Johnson (2000) respondents also described a number of shortcomings.

They mentioned certain negative attributes tied to part-time work such as having to cope with heavy and demanding workloads and the lack of sick and vacation leave available to part-timers.
Women felt that working on a part-time basis meant that they were tied to the lower echelons of the work organisation and their possibility of advancing in their careers was low despite their high productivity at work.

These findings seem to suggest that part-time work may result in a trap for employed women.
The recent changes made by the Maltese government to the part-time work regulations which state that all part-time workers working in excess of eight hours per week will be entitled to vacation leave, sick leave and other benefits help ensure that part-time workers enjoy good working conditions as other workers.

46 Table 15: Preferred conditions considered as very important by survey and age.
Aid to open one’s business Alimony is not lost Benefits are not lost/reduced Care of disabled/sick relatives Childcare Enough job opportunities Family-friendly hours Good working conditions Help with domestic work Husband’s tax is not effected More education and training National insurance contribution were to be lower Partner agrees to my working Retirement pension is not lost Work at home Work part-time/reduced hours Aid to open one’s business Benefits are not lost/reduced Care of disabled/sick relatives Childcare Enough job opportunities Family-friendly hours Good pay Help with domestic work Husband’s tax is not effected Job different from last job More education and training National insurance contribution were to be lower Parental leave Partner agrees to my working Inactive women 15-24 % 15.4 (12) 15.4 (13) 38.5 (9) 15.4 (14) 25-34 % 9.6 (13) 1.4 (15) 53.4 (2) 1.4 (16) 35-44 % 14.3 (13) 1.7 (16) 34.5 (6) 3.4 (15) 45-54 % 9.8 (11) 0.9 (16) 55-64 % 2.1 (11) 0.0 (16) 6.3 (14) 10.4 (15) 4.5 (15) 2.1 (13) 2.1 (12) 46.2 (6) 27.4 (11) 21.8 (12) 8.9 (12) 53.8 (2) 61.5 (1) 53.8 (3) 30.1 (10) 31.1 (9) 28.6 (8) 20.8 (10) 53.4 (1) 43.8 (4) 45.4 (1) 37.8 (4) 35.7 (5) 37.5 (4) 27.1 (4) 25.0 (7) 23.1 (11) 16.4 (12) 22.7 (11) 23.2 (10) 16.7 (14) 38.5 (10) 53.8 (4) 46.2 (7) 15.4 (15) 0.0 (16) 53.8 (5) 46.2 (8) 43.8 (5) 31.5 (9) 37.0 (7) 35.6 (8) 4.1 (14) 38.4 (6) 45.2 (3) 42.9 (2) 28.6 (10) 38.7 (3) 34.5 (7) 3.4 (14) 37.0 (5) 31.9 (8) Unemployed women 15-24 % 25-34 % 35-44 % 8.4 (10) 8.8 (14) 1.4 (17) 0.5 (15) 15.4 (12) 8.7 (14) 1.6 (12) 0.3 (17) 47.6 (2) 15.2 (7) 48.1 (1) 1.4 (13) 3.3 (16) 17.6 (9) 52.7 (2) 24.2 (4) 62.6 (1) 2.2 (17) 7.2 (15) 11.6 (12) 55.1 (2) 39.1 (3) 60.9 (1) 7.2 (16) 37.5 (2) 30.4 (7) 37.5 (3) 33.0 (6) 8.0 (13) 46.4 (1) 23.2 (9) 45-54 % 5.3 (14) 2.1 (18) 7.4 (12) 2.1 (17) 49.5 (2) 36.8 (3) 51.6 (1) 7.4 (13) 33.3 (3) 25.0 (8) 39.6 (2) 27.1 (5) 27.1 (6) 41.7 (1) 22.9 (9) 55-64 % 6.7 (13) 0.0 (18) 20.0 (7) 3.3 (16) 50.0 (2) 33.3 (3) 60.0 (1) 0.0 (17) 0.3 (18) 15.4 (13) 18.8 (9) 12.6 (11) 10.0 (9) 19.0 (4)
 17.1 (5) 12.2 (8) 16.3 (6) 0.5 (16) 23.9 (3) 10.3 (9) 38.5 (3) 6.6 (15) 23.1 (6) 19.8 (7) 19.8 (8) 2.2 (18) 33.3 (4) 17.4 (10) 24.6 (7) 8.7 (13) 30.4 (6) 1.4 (18) 16.5 (10) 14.5 (11) 24.2 (5) 33.3 (5) 18.8 (8) 28.4 (5) 13.7 (8) 12.6 (9) 4.2 (15) 28.4 (6) 3.2 (16) 14.7 (7) 29.5 (4) 12.6 (10) 23.3 (5) 6.7 (11) 6.7 (12) 3.3 (14) 20.0 (6) 3.3 (15) 6.7 (10) 26.7 (4) 10.0 (8) Place of work accessible to persons with disability 0.8 (14) Possibility for promotion Work part-time/reduced hours Work at home 5.2 (11) 16.5 (11) 47 Table 15: Preferred conditions considered as very important by survey and age continued.
Aid to open one’s business Benefits are not lost/reduced Employed women 15-24 % 25-34 % 35-44 % 45-54 % 55-64 % 30.5 (9) 26.5 (14) 25.0 (14) 17.4 (14) 17.5 (14) 27.7 (10) 43.8 (12) 52.5 (9) 46.4 (4) 35.0 (8) Care of disabled/sick relatives 11.8 (16) 18.4 (16) 23.1 (16) 13.8 (16) 12.5 (16) Childcare Different job Family-friendly hours Good pay Help with domestic work Husband’s tax is not effected More education and training National insurance contribution were to be lower Parental leave Partner agrees to my working Place of work accessible to persons with disability 7.3 (17) Possibility for promotion Work part-time/reduced hours Work at home 19.1 (15) 50.3 (9) 41.3 (12) 19.6 (13) 12.5 (15) 24.1 (12) 22.2 (14) 25.0 (15) 17.4 (15) 22.5 (12) 55.9 (4) 78.6 (1) 56.8 (4) 73.0 (1) 60.6 (4) 78.8 (1) 21.8 (13) 38.4 (13) 50.6 (10) 44.2 (5) 68.8 (1) 35.5 (9) 47.5 (3) 55.0 (1) 35.0 (9) 19.5 (14) 44.3 (11) 55.6 (6) 44.2 (6) 22.5 (11) 50.0 (6) 67.7 (2) 55.0 (5) 27.7 (11) 63.6 (3) 45.0 (7) 50.3 (8) 65.9 (3) 67.6 (2) 55.1 (6) 4.3 (17) 54.6 (7) 55.1 (5) 53.8 (8) 72.5 (2) 53.8 (7) 66.9 (3) 10.6 (17) 60.6 (5) 38.4 (8) 57.2 (2) 42.5 (5) 42.5 (4) 29.0 (11) 25.0 (10) 52.9 (3) 8.0 (17) 43.5 (7) 47.5 (2) 5.0 (17) 40.0 (6) 46.9 (11) 31.9 (10) 37.5 (7) 45.0 (8) 48.1 (10) 41.3 (13) 26.1 (12) 17.5 (13) In this study, apart from the need to achieve a better work-life balance, women also took into consideration the working conditions available.
In fact 74.2% of employed women considered receiving a good pay as very important followed by 52.5% of unemployed women.

37.8% of inactive women considered good working conditions in general as important in their decision to start working.

Moreover a significant number of employed (55.7%) and unemployed (19.8%) respondents rated the possibility for promotion as an important condition in their work experience.
On the other hand 24.8% of unemployed women wished that they could work in a different job from their previous one.

Unemployed women’s negative experience of having their job terminated may have influenced their wish to find a job with better prospects.

On a related note unemployed women (49.5%) also rated highly the fact of having enough job opportunities available to them to be able to start working.

Unemployed women seemed to have a quite pessimistic view of their possibility to find a job.
Consequently the availability of good quality jobs seems to be an indispensable factor if one wants to raise the level of women’s employment rates.

As highlighted by the European Commission (2003) persons with care responsibilities as well as low-skilled people and the young tend to experience changes in their labour market history between long-term unemployment, inactivity and temporary jobs with a high risk of exiting the labour market entirely.
In order to limit such risks it is important to make work more attractive by offering suitable working time arrangements, possibilities to reconcile work and family life as well as opportunities for skills upgrading and career advancement.

Apart from flexibility, career advancement and job security are for many people attractive policies to take up work and stay in the labour market.
While flexibility measures may provide greater opportunities for employees to achieve better work-life balance and employers to achieve higher rates of productivity at a lower cost, it is important that these arrangements take into consideration the demands for quality at work.

48 The issue of having fiscal policies that encourage them to work was also highlighted as an important factor by women participating in this study.
Both employed and unemployed respondents stated that the lowering of national insurance contributions was an important condition for them to start working or remain in work.

65.0% of employed women and 38.4% of inactive women rated this issue as very important.

Inactive women also considered as important the fact that their husband’s tax rate would not be affected if they decided to start working (40.0%).
The provision of adequate fiscal policies is also an important factor in attracting more women towards the labour market.

As highlighted by OECD (2001) and Rubery and Fagan (1998) taxation systems together with the provision of tax reliefs and benefits may influence women’s employment rates.

Joint taxation systems, benefits for low-earning families as well as tax reliefs for families with children and single breadwinners may act as disincentives for secondary earners to enter the labour market.
In countries which emphasise the single breadwinner model, secondary earners may be strongly disincentivised to enter the labour market due to the high tax rates that have to be paid once in employment.

In fact as highlighted by Baldacchino (2003) in his study of Maltese women’s participation in the labour market, Maltese women’s employment rate may even rise by eight to nine percentage points if one was to consider those women who participate in some form of undeclared work.
Women found to work informally usually did care and service work for others such as maids, shop assistants, cleaners and hairdressers or work within the household unit such as assisting in shops or businesses owned by the family.

Baldacchino states that the taxation and national insurance contribution systems may be one of the main factors why women in Malta decide not to enter the formal labour market and continue to work informally.
He concludes that lower levels of taxation and or/lower time thresholds for the payment of social security contributions would raise the incentive for Maltese women to declare income and enter into the formal labour market.

Meanwhile when analysing responses by age some differences emerged.

Young respondents were more likely to give higher rates to family-friendly policies such as ‘family-friendly hours’, ‘parental leave’ or ‘reduced hours’ than older respondents.
Inactive women aged between 15 and 44 years of age considered ‘family-friendly hours’ as the most important condition while employed women aged 25 to 34 years of age had ‘parental leave’, ‘family- friendly hours’ and ‘reduced hours’ among the first top five conditions.

Young respondents’ childcare responsibilities tend to influence their participation in the labour market and thus they wished to have policy measures that would help them raise their children while retaining their job.
These factors were given less importance by older women.

On the other hand older women gave slightly different ratings.

Older inactive women for example considered working at home as a better option for them and gave it the highest rating.

A possible explanation may be these women’s low educational background and marketable skills coupled with the fact that they have been out of the labour market for quite a long period of time, and would prefer out-work.
Moreover both older inactive and unemployed women were more likely to rate their partner’s support to their decision to start or continue working as important as very important.

Older women seem to value the position taken by their husband when deciding to continue working or to start working in the first place.

Finally older employed women aged 55 years or more also valued education and learning and the need to keep abreast with new knowledge and skills.
49 Childcare This study also sought to gather information on participants’ use of childcare services and whether they would consider using childcare services in the future.1 While the survey carried out by ETC suggested that childcare services may not rank very highly in women’s decision whether to start or retain a job, subsequent research has indicated an apparent shift in opinion.
A sense of ambivalence in the use of childcare is not unusual in similar studies of working women (Camilleri 1997, Camilleri Cassar 2005 and Baldacchino and Camilleri 1992).

Camilleri (1997) in her qualitative study of women working part-time in the banking sector found that most study participants were against childcare centres and wanted to take care of their children themselves.

Some stated that they would only trust their children with people they know particularly their own mother.
Mothers mentioned that they were afraid of negative influences on their children while others considered it as egoistic to continue working while raising small children.
Similarly in their study of women factory workers Baldacchino and Camilleri (1992) found that despite the overall positive outlook held by factory workers towards childcare centres (91% stated that they were in favour of childcare centres), half of the respondents affirmed that they would terminate their employment with marriage or child birth.

In her recent study on graduate women Camilleri (2005) also found out a degree of uncertainty among women when deciding to opt for childcare facilities.
Some mothers preferred to stop working or shift to jobs that would help them reconcile work and family life such as teaching rather than using childcare facilities.

This arrangement helped them to take care of their children themselves without the need to send them to childcare centres.

The above findings seem to confirm Hakim’s thesis that a significant number of women prefer raising their children themselves and want to remain at home full-time with their young children (Hakim 2004).
Hakim cites the significant uptake by mothers of homecare allowances in countries such as Finland and France despite the availability of childcare centres.

Hakim states that in these countries most women tend to prefer staying at home taking care of their children and receiving a homecare allowance instead of using public or private nurseries.

She concludes that, if affordable, women would prefer to stay at home with their young children rather then opting for alternative childcare possibilities.
Although the above contention may be true for certain mothers, it is not true of all.

Camilleri (2005) in her qualitative study on graduate Maltese women describes how some study participants were in favour of childcare services.

Women argued that childcare services would help them retain their jobs and eventually move up the career ladder.
However, they also pointed out that the lack of childcare services in general and the high costs related to such services has pushed them to choose other alternatives such as seeking help from their relatives especially their mother to take care of their children or stop working in order to take care of their children themselves.

Some mothers mentioned the need for public childcare as well as tax rebates on childcare that would help them alleviate such costs.
Cost and the availability of childcare services are two important considerations that parents take into account before opting to use childcare facilities.

OECD contends that the net childcare costs are high in many OECD countries (2005).

OECD states that even after deducting all relevant types of government support, parents with two pre-school children may even end up paying around 20% or more out of total family budgets for childcare.
In another study OECD states that women at the lower end of the wage scale and women with lower education levels tend to be more sensitive to high childcare costs and in turn find it more 1 The Division took the decision to include questions on childcare after it was approached by the National Commission for the Promotion of Equality for Men and Women.

These questions were included in the employed and unemployed women surveys only since the survey among inactive women had already been completed.
50 difficult to enter the labour market.

OECD also contends that unemployed women may find it even harder to opt for childcare whilst searching for a job since they are in a less favourable financial situation.

Moreover Thewlis et al (2004) contend that when making decisions about childcare parents tend to calculate the costs of childcare against potential earnings of the mother rather than the total joint income or the father’s wage.
Parents have to see that work pays and that a reasonable amount will remain from the mother’s earnings after paying costs of childcare.

Apart from costs, availability of childcare facilities and their quality is also a major consideration by parents.

The lack of quality childcare systems may influence the parents’ decision to rely on family members and in turn shift to reduced hours or part-time basis.

Parents would take this decision in order not to ask their relatives to help full-time with childcare.
Walby and Olsen (2002) state that increased childcare provision particularly publicly funded childcare has a substantial positive impact on female labour supply in the UK.

When comparing these results with countries such as France and Sweden they conclude that the provision of quality childcare by the state correlates with higher levels of women in the labour market when their children are young.
On the other hand OECD (2003) tends to take a more cautious stance when describing the level of causality between child-care arrangements and women’s participation rates since other factors other than childcare may impinge on female employment rates.
However, OECD also notes that surveys conducted in the United States and the United Kingdom reveal that the primary reason why a significant number of young mothers remain outside the labour market is directly related to lack of access to a satisfactory childcare system.

These studies reveal that an extension of childcare support may increase women’s labour force participation.
Moreover parents would also wish to consider the childcare arrangements that are available both in terms of opening hours as well as the place where childcare takes place.

As outlined by Thewlis et al (2004) location and opening hours are also important considerations when deciding whether to opt for childcare.

The difficulty to combine childcare arrangements with women’s work schedules is a key factor in allowing mothers to organise childcare.
Moreover as outlined by OECD (2003) hours of childcare have to be compatible to working hours.

In Italy for example childcare arrangements are not offered on a full-time basis and thus they do not allow mothers to work full-time.

This situation may push mothers to work part-time despite the fact that part-time work arrangements in Italy are limited.
On the other hand in the Netherlands, although childcare arrangements are also offered on a part-time basis as in Italy, the number of part-time jobs available in the labour market is considerably high thus influencing women’s overall high labour market participation rate.

To return to the findings of the ETC 2004 survey, results suggested that women prefer to care for their own children or to rely on relatives.
Only 5.7% and 1.4% of all employed and unemployed women participating in the surveys mentioned that they had used childcare services.

Figures for mothers stood at 11.1% and 5% of employed and unemployed mothers respectively.

More positive results were obtained when respondents were asked whether they considered using childcare in the future.

20.4% and 29.3% of employed and unemployed respondents stated that they would consider using childcare; .
The above results were analysed by age in order to examine whether young women held a more positive perception of childcare services than older women and whether a higher percentage would be willing to use childcare services in the future.
The results show that although young women are more inclined to consider using childcare services in the future than older women, more than half do not wish to use childcare services at all or are still undecided whether to use these services in the future (refer to table 16).

51 Table 16: Respondents by survey, age and whether they were willing to use childcare services in the future.
Age 15-24 25-34 35-44 45-54 55-64 Total Yes 34.6 33.9 6.5 0.7 2.2 20.4 Employed women Do not know No 33.8 41.7 78.7 95.8 97.8 60.3 31.7 24.5 14.8 3.5 0.0 19.4 Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 Yes 41.4 33.3 8.6 4.0 3.2 29.3 Unemployed women Do not know No 28.4 39.8 78.6 91.1 90.3 47.7 30.3 26.9 12.9 5.0 6.5 23.0 Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 An analysis of respondents’ willingness to use childcare by education level reveals that those women with higher levels of education were more willing to use childcare facilities than other women.
32.8% and 27.3% of employed women with post-secondary and tertiary levels of education were willing to use childcare facilities when compared to 15.1% and 2.6% of women with secondary level of education or below secondary level.

Similarly 61.1% and 48.0% of unemployed women with tertiary or post-secondary levels of education were willing to use childcare facilities while 22.4% of women with secondary level and 12.6% with education lower than secondary level were willing to use childcare facilities.
Employed respondents who did not make use of childcare services in the past were asked why they did not use such services (refer to table 17).

The most common reasons mentioned by respondents were that they either did not have any children (52.2%) or that they preferred asking their relatives to take care of their children (24.8%).

The rest stated that they wanted to take care of their children themselves (13.7%) followed by those who preferred not to leave their children with unfamiliar persons (7.4%).
Table 17: Employed respondents by survey and reasons for not using childcare services in the past Employed women Reasons Frequency Percent Do not have children My relatives took care of my children Too expensive Did not know enough about the services Did not want to leave my children with strangers I took care of my children Work permitted me to take care of my children and continue working Other Total 389 185 3 1 55 102 5 5 52.2 24.8 0.4 0.1 7.4 13.7 0.7 0.7 745 100.0 On the other hand unemployed respondents were asked why they did not wish to make use of childcare services in the future (refer to table 18).
Almost similar results were obtained as 52 those obtained in the employed women’s survey.

Most respondents stated that they do not have children (59.8%) so they were not in a position to respond followed by those who stated that their children are too old to be sent at a childcare centre (13.2%).
Most of the remaining respondents either wished to leave their children with their relatives (10.9%), refused to state their main reasons why they did not want to use childcare (8.5%) or did not want to leave their children with outsiders (5.1%).

The above results show that most women participating in this study either prefer to use different options to childcare centres or are still unsure whether to use these centres in the future.
Respondents seem to prefer asking their relatives to take care of their children or taking care of their children themselves.
Table 18: Unemployed respondents by reasons for not using childcare services in the future Unemployed women Reasons Frequency Percent Do not have children My relatives will take care of my children Too expensive Don’t know enough about the services being provided Don’t want to leave my children with strangers I want to take care of my children My children are grown ups Refused Other Total 281 51 1 1 24 8 62 40 2 470 59.8 10.9 0.2 0.2 5.1 1.7 13.2 8.5 0.4 100.0 Similar results were obtained by the Ministry for Social Policy in a survey conducted among 266 respondents both males and females.
The scope of the study was to investigate childcare demand and perceptions held by the Maltese population on childcare services.

Despite a higher overall registered rate of respondents that considered using childcare facilities, still less than half or 41% of respondents considered childcare as an option.
The majority of respondents who did not consider using childcare facilities either stated that they did not need such a service or were not interested in considering this option or had available alternative childcare facilities.

However, in the meanwhile, a more recent study on childcare use in Malta commissioned by the ETC reported higher figures of Maltese who would consider making use of childcare services in the future (ETC 2007).
This study was commissioned by the ETC to evaluate changes in Maltese people’s perception of childcare facilities resulting from a quality childcare information media campaign run during the beginning of 2007.

The survey was conducted among all the Maltese population of working age (including men and women) and reported that 28% of all the Maltese population considered using childcare or was already making use of it while 44% of respondents aged between 21 and 40 considered making use of such facilities.
53 The majority of respondents (63% of the total survey population) claimed that they perceive childcare facilities to be adequate or highly adequate and that childcare can improve the work- life balance of working parents (81%).

These results show that if quality standards are established and promoted, more prospective parents may consider using childcare as one of the possibilities that helps them combine childcare with work.
In view of the high percentages of young women and parents who consider making use of childcare facilities in the future it is important to sustain such services and provide adequate facilities.

Equally important is the need to continue to educate and inform about what constitutes high-quality childcare, to ensure a continuous improvement of standards and serving to reassure those parents wishing to use such services, that they truly benefit their children’s social and psychological development.
This study also sought to get information on women’s preferred childcare arrangements.

These questions were mostly posed to employed women who stated that they were willing to use childcare services.

Questions covered type of service preferred as well as availability in terms of hours, days and months during the week and year.

Unemployed women were only asked about the type of service they preferred most due to restrictions in the amount of questions that could be asked to respondents.
Survey results reveal that the most preferred childcare option by both groups of women was the availability of childcare at the workplace (refer to table 19).

A considerable number of women participating in this study seem to prefer the arrangement that gives them the possibility to be near their children.

On the other hand around 20% of respondents tended to prefer childcare at the locality where they live.
Some women may still prefer this arrangement since they may have their relatives close to their children while at work and also can help them to leave and pick their children up from the nurseries.

Moreover children would remain in the community and have the chance to mix with the same children especially if the parents change jobs or are transferred from one workplace to another.
These results tend to be similar to the ones obtained by the study conducted by the Ministry for Social Policy on childcare demand and perceptions.

Most respondents participating in this survey preferred childcare facilities to be located in the vicinity of their home.

Childcare preferences seem to be quite varied and thus the provision of alternative childcare arrangements would provide parents with a choice when choosing the best possible option.
Table 19: Respondents by survey and type of childcare facilities Types of childcare facilities Babysitter at home Take the child to a babysitter Childcare at the place of work Childcare at the locality where I live Childcare at the locality where I work * Playschool Other Non respondents Total Employed women Unemployed women Number Frequency Number Frequency * This option was not included in the list of childcare options presented to unemployed women Meanwhile when asked about the number of days they required childcare, most employed respondents answered that they required childcare five days a week (75%) followed by those 54 who required childcare more than five days (16%) and those who required it for less than five days per week (9%).
Respondents were almost equally divided between those who required the service between seven in the morning and six in the afternoon (46.0%) and those who required childcare between seven and one in the afternoon (39.1%).

The rest stated that they required the service either between seven in the morning and after six in the afternoon (11.8%) or mentioned some other time arrangement (3%).
Indeed the most common amount of hours per day stated by respondents amounted to eight hours per day (37.3%) followed by six hours (26.7%) and five hours per day (11.2%) respectively.

Most respondents stated that they mostly require childcare during the October to December (85.1%) and January to June (84.5%) periods.

A slightly lower percentage of women mentioned that they require childcare during the June and October period (77.0%).
The latter may be directly related to the fact that a considerable number of employed women participating in the survey worked in the education sector mostly as teachers and thus could spend their school holidays with their children.

The above results suggest that childcare facilities need to be mostly available during the week and should be able to cater for women having different work schedules.
Childcare facilities should be available both for women working short hours per day as well as those working on a full-time basis.

They also have to be open throughout the year.

On a more general note the provision of childcare facilities can be considered as imperative to a number of women who have no other alternative except childcare arrangements.
On the other hand when one considers the degree of uncertainty that exists among women when it comes to the use of childcare centres, other arrangements may be equally important to help parents, especially women, to join the labour force or continue working.

Women should be provided with a variety of options from were to choose in order to help them find the best possible arrangement for their families.
This is especially true if most women wish to raise their children themselves at least when they are still of a very young age.

Some women may find arrangements such as flexible timetables, reduced hours and/or parental leave more appropriate than childcare centres.

Moreover from a more economic point of view, one should not isolate childcare facilities from other social and fiscal policies.
As outlined by the OECD (2005) whether or not parents can afford to work does not hinge on childcare policies alone.

One should also take into account the social and fiscal policies that affect family incomes.

While childcare costs may be highly subsidised, high subsidies do not necessarily mean higher female employment rates since they would leave parents with little financial gain from employment if high taxes or generous benefit rates give rise to adverse work incentives.
55 Chapter 4: Conclusion Findings from this study suggest that a significant number of Maltese women hold positive views in relation to working.

The absolute majority of employed women expressed their wish to continue working in the future.

The same applies for the majority of unemployed women who stated that they wish to start working.

On the other hand almost half of the inactive women would consider working under certain conditions.
Conditions most preferred by women included a combination of family-friendly measures, fiscal arrangements as well as good working conditions.

Some of the arrangements preferred by women include family-friendly hours of work, the provision of parental leave and the possibility to work from home.

They also wish for a decent wage and the possibility for promotion.

Unemployed women mentioned specifically that they prefer work that is different from their previous job.
As regards fiscal measures women gave high ratings to the lowering of national insurance contributions and to not affecting their husband’s tax rate once they start working.

On the other hand a significant number of inactive women did not show interest in working and stated that they are not interested in taking up a job.

Most women in this category were older women.

This may be due to the fact that these women have been detached from the world of work for a long time.
They may also have reached a stage in their life when work for them is no longer a priority and their possibilities for employment are limited.

An analysis of the main characteristics of the three groups of women reveals that employed and unemployed women tend to be younger, mostly single, have fewer children and have higher levels of education than inactive women.

Most women are employed in stereotypically female jobs, such as education, health and the manufacturing sector.
Most are employed as clerks followed by professionals and associate professionals and then plant and machine operators.

Most unemployed and inactive women previously worked as plant and machine operators in the manufacturing sector.

Many of these cited redundancy as the reason for their career break.

However, overall, the majority of respondents cited marriage and childbirth as the principal reason for leaving work.
These findings are supported by the results obtained on childcare use and whether women intend to use childcare services in the future.

Only a small percentage of employed and unemployed mothers mentioned using childcare services in the past.

Furthermore less than half of young women younger than 35 years of age who are employed or searching for work were willing to use childcare services in the future.
This ambivalence among women on whether to use childcare services or not may be attributed to the fact that most Maltese women still wish to take care of their children themselves or prefer persons whom they know personally to take care of their children.

This study has provided a modest insight on Maltese women’s work aspirations.

It has shown that most women wish to join or remain in the labour force.

However, some conditions need to change if women are to find employment and be able to retain it.
Government has already introduced a number of important changes to facilitate women’s entry into the labour market.

The recent changes in the national insurance contributions paid by part-time workers, changes in the tax bands as well as the provision of childcare allowances are steps in the right direction.

On the other hand other issues need to be taken into consideration.

Following are some recommendations based on the findings of the study.
Recommendations mainly deal with changes to current legislation, policy measures and fiscal policies.

56 There is need to monitor and check whether current legislation on family-friendly measures is being enforced particularly in the private sector.

Current legislation sets the minimum thresholds when it comes to family-friendly policies.

At the moment there is no information which specifies whether private firms are letting their workers avail themselves of such measures.
Public sector employees tend to enjoy generous family-friendly policies that are above the minimum thresholds set by the law, however there is little or no information on the situation in the private sector.

Apart from monitoring the provision of family-friendly policies to Maltese workers, government could also consider whether to revise the minimum length of parental leave available to parents as stipulated by law.
Currently Maltese parents in the private sector may avail themselves of a minimum of three months parental leave on the birth of a child.

As confirmed by respondents of this study parental leave is considered as one of the most useful options for parents who wish to combine work and family life.

On the other hand a minimum period of three months may be too short for parents to take care of their children in their early years without losing their job.
On a related note the amount of urgent family leave available to individuals could also be increased since at the moment it currently stands at a minimum of 15 hours per year.

Parents could also benefit from other work arrangements to be able to combine work and family life.
Measures such as family-friendly working hours, the possibility to work on a reduced hours timetable as well as change from full-time to part-time work are all positive measures that would help parents take care of their children while retaining their job.

Such practices are available for public service employees.

ETC has produced a manual intended to assist and encourage private sector employers to make more use of such family-friendly arrangements which may be obtained from the Corporation.
The continuous monitoring of the recently published childcare standards should also indirectly contribute to enabling female employment.

Parents who decide to avail themselves of childcare centres instead of taking career breaks should feel confident that their children are in safe hands and that they are receiving good quality childcare.
As confirmed by other studies such as the one conducted by the ETC earlier this year (ETC 2007), a significant amount of the Maltese population is not yet aware of the childcare quality standards that have been introduced in this regard by government.

More awareness among the general public is required about the kind of services that are being offered at childcare centres which could encourage them to consider childcare as an option.
Moreover apart from monitoring the current childcare services that are on offer, the need for care after school hours and during summer holidays is also a pressing one for many parents., and may explain why many working women prefer to work on a part- rather than a full-time basis.

Evaluation of the current fiscal arrangements and their impact upon women’s motivation to work is also necessary.
A preferential married rate for families with a sole breadwinner – together with the loss of means-tested children’s allowance when a second breadwinner has an income – may not be an incentive for married women to work.
For lone parents, too, the reduction in children’s allowance and the loss of the ‘safety net’ of social benefits (at least when their benefits plus any income exceed minimum wage) may hold them back from entering the labour market, particularly for a precarious job, for fear of losing their safety-net.
For those women who do wish to work on a part-time basis, and for those employers requiring such employees, it is important to introduce a part-time register to enable matching between the demand for and supply of part-time labour.

Currently individuals searching for work with the Employment and Training Corporation need to be available for full-time work.

Individuals wishing to work solely on a part-time basis are not considered as eligible to 57 register on Part 1 of the unemployment register.
Individuals wishing to work on a part-time basis need to be given assistance too.

In respect of career options, young women need to be encouraged to consider a wider range of careers beyond the gender stereotype, and to engage in lifelong learning to maintain their employability.

The strengthening of vocational guidance would surely help in this respect.

Ongoing training to the teaching professions on matters of gender equality and transcending gender stereotypes would be very useful.
The above are some of the possibilities which may be taken up in the future in order to increase women's labour market participation.

More research and evaluation is needed to establish the kind of policies that attract more women to enter and remain in the labour market.

The Corporation will continue to work within its remit to encourage and enable women who wish to work, to do so.

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61 National Commission for the Promotion of Equality UNLOCKING THE FEMALE POTENTIAL REsEARCH REPORT Entrepreneurs and Vulnerable Workers in Malta & Gozo Economic Independence for the Maltese Female Analysing Inactivity from a Gender Perspective Gozitan Women in Employment xcv Copyright © National Commission for the Promotion of Equality (NCPE), 2012 National Commission for the Promotion of Equality (NCPE) Gattard House, National Road, Blata l-Bajda HMR 9010 - Malta Tel: +356 2590 3850 Email: equality@gov.mt www.equality.gov.mt All rights reserved.
Except for the quotation of short passages for the purpose of research and review, no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the author and publisher.
Published in 2012 by the National Commission for the Promotion of Equality Production: Outlook Coop ISBN: 978-99909-89-44-1 2 National Commission for the Promotion of Equality FOREwORd Dear reader, NCPE’s commitment to eliminating gender equality in Malta comes forth again with this research exercise.
As you will read in the following pages, through the European Social Fund project – ESF 3.47 Unlocking the Female Potential, NCPE has embarked on a mission to further understand certain realities that limit the involvement of women in the labour market.

Throughout this research, we have sought to identify the needs of specific female target groups that make up the national context.
Among other objectives we delved deeper into the variances between the needs of male and female entrepreneurs, the hardships of temporary and casual workers whose employment is considered vulnerable, the perceptions of employed females with regards to the glass ceiling and glass cliff, how Maltese women view financial independence, the effects of social security benefits on the decision to take up employment, the skills available in the inactive segment and which roles females not contributing to the labour force see themselves in, as well as a thorough study of the Gozitan female population on how they view employment and how Gozitan society views employed females.
It has been an exciting journey through two very full years of research to discover and bring to you these findings.

In the 2nd chapter, we have also included policy recommendations that we hope will address the most urgent needs when it comes to gender inequality and discrimination.

Important conclusions that can be covered in future studies as well as in future legislation can also be found here.

In the analysis we have also assessed the impact of relevant policy actions and projects.
We trust that this research will be fruitful and will be useful for policy development in order to enhance gender equality.

Special thanks go to M. Fsadni & Associates involved in this research as well as to all NCPE staff.

Dr Romina Bartolo LLD, MJuris (EU Law) Executive Director, NCPE December 2011 Unlocking the Female Potential - Research Report 3 CONTENTs 1.
INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................... 13 1.1 Objectives of the Project ........................................................................................... 13 1.2 Structure of the Report ............................................................................................. 13 1.3 The Research Consultant’s Key Expert Team .................................................................. 14 2.
UNLOCKING THE FEMALE POTENTIAL – SALIENT CONCLUSIONS & POLICY CONSIDERATIONS .................................................... 15 2.1 The Situation of Male and Female Entrepreneurs and Vulnerable Workers in Malta – Salient Conclusions and Policy Considerations ............................................................... 15 2.1.1 ACTIVITY I: The Situation of Male and Female Entrepreneurs in Malta ..................... 15 2.1.2 ACTIVITY II: The Situation of Vulnerable Workers in Malta .................................... 23 2.2 The Relevance of Economic Independence to the Maltese Female – Salient Conclusions and Policy Considerations ............................................................... 32 2.2.1 ACTIVITY I: Analysing The Glass Ceiling and Glass Cliff Effect and How This Affects Females in the Labour Market ........................................... 33 2.2.2 ACTIVITY II: Assessing The Relevance of ‘Economic Independence’ to the Maltese Females .................................................................................... 39 2.2.3 ACTIVITY III: Analysing the Effect of Social Security Benefits on Women in Their Decision to Take Up Employment or Not ................................................. 44 2.3 Analysing Inactivity From A Gender Perspective – Salient Conclusions and Policy Considerations .......................................................................................... 47 2.3.1 ACTIVITY I: Analysing Inactivity From A Gender Perspective .................................. 48 2.3.2 ACTIVITY II: Assessing the Skills of Inactive Women ............................................ 55 2.4 Research on Gozitan Women in Employment - Salient Conclusions and Policy Considerations .......................................................................................... 61 2.4.1 Gozitan Women in Employment ......................................................................... 61 3.
THE SITUATION OF MALE AND FEMALE ENTREPRENEURS AND VULNERABLE WORKERS IN MALTA...................................................................... 64 3.1 Research Objectives ................................................................................................. 64 3.1.1 Overriding Research Objective .......................................................................... 64 3.1.2 Project Specific Objectives ............................................................................... 64 3.2 A Review of Recent Literature .................................................................................... 65 3.2.1 A Definition of Entrepreneurship ....................................................................... 65 3.2.2 Vulnerable Employment ................................................................................... 74 3.3 Research Methodology .............................................................................................. 79 3.3.1 Research Methodology ................................................................................... 79 3.3.2 Shortcomings of the Research Study ................................................................ 81 3.4 ACTIVITY I - Entrepreneurship in Malta ........................................................................ 81 3.4.1 Qualitative Research - The Salient Findings ........................................................ 81 3.4.2 Quantitative Research – Salient Findings ............................................................ 82 4 National Commission for the Promotion of Equality 3.5 Activity II - The Situation of Vulnerable Workers in Malta ............................................... 98 3.5.1 Qualitative Research – Salient Findings .............................................................. 98 3.5.2 Quantitative Research – Salient Findings ...........................................................100 3.6 Conclusion .............................................................................................................120 4.
THE RELEVANCE OF ECONOMIC INDEPENDENCE TO THE MALTESE FEMALE .................... 121 4.1 Research Objectives ................................................................................................121 4.1.1 Overriding Research Objective .........................................................................121 4.1.2 Project Specific Objectives ..............................................................................121 4.2 The Relevance of Economic Independence to The Maltese Females - A Review of Recent Literature ...................................................................................122 4.3 Research Methodology .............................................................................................130 4.3.1 Research Methodology ..................................................................................130 4.3.2 Shortcomings of the Research Study .................................................................132 4.4 Qualitative research - The Salient Findings ..................................................................132 4.5 Quantitative Research – Salient Findings ....................................................................134 4.5.1 ACTIVITY I - Analysing the Glass Ceiling and Glass Cliff and how this affects Females in the Labour Market .............................................134 4.5.2 ACTIVITY II – Assessing The Relevance of ‘Economic Independence’ to the Maltese Female ....................................................................................153 4.5.3 ACTIVITY III – Analysing the Effect of Social Security Benefits on Women in their Decision to take up Employment or not ................................................166 4.6 Conclusion .............................................................................................................178 5.
ANALYSING INACTIVITY FROM A GENDER PERSPECTIVE ............................................ 179 5.1 Research Objectives ................................................................................................179 5.1.1 Overriding Research Objective .........................................................................179 5.1.2 Project Specific Objectives ..............................................................................179 5.2 Analysing Inactivity From a Gender Perspective - A Review of Recent Literature ................180 5.2.1 Inactive Women in the Maltese Labour Market ...................................................180 5.2.2 Skills and the Inactive Female Population .........................................................183 5.3 Research Methodology ............................................................................................186 5.3.1 Research Methodology ...................................................................................186 5.3.2 Shortcomings of the Research Study .................................................................188 5.4 Qualitative Research – The Salient Findings ................................................................188 5.5 Quantitative Research – Salient Findings ....................................................................190 5.5.1 ACTIVITY I – Analysing Inactivity from a Gender Perspective ................................191 5.5.2 ACTIVITY II – An ‘Inactive Population Skills Study’ .............................................202 5.6 Conclusion .............................................................................................................221 Unlocking the Female Potential - Research Report 5 6.
RESEARCH ON GOZITAN WOMEN IN EMPLOYMENT ..................................................... 222 6.1 Research Objectives ..............................................................................................222 6.1.1 Overriding Research Objective .........................................................................222 6.1.2 Project Specific Objectives ..............................................................................222 6.2 Gozitan Women in Employment - A Review of Recent Literature ......................................222 6.3 Background Statistical Data on Employment ................................................................228 6.4 Research Methodology .............................................................................................231 6.4.1 Research Methodology ..................................................................................231 6.4.2 Shortcomings of the Research Study ...............................................................232 6.5 Qualitative Research - Salient Findings .......................................................................232 6.6 Quantitative Research - Salient Findings .....................................................................234 6.7 Conclusion .............................................................................................................252 REFERENCES ............................................................................................................... 253 6 National Commission for the Promotion of Equality LIsT OF TAbLEs 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 Defining Size of Enterprise ....................................................................................66 No of Self-Employed Persons in Malta (including Gozo) .............................................72 Vulnerable Employment Shares by Sex, World and Regions (%) ...................................77 Distribution of female status in Employment, 2007 ...................................................79 Training Attended Before
 Setting Up of Business ......................................................85 Caring Responsibilities Affecting The Decision To Start a Business...............................88 The Influence of Whether The Household’s Main Income Earner is in Full-Time Employment or Not on The Entrepreneur’s Decision to Set Up Own Business ....89 Gender Being an Issue in The Line of Business .........................................................89 3.8 Reasons For Sectors Not Being Accessible to Female Entrepreneurs ..............................91 3.9 3.10 Reasons For Business Sectors Being Less Accessible To Male Entrepreneurs ...................91 3.11 Main Challenge/ Difficulty Faced When Setting Up Own Business ................................92 3.12 Challenges/ Difficulties Faced by Entrepreneurs Nowadays ..........................................93 3.13 Additional Problems Faced by Gozitan Entrepreneurs .................................................93 3.14 Entrepreneurs’ Perceptions on the Effectiveness of Services / Support Structures ...........95 3.15 Entrepreneurs’ Perceptions on the Effectiveness of Services /Support Structures to Assist Aspiring Entrepreneurs ............................................................................96 3.16 Aspiring Male and Female Entrepreneurs Having Different Needs by Gender ...................97 3.17 Potential Male and Female Entrepreneurs Have Different Needs by Caring Responsibilities .....................................................................................97 3.18 Proposed Services/ Support Structures to Assist Aspiring Female Entrepreneurs .............98 3.19 Age Group Profile of Respondents ......................................................................... 101 3.20 Education Level Profile of Respondents ................................................................. 101 3.21 Marital Status Profile of Respondents .................................................................... 101 ‘Role in Household’ Profile of
 Respondents ............................................................ 102 3.22 ‘Position/ Grade’ Profile of Vulnerable Workers in The Tourism Industry ...................... 103 3.23 ‘Position/ Grade’ Profile of Vulnerable Workers in The Tourism Industry ...................... 104 3.24 ‘Position/ Grade’ Profile of Vulnerable Workers in The Language Schools Industry ......... 105 3.25 Employment Status of Respondents ...................................................................... 105 3.26 3.27 Working Arrangements - Remuneration .................................................................. 108 3.28 Working Arrangements - Remuneration - Males ....................................................... 109 Working Arrangements - Remuneration - Females .................................................... 109 3.29 Working Arrangements - NI Contributions .............................................................. 110 3.30 Working Arrangements NI Contributions - Males ..................................................... 111 3.31 Working Arrangement NI Contributions - Females .................................................... 111 3.32 Working Arrangements - Other Entitlements - Males ................................................ 113 3.33 Working Arrangements - Other Entitlements - Females ............................................. 113 The Provision of a Uniform .................................................................................. 115 3.34 The Provision of Safety Equipment ....................................................................... 115 3.35 3.36 Management Relations with Employees - Males ..................................................... 116 3.37 Management Relation With Employees - Females .................................................... 117 Payment Rates Offered To Foreign Employees ......................................................... 118 3.38 Representation of Trade Unions
 ........................................................................... 118 3.39 Salient Difficulties Faced by Vulnerable Workers ..................................................... 119 3.40 Unlocking the Female Potential - Research Report 7 3.41 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.9 4.10 4.11 4.12 4.13 Recommended Measures to Improve the Employment Conditions of Vulnerable Workers Employed in the three Industries ........................................... 120 Main occupation of total employed persons: October-December 2010 ........................ 125 Average gross annual salary for employees by main occupation: October-December 2010 ..................................................................................... 126 Business Sector Engaged in ................................................................................. 136 Reasons For Not Applying For a Job Promotion ....................................................... 137 Previous Designation Held by The Survey Respondents ............................................ 137 Respondents’ Perceptions on the Degree of Presence of the Glass Ceiling Effect on Working Women Without Caring Responsibilities - by Occupation and Age Bracket ... 139 Respondents’ Perceptions on the Degree of Presence of the Glass Ceiling Effect on Working Women Without Caring Responsibilities - by Level of Education ................ 139 Respondents’ Perceptions on the Degree of Presence of the Glass Ceiling Effect on Working Women With Caring Responsibilities - by Occupation and Age Bracket ....... 140 Respondents’ Perceptions on the Degree of Presence of the Glass Ceiling Effect on Working Women With Caring Responsibilities - by Level of Education..................... 140 Respondents’ Perceptions on the Degree of Presence of the Glass Ceiling Effect on Working Women With Caring Responsibilities - Within their Company by Occupation and Age Bracket............................................................................ 141
141 Respondents’ Perceptions on the Degree of Presence of the Glass Ceiling Effect on Working Women With Caring Responsibilities - Within their Company by Level of Education ......................................................................................... 141 Respondents’ Perceptions on the Degree of Presence of the Glass Cliff Effect on Women in Managerial Positions - by Occupation and Age Bracket .......................... 143 Respondents’ Perceptions on the Degree of Presence of the Glass Cliff Effect on Women in Managerial Positions - by Level of Education ....................................... 143 The Impact of Caring Responsibilities on Women in Paid Employment ........................ 145 4.14 4.15 Aspects Taken into Consideration by Women when Looking for a Job prior to Having Caring Responsibilities ................................................................. 146 4.16 The Chances of Occupying a Managerial Position when Male and Female Employees 4.19 4.18 4.17 Avail Themselves of FFMs .................................................................................... 148 Perceived Reasons Why Males Generally Occupy Managerial Positions at the Workplace ............................................................................................... 149 Respondents’ Perceptions on Issues Related To Males and Females at Malta’s Workplaces ......................................................................................... 150 Respondents’ Perceptions on Issues Related To Women’s Career Advancement at Malta’s Workplaces ......................................................................................... 151 Respondents’ Perceptions on Issues Related To Women in Managerial Positions ........... 152 4.20 4.21 Perceived Reasons For Low Job Prospects At The Workplace ..................................... 153 4.22 Definition of the Term ‘Economic Independence’ - Spontaneously Mentioned ............... 156 4.23 Definition of the Term ‘Economic Independence’ - Prompted
 .................................... 157 Intention of Doing Something To Increase Economic Independence ........................... 159 4.24 Reasons Why Women Work .................................................................................. 160 4.25 Respondents’ Perceptions on Issues Concerning Roles Within the Maltese Household ... 161 4.26 Respondents’ Perceptions on Factors Hindering Females 4.27 from Taking Up Paid Employment ........................................................................ 163 8 National Commission for the Promotion of Equality 4.28 Respondents’ Perceptions on Possible Incentives Encouraging More Women to Go Out To Work ............................................................................................ 164 Factors Attributing to Stress ............................................................................... 165 4.29 Parent/ Guardian Being Ever Unemployed During His/Her Employable Age .................. 168 4.30 Respondents Receiving Social Security Benefits - by Socio-Economic Classification ...... 168 4.31 4.32 Social Security Benefits Currently being Received ................................................... 169 4.33 Amount Received in Social Security Benefits Every Four Weeks ................................. 170 4.34 Duration of Time Dependent on Social Security Benefits - by Level of Education .......... 171 4.35 Main Reasons for Looking for Employment ............................................................. 172 4.36 Main Reason why Respondents cannot find Employment .......................................... 173 4.37 Desired Job Designation ..................................................................................... 174 4.38 Respondents’ Perceptions on the Fairness of Social Security Benefits ........................ 175 4.39 Additional Amount Received If Respondents Were in Employment ............................. 177 Respondents’ Awareness of Various Government Incentives
 ...................................... 178 4.40 Respondents’ Usage of Various Government Incentives ............................................ 178 4.41 The Industry Sector the Respondent Worked In Last Before Becoming Inactive ............ 192 5.1 Respondent’s Most Recent Designation Held .......................................................... 193 5.2 Respondent’s Most Recent Employment Status Held ................................................ 193 5.3 Main Reasons For Not Being Gainfully Occupied ...................................................... 194 5.4 Respondents’ Interest to Find Employment ............................................................ 195 5.5 Respondents’ Planning to Look For a Job ............................................................. 196 5.6 Level of Agreement or Disagreement with Statements Regarding 5.7 Employment and Family Resplonsibilities .............................................................. 197 Suggestions for the Improvement of Childcare Services ............................................ 198 Level of Agreement or Disagreement on Childcare Centres and Facilities for Dependent Adults/ Elderly .............................................................................. 199 Level of Agreement Relating to Measures/Incentives Encouraging Inactive Individuals to Enter the Labour Market ..................................................... 200 Respondents’ Interest in these Measures/ Incentives ............................................... 201 Companies Recruiting Inactive (for 5+ years) Females in the Last 5 Years - By Male : Female Ratio Workforce ......................................................................... 205 5.13 Highest Level of Education Reached by Inactive Females ......................................... 206 Reasons For Not Attending Training ...................................................................... 208 5.14 Language Skills of Inactive Females - As Perceived by Inactive Females
 ..................... 209 5.15 Language Skills of Inactive Females - As Perceived by Local Employers ...................... 210 5.16 The Rating of Inactive Females’ ICT Skills - Inactive Females’ Perceptions ................... 211 5.17 The Rating of Inactive Females’ ICT Skills - Employers’ Perceptions ............................ 212 5.18 Employee Practical Skills Required by Employers - 5.19 By Business Sector - Employers’ Perceptions .......................................................... 214 Employee Personal Skills Required by Employers - by Business Sector Employers’ Perceptions ............................................................ 215 Employee Personal Skills Required by Employers - Inactive Females’ Perceptions .......... 215 Employee Specific Technical Skills - Inactive Females .............................................. 217 Possible Job Opportunities for Inactive Individuals Within the last Five Years ...............By Employment of Inactive Individuals (Females) Within the last Five years .................... 218 5.21 5.22 5.23 5.11 5.12 5.8 5.9 5.20 5.10 5.24 Most Difficult Job Opportunities to Find Appropriate Employees - By Business Sector ............................................................................................ 219 Unlocking the Female Potential - Research Report 9 6.2 6.1 5.25 The Most Advertised Job Vacancies in ETC’s Website / Recruitment Facilities Between May 2010 - May 2011 - By Business Sector .............................................. 219 5.26 Gender taken into consideration in Recruitment Process - By Business Sector ............. 220 5.27 Training required by Inactive Females to Find Employment - By Business Sector - Employers’ Perceptions .......................................................... 220 Female Activity Rates (15 - 64 age group) For Selected European Countries, for 1992, 2000, 2009 ......................................................................................... 229 Female Employment to
 Population Ratio for Selected Smaller EU States (various years) ......................................................................... 229 Employment Status by Region (2005) ................................................................... 230 6.3 Economic Activity and Inactivity in Gozo (2005) .................................................... 230 6.4 Females Registered Unemployed in Gozo, July 2011 ................................................ 231 6.5 Positions/Occupations Held by Gozitan and Maltese Women in Employment .............. 236 6.6 Employed Females in the Household ..................................................................... 237 6.7 The Main Reason For Being in Paid Employment - Employed Females ......................... 238 6.8 6.9 The Main Reason For Being in Paid Employment - Gozitan Households ....................... 239 6.10 Perceptions of ‘The Job’ - Employed Females .......................................................... 240 6.11 Perceptions of ‘The Job’ - Gozitan Households ........................................................ 240 6.12 Main difficulty Encountered by Employed Females .................................................. 241 6.13 Difficulties Encountered by Gozitan Employed Females - As Perceived by Gozitan ........ 242 6.14 Agreement with Proposals of Assistance/Support Structures To Assist Employed Females - Gozitan Females ....................................................... 244 6.15 Agreement with Proposals of Assistance/Support Structures To Assist Employed Females - Maltese females ........................................................ 245 6.16 Agreement with Proposals of Assistance/Support Structures To Assist Employed Females - Gozitan Households .................................................. 246 6.17 Assisting the Employed Female to Develop and Advance In Her Career - Employed Females ............................................................................................. 247 Proposed Measures to Address The
 Needs of Working Women In Malta and Gozo .......... 248 6.18 Change in Employment Status with Motherhood - Employed Females ......................... 248 6.19 Childcare Support Used - Gozitan and Maltese Mothers ........................................... 249 6.20 6.21 How Society Perceives Working Females - Employed Females’ Perceptions .................. 251 6.22 Reasons Why Working Females are Perceived Positively by Gozitan Society .................. 252 LIsT OF FIGUREs 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 Most Important Challenges/ Problems EU SMEs Face .................................................67 Business Sector Engaged in by Entrepreneurs (in %s) ................................................83 Initial Motivation for Setting up Own Business (in %s) .............................................84 How Male Entrepreneurs are Perceived to Make Decisions and Take Risks (in %s) ...........86 How Female Entrepreneurs are Perceived to Make Decisions and Take Risks (in %s) ........86 Caring Responsibilities Since Setting Up Own Business (in %s) ...................................87 Sectors Dominated by Female Entrepreneurship in Malta (in %s) .................................90 Employment Type of Respondents (in %s) ............................................................. 106 10 National Commission for the Promotion of Equality 4.2 Working Arrangements - Number of Hours per week (in %s) ..................................... 106 3.9 3.10 Working Arrangements - Other Entitlements (in %s) ................................................ 112 3.11 Training Received on Engagement (in %s) ............................................................. 114 3.12 Whether Employees Were Paid Wage During Induction Training (in %s) ...................... 114 3.13 Management Relations with Employees (in %s) ...................................................... 116 Informal Employment at the Place of Work (in %s) ................................................. 118 3.14 Respondents’
 Perceptions on the Presence of the Glass Ceiling Effect 4.1 on Working Women Without Caring Responsibilities - By Age & Occupation ................. 138 Respondents’ Perceptions on the Presence of the Glass Ceiling Effect on Working Women Without Caring Responsibilities - By Level of Education ................ 138 Respondents’ Perceptions on the Presence of the Glass Cliff Effect on Women in Managerial Positions - by Occupation and Age Bracket ......................................... 142 Respondents’ Perceptions on the Presence of the Glass Cliff Effect on Women in Managerial Positions - by Level of Education ...................................................... 142 Caring Responsibilities of Working Women ............................................................ 144 Respondents Feeling Economically Independent ..................................................... 158 Preferred Employment Status ............................................................................... 165 Respondents Receiving Social Security Benefits - by Level of Education ..................... 168 Duration of Time Dependent on Social Security Benefits - by Parent/ Guardian Ever Being Unemployed .......................................................... 171 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.9 4.4 4.3 4.10 Additional Amount Received Through Employment Hindering Respondents 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 5.8 5.9 from Engaging in Paid Employment ...................................................................... 177 Level of Satisfaction with the Current Inactivity Status (in %s) ................................ 195 Companies Employing Inactive (for 5+ years) Females in the Last 5 Years - by Business Sector (in %) ................................................................................... 204 Companies Employing Inactive (for 5+ years) Females in the Last 5 Years - by Number of Employees (in %) ........................................................................... 204 Companies Employing Inactive (for 5+ years)
 Females in the Last 5 Years – By Offering of Family-friendly Measures (in %) ....................................................... 205 Respondent Currently Taking a Course or Training (in %) ......................................... 207 Inactive Females’ Preferred Business Sectors for Employment (in %s) ........................ 212 Employee Practical Skills Required for Employers - Inactive Females’ Perceptions (in %) .................................................................... 214 Employee Specific Technical Skills by Employers – By Business Sector - Employers’ Perceptions (in %s) ............................................... 216 Possible Job Opportunities for Inactive Individuals Within the last Five Years – By Business Sector (in %s) ................................................................................. 217 6.1 Women’s Reasons to Work Change at Different Stages Throughout Their Life - Employed Females ............................................................. 239 Degree of Gender Equality Re: Job Promotions in The Public Sector ........................... 243 Degree of Gender Equality Re: Job Promotions in The Private Sector .......................... 243 Change in Societal Perceptions of Working Women - Employed Females ...................... 249 Change in Societal Perception of Working Women - Gozitan Households ..................... 250 How Gozitan Society Perceives Working Women ...................................................... 251 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 Unlocking the Female Potential - Research Report 11 THE AUTHORs This report was researched and written by Marika Fsadni of M. FSADNI & Associates, together with a number of key expert associate consultants, namely, Dr Rose Marie Azzopardi, Dr Frank Bezzina, Anna Borg, Dr Michael Buhagiar, Dr Manwel Debono, Godfrey Kenely and Lorraine Spiteri.
The Research Consultants were responsible for the design, co-ordination and execution of the research field operations and also for the reporting of the findings of the entire project.

Also, special thanks go to Anna Debono, as the senior market research analyst, who led the fieldwork operations, which were all conducted in-house.

The Research Consultants are very grateful to NCPE for entrusting them with this very challenging yet highly rewarding research project.
Sincere thanks go to NCPE’s Executive Director, Dr Romina Bartolo, Therese Spiteri, Davinia Vella, Lara Bezzina and Amanda Catania for their significant contribution during the whole course of this research project.

Special thanks also go to Ms Nicola Cini of the Employment & Training Corporation.

M. Fsadni & Associates would also like to sincerely thank all those individuals and entities, totalling over 6,200, who participated in this research study and for rendering this project a success.
The Research Consultants are very grateful for the vital input in this study by a number of senior officials hailing from various Government Ministries, Government departments and public corporations and for the valuable insights given by a host of key experts and relevant stakeholders hailing from employers’ associations, employers, recognised trade unions, women associations, other specialised associations and NGOs.
Also, this study would not have produced conclusive results if it were not for the essential participation of over 6,200 local employers and entrepreneurs, private households and individuals, hailing from Malta and Gozo, who participated in the primary quantitative research studies of the Project.

The Research Consultants are indebted to all these individuals and entities for participating and contributing essential input towards this study.
Indeed, this is the first ever study of this size and detail on exploring the female potential in Malta and will undoubtedly serve as an initial platform to encourage other similar studies to be conducted in the near future.

This Report presents the salient findings highlights, conclusions emanating from the research studies and policy considerations.

A Report containing a more comprehensive account of the research findings and their statistical presentation, is available on NCPE’s website www.equality.
gov.mt 12 National Commission for the Promotion of Equality 1.

INTROdUCTION 1.1 Objectives of the Project The objectives of the ESF 3.47 Unlocking the Female Potential Project, of which this research forms part, is to address a two-fold overall objective, namely: • To increase the overall female employment rate by providing indirect incentives to work.
• To provide policy makers with vital information through the research on the current situation of which this research forms part, of women in Malta and Gozo.
These objectives were, in turn, broken down into four specific objectives, namely: • To understand the jobs/skills match and the inactive population in order to ensure employability; • To create a need for businesses to become ‘certified equal opportunities employers’, to have a family-friendly environment at the work place; • To incentivise the inactive to the labour market through better work arrangements available; • To further promote the need for a work/life balance both for men and women.
1.2 structure of the Report The Research Consultants addressed these objectives by conducting a thorough and robust research study, comprising a number of specific project deliverables.

This research findings report presents details of the findings of each of these se project deliverables.
The research component of the Project addressing these objectives was subdivided in four parts, namely: • The Situation of the Male and Female Entrepreneurs and Vulnerable Workers in Malta • The Relevance of Economic Independence to The Maltese Female • Analysing Inactivity From a Gender Perspective • Gozitan Women in Employment.

Chapter 2 comprises an Executive Summary, which aims at giving an overview of the salient research findings and conclusions of these four distinct Research Projects.
This Chapter also proposes a number of policy considerations, based on the research findings of these four studies, which serve as an informed platform on which the situation of women in Malta and Gozo may be addressed by policy makers.

A separate Chapter has been dedicated for each of these four research studies.

Each Chapter lays down the specific research objectives pertaining to the research study in question.
These objectives of each study were initially addressed by a review of recent international and local literature and official international and national surveys conducted by recognised statistics bodies, such as Eurostat, European Union, National Statistics Office Malta.
This was followed by the conduct of a thorough and robust three-tier qualitative research exercise where in-depth, face- to-face interviews and focus group sessions were conducted with salient stakeholders and survey cohort/s representatives.

Based on the qualitative research findings, quantitative research studies were conducted with the survey cohorts in question.

Detailed quantitative findings are presented by way of statistical tables and graphical illustrations.
Details of the primary data research methodologies adopted for the qualitative and quantitative research studies of each Project are also contained in each Chapter.

Chapter 3 presents of the findings of Research Project entitled: “The Situation of the Male and Female Entrepreneurs and Vulnerable Workers in Malta”.
Apart from the preliminary literature review and the qualitative research phase, this Project comprised two distinct quantitative Unlocking the Female Potential - Research Report 13 research studies.

The first consisted of a comparative study which attempted to analyse the situation of male and female entrepreneurs and also explored their salient reasons for making such a choice in their lives (Activity I).
The second study sought to increase the knowledge of the reality of male and female vulnerable workers engaged in three industry sectors, namely, the tourist industry, the cleaning industry and language schools (Activity II).

Chapter 4 addresses the objectives of Research Project entitled: “The Relevance of Economic Independence to The Maltese Female”, which comprised the conduct three distinct quantitative research studies.
The first study attempted to measure the extent of glass ceiling and glass cliff impacts on working females at the workplace in Malta and Gozo (Activity I).

The second study assessed the relevance of economic independence to the Maltese female (Activity II) and the third study explored the effects of social security benefits on the decision to take up paid employment or not (Activity III).

Chapter 5 focuses on the Research Project entitled: “Analysing Inactivity from a Gender Perspective”.
The project consisted of two distinct studies.

The first study attempted to explore the reasons underlying the inactivity of females in Malta and Gozo (Activity I), while the second study (Activity II) consisted of an skills assessment of inactive females in Malta and Gozo.

Chapter 6 looks at the situation of the “Gozitan Woman in Employment”.
This Research Project consisted of one Activity but whose objectives were addressed by way of two separate quantitative research studies, namely, a research study conducted with the Gozitan female in employment to better understand the factors affecting her and to identify her perceptions and needs vis-à- vis employment and a second study conducted with Gozitan households to explore their views, attitudes and perceptions on the Gozitan female in employment.
1.3 The Research Consultant’s Key Expert Team The whole research project was led, designed, co-ordinated, executed and the findings reported upon by M. FSADNI & Associates.

Given the technical nature of the project, the Research Consultants also worked closely with a number of key expert associate consultants, each specialising in specific research area.
The whole key expert team involved in this project comprised Marika Fsadni, Dr Rose Marie Azzopardi, Dr Frank Bezzina, Anna Borg, Dr Michael Buhagiar, Dr Manwel Debono, Godfrey Kenely and Lorraine Spiteri.
Worthy of mention is that the qualitative and quantitative primary data research deliverables of all four Projects were designed, led, executed, research instrument produced and raw data analysed entirely by the Research Consultant and her in-house market research analyst team, led by lead market analyst Anna Debono.

Moreover, all the field research operations were conducted by the Research Consultant’s in-house field interviewing team and none of the project deliverables were farmed out to third parties.
At each phase of the entire research study, NCPE senior officials, namely, Executive Director Dr Romina Bartolo, Therese Spiteri, Davinia Vella and Lara Bezzina gave sound direction and also contributed significant input.

The Research Consultant is indebted for NCPE’s vital contribution.

14 National Commission for the Promotion of Equality 2.
UNLOCKING THE FEMALE POTENTIAL – sALIENT CONCLUsIONs & POLICY CONsIdERATIONs This Chapter presents an overview of the salient research findings and conclusions of each of the four Research Projects, drawn up by the Research Consultants, based on a review of recent international literature, in-depth qualitative analysis (utilizing face-to-face interviews and focus groups) and quantitative analysis (using structured questionnaires) and a detailed descriptive statistical presentation of the results.
Also, for each Research Project, a number of policy considerations have been proposed by the Research Consultants on how the situation of women in Malta and Gozo may be improved.

2.1 The situation of Male and Female Entrepreneurs and Vulnerable workers in Malta – salient Conclusions and Policy Considerations Overriding Research Objectives The overriding research objective of this project aimed at researching the situation of male and female entrepreneurs and vulnerable workers in Malta.
This was researched by way of two Activities.

ACTIVITY I: A comparative study to focus on male and female entrepreneurs, seeking to explore their main reasons for making such a choice in their lives, also looking at their overall expectations.

ACTIVITY II: A study to increase the knowledge of the reality of ‘vulnerable’ workers in Malta.
This research study sought to explore self/employed/contract workers in the tourist industry, the cleaning industry and language schools and to try and assess and understand what makes their situation vulnerable.

The following are the salient conclusions and research findings emanating from the studies and policy considerations addressing these Research Objectives.

2.1.1 ACTIVITY I: The situation of Male and Female Entrepreneurs in Malta I.
Profile of the Maltese Entrepreneur The Respondent Profile (n=600) • 82% are male entrepreneurs and 18% female.

• 90% are Maltese and 9% are Gozitan and operating in Gozo.

• 56% of the whole survey cohort operate a ‘sole trader/self-employed without employees’ status, while 44% employ workers (full-time or part-time).

• 88% of the ‘employer’ entrepreneurs (44% of total) employ between 1–9 employees, while 11% employ between 10–49 employees.

Only 1% employ 50+ employees.


• From the 88% of the ‘employer’ entrepreneurs, 16% are female and 84% are male employers.

• The whole entrepreneur cohort consists of: - 36% (83%:male; 17%:female) of the whole entrepreneur cohort are engaged in the ‘wholesale & retail’ sector.

- 19% (72%:male; 28%:female) of all the whole cohort are engaged in the ‘financial, business and community services’ sector.
Unlocking the Female Potential - Research Report 15 - 15% (90%:male;10%:female) of the whole cohort are engaged in the ‘real estate & construction’ sector.

- 11% (80%:male; 20%:female) hail from the ‘hospitality & tourism’ sector - 10% (86%:male; 14%: female) are engaged in the ‘transport, communications and ICT’ sector.

- 9% (87%:male; 13%:female) hail from the ‘manufacturing’ sector.
Policy Considerations • The entrepreneur population is predominantly male, and the majority operate either as sole trader/ self-employed status and the employer entrepreneurs are largely micro-enterprises employing less than 9 employees.

II.

Initial Motivation Factors To Take Up Entrepreneurship • 32% of all the entrepreneur cohort’s initial motivation for setting up own business was ‘ambition’.

There were no gender differences in this initial motivation.
• 11% and 10% of the whole cohort’s initial motivation focused on ‘to be one’s own boss’ and ‘to be better off financially’ respectively.

The female entrepreneurs scored higher than their male counterparts in their motivation to be financially better off (15%:female vs 9%male), whilst ‘being one’s own boss’ was the male entrepreneur’s initial driving force (12%:male vs 7%:female).
• 9% and 8% of the whole cohort used their ‘trust in their potential’ and their ‘urge to develop and advance’ respectively, as their initial motivation to setting up their business.

The gender difference here lied in the latter motivator (8%:male vs 6% female) • 6% of the whole cohort set up their business to ‘achieve a sense of fulfilment’.

No gender differences were recorded here.


Policy Considerations • Ambition was the initial motivation factor which led a third of all male and female entrepreneurs to set up their own business venture.

• An interesting finding is that another initial motivation factor popular with male entrepreneurs was the notion of being one’s own boss, while female entrepreneurs based their business venture setting up decision on financial reasons.
The latter finding is interesting in that recent international literature shows that female business owners were initially more driven by frustration and boredom in their previous jobs and interest in the business per se.

(more details available in the literature review on entrepreneurship).

• These findings concur with another study the Research Consultant carried out with male and female entrepreneurs in Malta (and Gozo) in 2006 (Fsadni.

M, 2006).
M, 2006).

More details on these research findings may be found in Chapter 3.

III.

Entrepreneurship and Caring Responsibilities • 44% of the total cohort have or had caring responsibilities in the past, 67% of these entrepreneurs were female.

• 23% also have caring responsibilities but are not the ‘main carer’ within their household, these were largely male.

• 32% never had caring responsibilities.


• From the 67% of the whole entrepreneur cohort who have / had caring responsibilities (main carer and not), 68% recalled that their caring responsibilities did not affect their decision to set up their own business.

However, only 44% of females observed this as opposed to 73% of their male counterparts.
• From this cohort (67% of whole cohort) with caring responsibilities (present / past), 12% recalled that their caring responsibilities did have an effect on their decision to set up their 16 National Commission for the Promotion of Equality own business because they needed to earn money to support their caring responsibilities.

This was equally observed by male and female respondents.
• 10% of this cohort with caring responsibilities commenced their business to be able to work on flexi-time; this was largely recalled by females (15%) than their male counterparts (9%).

• 38% of the female cohort and 20% of the male cohort use a flexi-time arrangement to obtain a balance between their work and caring responsibilities.

Another 35% of females and 16% of males use child-minding by grandparents instead to achieve a family-life-work balance.
• 70% of the male cohort were the main income earners of their household at the time they set up their own business.

• 58% of the female cohort started their own business when the household’s main income earner was in full employment.

Policy Considerations • A clear finding emerges that caring responsibilities do have a stronger impact on female entrepreneurs than male entrepreneurs vis-à-vis their decision to start a business.
Less than half of the female entrepreneurs indicated that their decision was not affected by their responsibilities, while the others either started their own business to address the needs that come with having responsibilities or waited until the children were old enough before setting up their own business.

This finding also emerged for the male entrepreneurs with caring responsibilities, but to a much lesser extent.
• When one analyses the salient initial “financial” motivation to set up shop by female entrepreneurs against their need to earn money to support their caring responsibilities, this financial motivation obtains a whole new meaning in that it is not driven by personal gain but to be able to support their caring responsibilities.
Also, this finding is further substantiated by the fact that a number of entrepreneurs with caring responsibilities recalled that their caring responsibilities did not have an effect on their decision to set up their own business because of their dire need to earn money to support their dependents.

IV.
IV.

Attending Training • 5% of the male entrepreneurs did not undergo training but only had previous work experience before setting up their business, while only 36% of the female cohort did not attend training but had experience before setting up shop.

• 15% of the whole entrepreneur cohort had a university degree or diploma related directly to their line of business before setting up and 14% did not attend any training before setting up.

There were no gender differences in these findings.
• 21% of the female cohort attended private courses/ tuition as against a low 10% of the male cohort who did same.

Policy Considerations • More than half of the male entrepreneurs started out equipped with previous work experience in their line of business but with no professional training taken, against a mere third of the female entrepreneur cohort who did same.
Moreover, some 20% of the female cohort attended some private course/tuition related to their line of business, against a low 10% by their male counterparts.

These findings suggest that female entrepreneurs seemed to be more open to undergoing training than their male counterparts before setting up their business venture.

• Only 15% of the whole entrepreneur cohort possessed a university degree or work-related diploma before starting out.

No gender differences were recorded in this finding.
• The above findings concur with those of a study conducted among male- and female-owned businesses in the US (Kepler & Shane, 2007).

• Also, a recommendation by local entrepreneurs for more training services specifically targeting existing and aspiring entrepreneurs, to be offered by educational and relevant institutions Unlocking the Female Potential - Research Report 17 (like Malta Enterprise and ETC), was registered in the 2006 survey carried out by the Research Consultant among local entrepreneurs.
This need for training on entrepreneurship studies is still apparent even today.

V. differences between Male and Female Entrepreneurs on How They Manage Their business • 54% of the whole cohort perceived no differences in how males and females manage their business, whilst 41% believe that there are differences in their management style.

6% did not have an opinion on this.

There were minor gender differences in these perception findings.
• From the 41% of the whole (male and female) cohort who perceive that males and females manage their business differently, 46% believe that male entrepreneurs are usually more adventurous and risk-taking than their female counterparts.

This observation was largely made by male entrepreneurs.

18% (largely females this time) believe that men adopt a more aggressive personality style, while 14% of male entrepreneurs seem to go straight to the point when taking decisions (largely indicated by females again).
• From the same 41% of the whole (male and female) cohort who perceive differences in how male and female entrepreneurs take decisions and risks, 50% believe that females are too cautious when taking decisions.

This perception was common to both male and female respondents.

17% (mostly females) believe that females take long to consider and evaluate and 14% (both males and females) believe that females are more emotive.
• 50% of the whole cohort observed that female entrepreneurs use more emotive behaviour towards their employees than their male counterparts.

This perception is shared by 55% and 48% of the female and male cohorts, respectively.

30% of the whole cohort believe that female entrepreneurs do not use more emotive behaviour towards their employees than males do.
When asked this question, the respondents were reminded that ‘the use of emotive behaviour when interacting with employees means being more approachable as an employer, by using people’s skills and being communicative with employees’.

Policy Considerations • There are mixed feelings among the whole entrepreneur cohort on whether differences in management styles between male and female entrepreneurs exist.
• Those male entrepreneurs who believe male and female entrepreneurs manage their business differently perceive male entrepreneurs as more adventurous and risk-taking than females, whilst female entrepreneurs believe that males adopt a more aggressive personality style and are fast decision-makers.

Female entrepreneurs are perceived to be more cautious when taking decisions, take longer to consider and evaluate and use more emotive behaviour towards their employees than their male counterparts.

VI.
VI.

Gender segregation in Entrepreneurship The Issue of Gender in Entrepreneurship • 62% of the whole entrepreneur cohort (60%:male; 70%:female) perceive that in their line of business the gender of the entrepreneur is not an issue.

• Nevertheless, 35% do believe gender is an issue (37%:male; 28%:female).

85% of these, both male and female, believe that their gender assisted them in achieving more success in their business.
Gender dominance in business sectors in Malta and Gozo • 55% of the whole Maltese cohort believe that the Construction sector is the sector in which men are mostly involved in Malta.

18 National Commission for the Promotion of Equality • Another 27.5% of the Maltese cohort observed that male entrepreneurship is present in most/ all sectors in Malta.

There were no gender differences in these perceptions.
• Similar perception findings emerged with the Gozitan entrepreneur cohort: the Construction sector in Gozo is male-dominated and male entrepreneurship is present in most/ all sectors in Gozo.

• 45% of the whole Maltese cohort believe that the beauty and services industry is dominated by female entrepreneurs in Malta, while 14% believe that female entrepreneurship dominance is mostly present in the beauty and services industry in Malta.

There were no gender differences in these perceptions.
Similar perception findings emerged on the same industries in Gozo.

degree of Accessibility of business sections to Gender • 51% of the whole entrepreneur cohort observed that there are lines of business, which are not accessible to female entrepreneurs; a perception common to both male and female entrepreneurs.
• The Construction, Real Estate, Transport and Communications industries are the sectors perceived by male and female entrepreneurs alike as the most inaccessible to female entrepreneurs, namely because of: male dominance in these sectors; society in general gives an authoritative role to men and the caring and nurturing nature of women drives the latter’s interests towards other sectors.
• 79% of the whole survey cohort believe that male entrepreneurs have more access to business sectors than their female counterparts.

Only a low 21% observed that there are some access limitations for men in some sectors, against the 51% who observed that there are access limitations for women in some business sectors.
• The beauty, hairdressing, childcare and fashion sectors are perceived as the least accessible to male entrepreneurs, largely because society in general gives women a leading role in these sectors and due to female entrepreneur dominance in these sectors.
Policy Considerations • Clearly the above findings illustrate that the business sectors which are largely dominated by one of the sexes (either male or female) is largely due to the typical gender stereotyping of entrepreneurs/employees engaged in these sectors.

The two most mentioned sectors are the Construction sector and the Beauty related services sector.
• However, an interesting finding is that over 60% of both the male and female entrepreneurs do not perceive that the gender of the entrepreneur operating in their line of business is an issue.

This may be a positive start (although at its early stage) to the phasing out of gender segregation in entrepreneurship in Malta.
• Notwithstanding this, more than half of local entrepreneurs believe that there are still some lines of business/ business sectors which are still characterised by gender segregation, namely the Construction, Real Estate and the Communications business sectors (for females) and the Beauty and Hairdressing, Childcare and Fashion business sectors (for males).
• The reasons for such gender segregation in these business sectors are largely the traditions and societal perceptions in general and the male (or female) entrepreneur dominance in these sectors.

VII.
VII.

Challenges Faced by Entrepreneurs and support structures Needed Challenges and Problems Faced by Entrepreneurs • 30% (33%:male; 22%:female) of the whole entrepreneur cohort recalled that the biggest challenge they encountered when setting up their business was securing sufficient finance for their new venture.

Unlocking the Female Potential - Research Report 19 • 14% (14%:male;15%:female) recalled that making enquiries at the various local Government departments was the main problem they faced.
• Another 14% (13%:male; 17%:female) referred to the bureaucratic processing of formalities as the biggest challenge they had faced.

• Fierce competition (29%), the impact of the international economic outlook (25%) and the lack of cash flow (18%) emerge as the three main challenges that local male and female entrepreneurs face nowadays.

No gender differences emerged in these findings.


• According to the Gozitan entrepreneur cohort, the three salient difficulties faced by Gozitan entrepreneurs are the island’s double insularity (30%), the problem of Gozo’s limited immediate market (25%) and the problem of double-handling merchandise (21%).

The first two challenges were observed by both male and female Gozitan entrepreneurs, while the double- handling of merchandise was observed largely by male entrepreneur respondents.
services and support structures for Entrepreneurs Used in the Past • 87% of all the entrepreneurs recalled that when they set up their own business they did not make use of any services, support structures or support schemes developed for entrepreneurs.

This recollection was expressed by male and female entrepreneurs alike.
• From these 87%, 28% of the male and female entrepreneurs recalled that the main reason for not having made use of services/support structures and schemes offered by Government was their lack of awareness and knowledge of the availability of such services/ support structures.
• Other entrepreneurs who claimed that they did not find these services/ support structures useful, said so because the application and implementation process of these services/ support structures was too bureaucratic rendering the overall service/ support structures dissatisfactory.

• Another reason for not using these services/ support schemes is that when they applied for such services/ support schemes, it transpired that these entrepreneurs were not eligible for them.
• From the 13% of the entrepreneurs who had used schemes/ support structures when setting up their business, 46% recalled that they were schemes offered by ETC.

Another 36% recalled having used services/ support structures offered by the Malta Enterprise when setting up their business.
• ETC’s recruitment assistance services, Government’s solar panel subsidisation schemes and the Micro-Invest scheme were the three most used services/schemes by local entrepreneurs when they started their own business; these entrepreneurs were predominantly male.
Entrepreneurs’ Perceptions on the Effectiveness of services and support structures The entrepreneurs were asked to give their views on a number of possible measures (identified at the preliminary qualitative research phase) that may improve the services and support structures currently being offered to local male and female entrepreneurs.
• A significant 80% of the whole entrepreneur cohort perceived the following services/ support structures as effective: - The better marketing of existing services and support schemes.

- The follow-up by Malta Enterprise to assist small entrepreneurs to help accelerate MEPA’s application process (where appropriate).

- The minimisation/complete elimination of bureaucracy by Government departments.

- The setting up of a one-stop ‘entrepreneur assistance’ shop within Malta Enterprise.
- Easier access to micro-financing schemes offered to local entrepreneurs.

• 56% of all the cohort perceived the following services/ support structures as effective: - KBIC regulations to be broadened to allow accessibility of premises to other lines of business.

- Local and foreign entrepreneurs to benefit from the same treatment and the marketing of Gozo as a separate destination from Malta.
20 National Commission for the Promotion of Equality • Other recommended service/ support structure measures which may be introduced to assist local entrepreneurs comprised: - The need for a reduction in fuel expenses and energy bills.

- The need to have lower interest rates and a reduction in tax.

- The need for more financial assistance through funds.
Policy Considerations • The salient challenges and problems encountered by male and female entrepreneurs and the services and support structures proposed in the 2006 study (conducted by the Research Consultant) are still very relevant five years later.

The findings of both the 2006 and 2011 studies concur.

(vide literature review on entrepreneurship).


• The main challenge encountered at business set-up stage was to secure sufficient finance to kick off the new venture, followed by making enquiries at various Government departments and the bureaucratic processing of formalities.

• Challenges and problems being faced by male and female entrepreneurs today include fierce competition, the impact of international economic outlook and lack of cash flow.
• A worrying finding and which warrants much consideration and attention by policy makers is that a staggering 87% of all male and female entrepreneurs did not make use of any services, support structures or support schemes specifically developed for local entrepreneurs.
The salient reasons for not using such support services/ structures are local entrepreneurs’ lack of awareness and knowledge of their availability and existence; schemes not being useful; too bureaucratic or scheme specifications rendered the interested entrepreneur illegible to apply.
• This clearly calls for the Malta Enterprise, the Small Business & Crafts Directorate (within the Commerce Department), ETC and other relevant Government authorities/ departments to invest in more pro-active promotion and awareness programmes and more importantly, to draw up more effective support services/ schemes with specifications that will ‘allow’ the Maltese (and Gozitan) entrepreneur to attend and to facilitate application for such support services/ schemes.

VIII.
VIII.

services and support structures to Assist Aspiring Entrepreneurs Existing services and support structures • The study illustrated that there are mixed opinions among entrepreneurs on whether there are adequate services and support structures to assist men and women who are aspiring to set up their own business.

• More than 43% of the whole entrepreneur cohort gave a positive response, primarily by male entrepreneurs.
On the other hand, a rather worrying 33%, primarily females, stated that they do not believe that such services/ support structures exist.

• 55% of all entrepreneurs agreed that training for aspiring entrepreneurs is currently being made available in Malta.

Nevertheless, another 23% disagreed.

No gender differences emerged in these perceptions.
Policy Considerations • The above mixed opinion findings illustrate that the perceptions of the entrepreneur cohort on the effectiveness of services and support structures currently being offered to them and to aspiring entrepreneurs are the same.

More must be done by local authorities to draw up more effective services and support structures to encourage would-be entrepreneurs to set up their own business.
Unlocking the Female Potential - Research Report 21 Proposed services and support structures • A significant 90% of the whole cohort proposed the following measures to assist and encourage aspiring males and females to take up entrepreneurship: - The setting up of a one-stop shop (one in Malta and one in Gozo) offering services to businesses comprising the processing of formalities and the filling up of required documentation.
- The provision of training programmes by Government entities focusing specifically on the development of innovative ideas, managerial skills, marketing and accounting.

- The scheduling of training programmes on family-friendly lines to encourage the participation of aspiring entrepreneurs with caring responsibilities.

- The setting up of more family-friendly support structures to encourage the participation of aspiring entrepreneurs.
- More emphasis to be given on ‘entrepreneurship studies’ both at secondary and post- secondary curricula.

• Over half the entrepreneur cohort observed that the needs of aspiring male and female entrepreneurs are, largely, the same.

This is because nowadays there is more equality among sexes; hence there is no difference between needs.

Others argued that when persons have the same aspirations, the needs would be the same, irrespective of sex.
• However, another 36% claimed that the needs of aspiring male and female entrepreneurs differ; this was largely expressed by female entrepreneurs who currently have or had caring responsibilities.

The reasons for such differing needs refer to the fact that women usually have caring and family-management responsibilities apart from those related to work.

Thus, clearly, aspiring female entrepreneurs would need more support to be able to balance their career and family obligations.
• Almost all (96%) the entrepreneur cohort (male and female) believed that in order to assist more aspiring female entrepreneurs to set up their own business: - Local bank institutions should offer the same support possibilities to both genders.

- Training and educational initiatives should be offered to boost the self-confidence of aspiring female entrepreneurs.
- From a young age, women need to be exposed to the idea that setting up their own business is a viable option for them and not just for male individuals.

• Some 80% of the entrepreneur cohort (male and female) also proposed the following services and support structures to assist more aspiring female entrepreneurs to set up their own business: - The availability of family-friendly provisions to encourage the participation of aspiring entrepreneurs with child-caring responsibilities.
- The setting up of venture funds for aspiring female entrepreneurs to provide start-up finance.

Policy Considerations • The range of services and support structures proposed above are the produce of the recommendations, ideas, views and suggestions made by male and female entrepreneurs, social partners and relevant key stakeholders.
These recommendations give significant food for thought to policy makers and Government authorities on the needed and more pressing services and support structures required to encourage aspiring males and females in Malta (and Gozo) to take up entrepreneurship.
• These recommendations largely focus on the need of the setting up of a one-stop shop (in Malta and Gozo) offering services to small businesses; the development of more tailor-made training programmes on entrepreneurship studies; the setting up of more family-friendly structures to encourage the participation of aspiring entrepreneurs with caring responsibilities.

22 National Commission for the Promotion of Equality 2.1.2 ACTIVITY II: The situation of Vulnerable workers in Malta I.
The Meaning of ‘Vulnerable worker’ in the Maltese Context • The ‘Vulnerable Worker’ within the Maltese (and Gozitan) context is characterised by the worker who is not given (at least) the basic working conditions he/she is entitled to (as stipulated by Maltese law) by his/her employer and by the worker who is ‘forced’ (not by choice) by his/her employer to take on a ‘self-employed’ status.

• More specifically, Vulnerable Workers in Malta are those who: - Are employed informally, i.e.
without a formal registration - Are paid less than the official minimum wage/ hourly rate - Are not paid the hourly rate for overtime work, work performed on public holidays, etc - Are not paid for (or given) vacation leave, sick leave, government bonuses, cost-of-living increases and other entitlements required by law - Are employed ‘on contract’ of one year or less - Are asked to work irregular hours or are employed as casual workers and hence do not have job security - Whose employer does not pay his/her share of NI contributions - Do not pay their share of NI contributions - Are forced by their employers to take on a ‘self-employed’ status - Are foreigners who do not have a work permit or are employed informally.
• In the Maltese context, ‘family workers’ (family members living in the same household) are not considered as vulnerable workers.

Policy Considerations • Whereas ILO’s definition of ‘Vulnerable Employment’ focuses largely on ‘family workers’ and ‘own-account workers’, Malta’s reality is very different.
Vulnerable employment in the three industries in question largely consists of workers who are not family workers but individuals who are not given the basic working conditions they should be entitled to, as stipulated by Maltese law on employment rights.
• In the light of Malta’s already existing legislation regulating individuals’ employment rights, the vulnerable employment situation present in these three industries is a direct result of an imbalance of power in the employer-worker relationship by some (not all) companies operating in these business sectors.

• Although own-account workers ‘forced by employers’ do exist in these three industries in Malta, the number of such vulnerable workers is relatively very low.

II.
II.

Conditions Leading to Render Jobs More Vulnerable in The Tourism, Cleaning and Language school Industries in Malta • The recent international recession and its bandwagon effects on particularly the Tourism Sector and Language Schools, and the latter’s sectors’ seasonality market trends are the main causes for making jobs in these two sectors more vulnerable.
• Operators in these two industries are largely struggling to survive, downsizing (with eventual redundancies), ceasing operations in the winter months or even closing down their operations indefinitely.

• In the light of this international economic situation, market prices and mark-ups of these operators were reduced.

Mark-ups were further squeezed as a result of a marked and sudden increase in costs (fixed and variable) caused by the sharp increase in water and electricity bills and other costs.
• The highly price-sensitive and cut-throat competition (particularly when bidding for government cleaning tender projects) that exists in the local Cleaning Industry puts pressure on these operators to try to reduce costs, including labour costs.
Unlocking the Female Potential - Research Report 23 • Notwithstanding these unfavourable market conditions and challenges faced by employers engaged in these three industries, there is a unanimous standpoint among all employers’ associations and trade unions alike that vulnerable employment should be curbed unreservedly.
• From the worker’s perspective, some workers do acknowledge that employers did face and are still facing tough challenges as a result of the international economic recession, however they still feel that there are some rogue employers capitalising from this economic downturn and taking advantage of vulnerable workers.
Policy Considerations • In the face of the international economic upheaval and high unemployment rates hitting most of Europe, with particular emphasis the Southern part, coupled with squeezed profit mark- ups and increased variable and overhead costs, operators engaged in these three industries must take drastic measures to address this precarious situation.

However, taking advantage of vulnerable workers is certainly not an acceptable measure.
• The study clearly shows that, notwithstanding the unfavourable market conditions and challenges being faced by employers operating in these three industries, there is a unanimous standpoint among all employers’ associations and trade unions alike that vulnerable employment should be curbed unreservedly.

• Local Government, together with the leading social partners must join forces to address the seemingly rampant situation of vulnerable employment in these three industries.
However, at the same time incentives, support services and structures must also be introduced to assist the ‘genuine’ employer who is trying to make ends meet, whilst concurrently, more rigorous enforcement measures are to be put on that ‘rogue’ employer who is capitalising on the current economic situation at the expense of the vulnerable worker, whose rights are kept unprotected.

III.
III.

Profile of the ‘Vulnerable worker’ Engaged in These Three Industries The survey Respondent Profile (n=600) • A total of 602 vulnerable worker respondents participated in this quantitative study, of whom 52% hailed from the Tourism sector, 35% from the Cleaning sector and 13% from the Language Schools sector.

• 94% of the whole cohort are Maltese and 6% are foreign.

• 77% hail from Malta and 23% are Gozitans.


• The majority (56%) of these vulnerable workers are aged 15 – 29 years old, with the exception of the vulnerable workers engaged in the Cleaning industry, whose majority (52%) are aged 40+ years old, who are largely female.

• More than 50% of the whole cohort hold a secondary level of education, except for the workers employed in the Language Schools sector, where a higher level of education was recorded.
• 41% of the whole cohort hail from the C1C2 socio-economic status, while the majority of the workers engaged in the Cleaning industry hail from the DE socio-economic status.

There is a higher tendency of workers employed in the Language Schools sector to fall within the AB socio-economic category.

• With regards to the marital status of the survey respondents, more than half of them indicated that they are not married, whilst 36% are.
• Over half (51%) of the whole survey cohort are either ‘husbands/partners’ or ‘fathers’ within their respective household, whilst 16% are either wives/partners’ or ‘mothers’.

Some 17% are ‘sons/daughters’ while the remaining 14% either live alone or are other relatives living in the household.
• Almost a third (29%) of the whole vulnerable worker cohort engaged in the Tourism and Cleaning industries, indicated that they have caring responsibilities, with the high majority of these having child-caring (as opposed to dependent-adult-caring) responsibilities.

24 National Commission for the Promotion of Equality Formal vs Informal Employment • Just over half (52%) of the whole survey cohort are employed by ‘formal registration’.
The vulnerability of these Maltese (and Gozitan) workers lies in their ‘remuneration package/ work arrangement’ (or element/s of) with their employer, which is not according to law.

• A third (30%) of these vulnerable employees are not formally registered with their employer (i.e.

are informal employees) • 12% are formally engaged workers with a definite contract/ agreement of less than 12 months.

• 5% hold a ‘self-employed’ status, imposed by their employer.
• 1% hold a ‘self-employed’ status, by choice.

Employment status • 43% of the whole survey cohort is employed on a full-time basis.

• 28% are engaged on a part-time on continuous basis • 16% are seasonal workers • 7% are casual workers • 4% work flexible hours • 2% work on a reduced hours basis.

• 37% of the whole survey cohort have been engaged under these conditions with their current employer between 1 – 3 years, while 29% have been employed with the same employer for less than one year.
• The number of hours worked per week for 62% of the whole survey cohort fluctuates according to demand and seasonality.

• Only 36% work a stipulated number of hours per week.
Policy Considerations • The Profile of the ‘vulnerable worker’ hailing from these three industries may be characterised as follows: Demographics: - 56% (male and female) are aged between 15 – 29 years old, with the exception of the vulnerable workers engaged in the Cleaning industry, whose majority (52%) are aged 40+ years old, who are largely female.

- More than half of these vulnerable workers hold a secondary level of education.
- More than half hold a ‘single’ marital single, whilst only a third are married.

- More than half of them are either ‘husbands/partners’ or ‘fathers’ within their respective household, whilst 16% are either wives/partners’ or ‘mothers’.

Some 17% are ‘sons/ daughters’.

- Almost a third of these workers engaged in the Tourism and Cleaning industries have child- caring responsibilities.
Working Conditions: - In their majority, vulnerable workers engaged in these three industries are employed by ‘formal registration’; - their vulnerability lies in their ‘remuneration package/ work arrangement’ (or element/s of) with their current employer.

They are simply not being given the working conditions (or element/s of), which are rightfully theirs, as stipulated by Maltese law.

- A third of the vulnerable employees not formally registered with their employer (i.e.
are informal employees), while 12% are engaged in a definite contract/ agreement and only 5% hold a ‘self-employed’ status, imposed by their employer.

- Some 40% of the vulnerable workers are employed on a full-time basis, whilst a third are engaged on a part-time on continuous basis.

Some 16% are seasonal workers and 7% are casual workers.
Unlocking the Female Potential - Research Report 25 - Some 40% of these employees have been engaged under these vulnerable working conditions between 1 – 3 years, whilst a third of them have been employed with the same employer for less than one year.

- The hours worked per week of over 60% of them is a function of seasonality and market demand, while a mere 36% work on a stipulated number of hours per week.
• From a demographic perspective, this ‘vulnerable worker’ profile illustrates that vulnerable employment in these three industries is evident across all age groups, among both sexes, among main income earners and employees with caring responsibilities.

• Only half of these vulnerable workers are employed by formal registration and these are not being given all the working conditions they are rightfully entitled to.
A third are employed informally, enjoying no rights at all, whilst a further 12% are engaged on a definite contract.

40% are engaged on a full-time basis and a third on a part-time continuous basis.

40% of these workers have been enduring these vulnerable employment conditions for between 1 – 3 years.

• Every worker in Malta is already supported by sound employment rights, including a national minimum wage, vacation and sick leave entitlements, occupational health and safety regulations, etc.
Hence, this vulnerable employment situation in these three industries may be curbed by more effective enforcement of these existing workers’ rights by local Government.

This will protect vulnerable workers and also prevent good employers in these industries from being undercut by the more ‘rogue’ operators.

IV.
IV.

Profile of the ‘Vulnerable worker’ Engaged in the Tourism Industry Most Vulnerable Grades and Positions • 44% of the Tourism sector vulnerable worker cohort are employed in bars and restaurants, while 31% are engaged in the hotel sector.

The vast majority of the Tourism sector cohort is employed with the private sector.

• 34% of the Tourism sector cohort hold a ‘restaurant/ bar service’ designation, followed by 11% who are employed as ‘kitchen helpers’ and 9% engaged as ‘food preparation personnel’.
• Only 7% of these vulnerable workers hold a supervisory position or higher (i.e.

supervisory, middle-management, administrative or managerial position).

Formal vs Informal Employment • 51% of the Tourism cohort are employed by ‘formal registration’.

The vulnerability of these workers lies in the fact in their ‘remuneration package/ work arrangement’ (or element/s of) with their employer is not according to law.

• 33% are not formally registered with their employer (i.e.
are informal employees) • 9% are formally engaged workers with a definite contract/ agreement • 6% hold a ‘self-employed’ status, imposed by their employer.

• 1% hold a ‘self-employed’ status, by choice.

Employment status • 44% of the Tourism cohort is employed on a full-time basis.

• 26% are engaged on a part-time continuous basis • 17% are seasonal workers • 8% are casual workers • 4% work flexible hours • 1% work on a reduced hours basis.
• The number of hours worked per week by 73% of the Tourism cohort fluctuates according to demand and seasonality.

• Only 26% work a stipulated number of hours per week.
26 National Commission for the Promotion of Equality Policy Considerations • Drawing up a profile of the vulnerable worker engaged in the Tourism sector, an evident finding is that vulnerable employment is rampant among the lower grades and positions in this industry; more specifically among the lower ‘food and beverage’ positions, such as waiters/resses, kitchen helpers and food preparation personnel.
Clearly, more aggressive enforcement measures must be taken by DIER to be able to curb such rampant worker vulnerability among such low-level positions.

• Vulnerable employment is minimal at supervisory positions, middle-management and managerial positions.

V. Profile of the ‘Vulnerable worker’ Engaged in the Cleaning Industry Most Vulnerable Grades and Positions • 51% of the Cleaning industry vulnerable worker cohort are directly employed by the company (i.e.
where they work) and 48% are employed with a cleaning contracting company.

• 54% of the cohort employed with a cleaning contracting company have cleaning-duty placements within the public sector (i.e.

Government departments, public authorities, public hospitals, etc.)

while the remaining 37% are largely assigned cleaning-duty placements with the private sector (i.e.

organisations, commercial entities).

• 1% of the Cleaning industry cohort hold a general ‘cleaner’ designation.
• Only 1% of these vulnerable workers hold a supervisory position or higher (i.e.

supervisory, middle-management, administrative or managerial position).

Formal vs Informal Employment • 50% of the Cleaning cohort are employed by ‘formal registration’.

The vulnerability of these workers lies in the fact that in their ‘remuneration package/ work arrangement’ (or element/s of) with their employer is not according to law • 34% are not formally registered with their employer (i.e.
are informal employees) • 12% are formally engaged workers with a definite contract/ agreement • 3% hold a ‘self-employed’ status, imposed by their employer • 1% hold a ‘self-employed’ status, by choice.
Employment status • 51% of the Cleaning cohort is employed in a full-time basis • 30% are engaged on a part-time continuous basis • 2% are seasonal workers • 9% are casual workers • 5% work flexible hours • 3% work on a reduced hours basis • 51% of the cleaning cohort work on a stipulated number of hours per week • The number of hours worked per week for 48% fluctuates according to demand and seasonality.

Policy Considerations • A similar vulnerable worker profile may be drawn in the Cleaning industry.
Such vulnerable employment is rampant (over 90%) among the ‘general cleaner’ elementary position.

Half of these vulnerable workers conduct cleaning duties for their employers, whilst the other half are engaged with a cleaning contracting company.

• A rather worrying finding is that a significant majority of these vulnerable workers engaged with cleaning contractors are assigned cleaning-duty placements within the public sector, e.g.

Government departments, public authorities, etc.


Clearly, immediate measures must be taken by local Government to set more stringent specifications when issuing public tender calls for Unlocking the Female Potential - Research Report 27 cleaning services to safeguard against cleaning tender projects being awarded to cleaning contractors employing vulnerable workers.

• Once again, vulnerable employment is minimal at supervisory positions, middle-management and managerial positions.

VI.
VI.

Profile of the ‘Vulnerable worker’ Engaged in the Language schools Industry Most Vulnerable Grades and Positions • 60% of the Language Schools Industry vulnerable worker cohort are engaged as ‘language teachers’, and almost 22% hold a ‘group leader/ animator’ designation within the same industry • Only 10% of these vulnerable workers hold a supervisory position or higher (i.e.

supervisory, middle-management, administrative or managerial position).
Formal vs Informal Employment • 55% of the Language Schools cohort are employed by ‘formal registration’.

The vulnerability of these workers lies in the fact that in their ‘remuneration package/ work arrangement’ (or element/s of) with their employer is not according to law • 9% are not formally registered with their employer (i.e.
are informal employees) • 25% are formally engaged workers with a definite contract/ agreement of less than 12 months • 5% hold a ‘self-employed’ status, imposed by their employer • 6% hold a ‘self-employed’ status, by choice.

Employment status • 18% of the Language School cohort is employed on a full-time basis.
• 27% are engaged on a part-time continuous basis • 51% are seasonal workers • 1% are casual workers • 3% work flexible hours • The number of hours worked per week by 54% of the Language school cohort fluctuates according to demand and seasonality • 37% work a stipulated number of hours per week.

Policy Considerations • Vulnerable employment in this industry is characterised by workers engaged as ‘language teachers’ (60%) and ‘group leader/ animator’ designations (22%).
Although this industry is subject to seasonality market demand, local Government may introduce more robust enforcement measures to ensure that these seasonal workers, amounting to more than half the vulnerable working population of this industry, at least enjoy appropriate conditions of work as entitled to by law.

• Even in the language schools industry, vulnerable employment is minimal at supervisory positions, middle-management and managerial positions.

VII.
VII.

working Arrangements of Vulnerable workers Engaged in These Three Industries Remuneration • 69% of the whole survey cohort (across all three industry sectors) indicated that their remuneration is calculated on an hourly rate.

This is mostly evident in the Tourism industry with 72.5% of this cohort indicating this.

28 National Commission for the Promotion of Equality • 14.6% of the whole cohort indicated that their existing wage/ hourly rate is below the minimum wage stipulated by law.
This finding emerges across all three industries: 12%, 19% and 14% of the Tourism, Cleaning and Language Schools sectors respectively.

• 37% of the whole cohort perform work during weekends/ public holidays and still get paid the normal hourly rate.

Some 40% of the Tourism and Cleaning cohorts respectively experience this.

• Only 23% of the whole cohort are paid on a pre-established weekly wage.

This finding emerged across all three industries.


• Differences in the remuneration arrangements offered to male and female employees in these three sectors emerge.

• Remuneration calculated on an hourly basis is offered to females more than males.

This finding is evident in all the three sectors, but especially in the Language School industry.
• Work performed on weekends/public holidays and remunerated at the normal hourly rate is experienced more by males in the Tourism industry, and more by females in the Cleaning industry.

• Remuneration calculated as a pre-determined weekly wage is mostly offered to male employees in the three sectors, particularly in the Language School industry.

National Insurance (NI) Contributions • 40% of the whole cohort’s national insurance (NI) contributions are paid jointly by their employer and themselves.
36%, 41% and 53% of the Tourism, Cleaning and Tourism cohorts respectively have their NI contributions paid jointly.

• Gender differences feature in the NI contributions payment in the three industries.

In the Language Schools sector, this NI-joint-payment is relevant for 62% of the male workers and a lower 44% of the female workers working in the same industry.

In the Cleaning industry, this NI-joint-payment is relevant for 46% of the male workers but only for 39% (53 respondents) of the female workers.
In the Tourism sector, no gender differences in NI-joint-contribution payments are present.

• 37% of the whole survey cohort do not pay NI contributions (neither by employer nor by self).

39%, 38% and 28% of the Cleaning, Tourism and Language Schools cohorts, respectively, do not pay any NI contributions.

• 5% of the total survey cohort workers pay their NI contributions, whilst their employer does not.
9%, 4% and 4% of the Language Schools, Tourism and Cleaning cohorts, respectively, pay their NI contributions but their employer does not.

Other Entitlements • Only 45% of the total survey cohort are not entitled to sick leave with their current employer.

50%, 43% and 40% of the Cleaning, Tourism and Language School sectors respectively are not entitled to sick leave with their current employer.
Comparing sick-leave entitlements by sex, a marked difference lies in the Tourism Sector, where 51% of the male cohort receive sick leave entitlements and only 39% of the female cohort indicated the same.

• Only 18% of the total survey cohort are paid government bonuses: 26%, 18% and 9% of the Cleaning, Tourism and Language School cohorts respectively.
Comparing government bonus payments by gender, another marked difference exists: 24% of the male cohort, against 16% of the female cohort, receive government bonuses.

Again, this finding largely emerges in the Tourism Sector.

• Only 40% of the whole survey cohort is allowed to take break time.

51% of the Language Schools cohort, 39% of the Tourism cohort and 38% of the Cleaning cohort are not allowed to take a formal break.

There are no gender-difference findings in this research area.
Training Given • 41% of the whole cohort were given induction training on being employed with their employer and 54% of these were not paid their wage during this induction training.

By sector, from the Unlocking the Female Potential - Research Report 29 employees who were given induction training, 66%, 56% and 46% of the Cleaning, Language Schools and Tourism cohorts respectively were not paid their wage during this training.
• 55% of the whole survey cohort did not receive training during the course of their employment with their current employer.

65%, 54% and 30% of the Cleaning, Tourism and Language Schools sectors respectively did not receive training by their employer.

Provision of a Uniform and safety Equipment • 66% of the total survey cohort must wear a uniform to be able to perform their work duties.
Out of these, 51% got their uniform paid for by their employer, 13% had to pay part of it themselves and 36% had to pay for all of it themselves.

These findings emerged from the Tourism and Cleaning sectors.

46% of the total Tourism (48%) and Cleaning (43%) cohorts were not provided by the necessary safety equipment by their employers.
Management’s Relations with Employees • 47% of all the survey cohort indicated that their employers treat them neither well nor badly, while 36% feel that they are treated well or very well by their employees.

16% feel that they are treated badly or very badly by their employers.

These similar findings emerged across all three sectors and across both sexes.
Other working Conditions • 21.5% of the Tourism cohort indicated that their employers closed down their establishments during the winter months, due to seasonality constraints and/ or to refurbish the establishment.

72% of these workers did not work extra hours during the summer months preceding the establishment’s winter closure, 78% were not paid their normal wage during this winter closure period and 53% had wage measures agreed upon between them and their employers.
• 40% of the Tourism and Cleaning cohort respondents, whose employers also engage foreign workers, observed that the latter are paid similar wages to Maltese employees, 35% believe that the foreigners are paid less and 26% do not know.

Similar opinion findings emerge from both cohorts.

• Some 50% of the whole survey cohort observed that ‘informal work’ (i.e.

irregularly employed individuals) is present at their workplace.
54%, 48% and 35% of the Tourism, Cleaning and Language Schools cohorts respectively, observed this.

• Formal Trade Union representation is only present at the workplace of 14% of the whole survey cohort.

21%, 11% and 10% of the Cleaning, Tourism and Language Schools cohorts respectively, observed this.

• 55% indicated that no Trade Union representation exists at their workplace and 31% observed that they do not know whether such formal representation exists or not.
Policy Considerations • The above findings clearly illustrate that worker vulnerability is rampant across all three industries and is tied directly to employers not adhering to existing employment conditions and employment rights regulations with regards to wages, national insurance contributions, government bonuses, vacation and sick leave entitlements, occupational health and safety standards and other working conditions.
• This situation clearly calls for more funds to be allocated to enforcement resources and pro- active initiatives by the various regulatory Government authorities, namely, DIER, ETC and OHSA.

• A pro-active skills development programme may assist in addressing the vulnerable situation of these low-level, unskilled workers.
Government, through ETC and ITS, may conduct a thorough ‘skills gap analysis’ exercise (separate exercises in Malta and Gozo) to strive at matching the supply of employees and the labour market demands in these three industry sectors and also 30 National Commission for the Promotion of Equality aim at upgrading the skills levels of these more vulnerable worker target groups by providing tailormade training programmes and courses.

VIII.
VIII.

Effects of Vulnerable Employment on These workers • 33% of the whole cohort feel vulnerable due to their job insecurity conditions • A low pay (17%) and financial strain (8%) contribute to their vulnerability.

• 15% are not able to make long term projections and 3% find difficulty in acquiring a bank loan due to their insecure job conditions.

• 5% observed the lack of promotion availabilities in these sectors.

• 4% indicated psychological stress and 3% the uncertainty of their future in general.
• No gender differences emerged in these findings.

Policy Considerations • Notwithstanding Malta’s existing employment rights legislation, these findings clearly illustrate that the adverse impacts of vulnerable employment go beyond the purely economic/financial situation of the worker but extend to his/her severe lack of psychological, emotional and social well-being, suffering, uncertainty and injustice.
A situation of worker vulnerability emanating from a sheer imbalance of power in the employer-worker relationship.

IX.

Vulnerable workers’ Recommendations Towards The Improvement of Their working Conditions • The salient recommendations emanating from the preliminary qualitative research exercise on how worker vulnerability may be curbed effectively, were then put forward to the three vulnerable worker cohorts for their feedback.
These are the findings: • 94% of the whole survey cohort recommend that Government/ local public authorities should invest in more awareness on workers’ rights as stipulated by law.

• 86% suggest more robust monitoring by ETC to verify that Incentive Schemes are being properly utilised by employers.

• 86% recommend that women working on an informal basis, particularly in the cleaning industry, are made aware of the long-term benefits of ‘formal employment’.
• 85% recommend that there should be more enforcement on the right of association in a Trade Union to eliminate the element of fear present among vulnerable workers employed in these three industries.

• 82% recommend stronger enforcement of employer abuse not just by DIER and ETC but from other public authorities as well.

• 82% recommend better enforcement and control on the engagement of foreign workers by local employers to curb the vulnerability of this cohort.
• 80% suggest that Government should ensure that government tender evaluation on project bids guarantees that payment of minimum wage and other adequate working conditions are being adhered to.

Policy Considerations • The above recommendations emanating directly from the study (qualitative and quantitative phases) are all workable proposals and solutions on how the existing imbalance of power in the employer-employee relationships present in these three industries may be addressed and checked.
• A formal Commission for Vulnerable Employment (similar to the UK Commission) may be set up to provide a more formal, structured, pro-active action towards curbing vulnerable employment in Malta.

This Commission may consist of representatives hailing from Government (DIER, ETC, Malta Enterprise and other relevant Government entities), social partners representing employers’ associations and local trade unions and representatives from civil society organisations.
Unlocking the Female Potential - Research Report 31 • It is recommended that the Government or the Commission on Vulnerable Employment identifies further the various factors that place workers hailing at low-level positions/ grades at risk of vulnerability.

This may be done thorough a structured consultation process with social partners, relevant stakeholders and civil society organisations.
• It must also assess in more detail the degree of impact that these different factors have on the balance of power between employers and workers and upon the possible chances of a worker being at risk of experiencing vulnerable employment.

• Possible factors to be further researched and assessed include: - The personal characteristics of workers, e.g.

age, gender, health, nationality, residing in Malta or Gozo, skill levels, trade union membership, etc.

- Employment characteristics of workers, e.g.


jobs undertaken, level of pay, sector of employment, size of business, access to education and training, presence of trade union recognition or otherwise, etc.

- The formal employer/ worker relationship in terms of the employment status of the worker e.g.

employed on full-time, on contract, on part-time continuous, as a casual or seasonal worker, own-account worker, etc.

- The wider social factors, e.g.


existing availability of information and to advice services, labour market change, level of unemployment, other social changes.

• The Government or the Commission must look at existing employment rights legislation and also look at its existing enforcement regimes.

• It may aim at highlighting and promoting particular good practice examples of when vulnerable employment is successfully reduced or challenged.
• It may assess the impacts of vulnerable employment on the Maltese (and Gozitan) economy and society in general.

Issues to be addressed may include: • The impacts of vulnerable employment on individuals, their families and their community.

- How vulnerable employment may impact upon the wages and working conditions of others who are not vulnerable at work.

- The impact of vulnerable employment upon labour market change on a national basis.
- The likely future trends in vulnerable employment in the face of the international economic upheaval.

• It may aim at providing solutions to vulnerable employment in conjunction with the social partners, relevant stakeholders and civil society organisations.
• It may conduct and publish further research to assess possible vulnerable employment situations and hold conferences, seminars and wide scale public consultation fora to promote awareness on vulnerable employment and initiatives of how vulnerable employment may be curbed.

These fora may also be used to support awareness programmes on employment rights.
2.2 The Relevance of Economic Independence to the Maltese Female – salient Conclusions and Policy Considerations Overriding Research Objectives The overriding research objective of this Project aimed at researching the relevance of economic independence to the Maltese female.

This was researched by way of three distinct Activities.

ACTIVITY I: to analyse the glass ceiling and glass cliff effect and how this affects females in the labour market.
ACTIVITY II: to assess the relevance of ‘economic independence’ to the Maltese female.

ACTIVITY III: to analyse the effect of social security benefits on women in their decision to take up employment or not.

32 National Commission for the Promotion of Equality The following are the salient conclusions and research findings emanating from the studies and policy considerations addressing these Research Objectives.
2.2.1 ACTIVITY I: Analysing The Glass Ceiling and Glass Cliff Effect and How This Affects Females in the Labour Market I.

Profile of the working woman (n=600) • Overall there is a slightly larger number of respondents in the youngest cohort (15-35 years) than in the older cohort (35-64 years) but this is more significant in the Service and Management sector with 55% and 45% respectively.
• The majority of respondents have a secondary or post secondary level of education (62%) and Tertiary or post graduate level of education (35%).

Only 2% have primary level or no formal education.

• The majority of respondents working in the Elementary occupation have a secondary and post secondary level of education.

Those working in the Service Occupation have a secondary, post secondary, and tertiary level.

Respondents in the Management occupation possess tertiary or post tertiary education.
• The main areas of qualifications that respondents in the Service sector have were in ‘Teaching’ and ‘Management/Commerce/Marketing/Accounts’ while the respondents in the Management sector possess ‘Teaching’ and ‘Management/Commerce/Marketing/Accounts’ and also ‘Sciences’.

• Slightly more than half the women in the survey (51%) had past or current caring responsibilities.

Of these, one in every four women were in the higher age cohort (35-64 years).
• On the other hand, slightly less than half (49%) of the women in the survey never had any caring responsibilities, with the majority of them being in the younger age cohort (15-34 years).

• Nearly half (44%) of women with caring responsibilities have 1 child; followed by 38% of women having 2 children; and 17% having 3 children or more.

Out of every 10 respondents, 7 worked in the private sector.
• A large majority (79%) of respondents work full time (office hours, shop hours, shift, reduced and flexitime).

19% of respondents work part time.

A very small percentage work from home or are casual workers.

• 36% of all those working in the Elementary Occupation are found in part time work.

This rate falls to 22% for those respondents working in the Service Occupation and falling much lower to 9% of women working in Management working Part time.
• Conversely, the large majority (80%) of respondents working in Management were in full time employment (Office and Shop hours, and Shift work), followed by 66% of women working in the Service sector and 58% of women working in the Elementary Occupation work full time.

• Respondents working in the Elementary and Service Occupations mostly earn a gross salary of 10,000 or less.

Those working in the higher managerial scales earn more than 10,000 or 15,000.
One in 5 women working in the Managerial grades earn a gross salary of more than 20,000.

Policy Considerations • The survey captured a rather low number of workers from the Elementary sector and a very low number of workers with a primary level of education, or with no formal education.

This suggests that a number of workers may be working informally in Malta.
Various incentives should be introduced towards different categories of women to encourage them to move from the formal economy to the formal labour market.

Unlocking the Female Potential - Research Report 33 II.

Past employment and Job Promotions • Respondents who hold a managerial position and are in the higher age cohort (35-64 years), were those who mostly stated that they have been employed with the same employer for over 7 years.
Those from the lower cohort employed in all sectors state that they had been employed with the same employer for 1 to 3 years.

• A majority of respondents (65%) gave various reasons for not applying for a job promotion.
Of these, out of every 10 women, 4 said they were not interested (40%), 2 did not have the necessary qualifications, skills or experience (19%), 1 refrained due to caring responsibilities or due to more commitment, responsibility and longer hours required for the promotion (11%), while another 3 had other reasons (30%).

• Women working in the Elementary occupations were the largest group of respondents within their sector who claimed they were not interested in applying for a promotion.
• Out of every 10 women working, only 3 received a job promotion (30.7%) and 7 never received any promotions (68.5%) with their existing employer.

Those who did not receive any promotions where primarily those working in the Elementary posts in all cohorts and also those in the service and managerial posts in the young cohort (15-34 years).

• A large number of women from all sectors in the study claim that they had a previous job prior to the current one.
Those working in the Elementary or Service occupations tend to maintain the same level of job.

Those women working in the Managerial sector held a lower grade prior to their current job.

• One in ten respondents, mainly from the elementary and service workers, do not foresee any job promotion in the future.

Most of these believe that there are no job openings for them.

• Meanwhile only one in ten respondents were positive in expecting a promotion at their workplace.
These were mainly in the Management and Service grades.

Policy Considerations • One of the barriers for women to advance in their career is that of the ‘sticky floor’ phenomenon where they are stuck in jobs with no opportunities for promotions.

Policies targeted towards effective job evaluation systems where jobs are evaluated and compared on the basis of skill, physical and mental effort, will work towards an equitable working environment.
• Discrimination against women that results in lower pay and fewer advances in wages when compared with men is considered as a barrier forming the glass ceiling.

Opportunities for promotion and training that favour men are also considered discriminatory.

• Human Resources staff should be aware of employment laws and design affirmative action plans against discrimination.

• A Glass Ceiling audit can also be conducted and included in the Management Review.
• Including women at management and senior levels is also considered a best practice for success in business and therefore should be implemented and communicated to all employees especially at the higher echelons.

III.
III.

Perceptions of the Glass Ceiling and Glass Cliff • The large majority of respondents from all age groups and occupations are not aware of any instances of the Glass Ceiling’s effect on women without childcare responsibilities (71%) • However, when asked if the Glass Ceiling had an effect on women without childcare.

responsibilities, out of every 20 women, only 7 said no (35%), 9 said yes or moderately (45%) and 4 didn’t know (20%).
• Women with a higher level of education and holding a managerial grade tend to agree more with the effect of the Glass Ceiling on women without childcare responsibilities.

• While 16.7% of survey respondents state that they did not know of instances of the Glass Ceiling’s effect on women without childcare responsibilities, 23% of the same respondents state that they knew of instances of this effect on women with childcare responsibilities.
34 National Commission for the Promotion of Equality • When asked if the Glass Ceiling had an effect on women with childcare responsibilities, out of every 20 women only 6 said no (31.5%), 10 said yes or moderately (51%) and 4 didn’t know (17.5%).

• An overwhelming majority of respondents in all categories (79%) are not aware of any woman in a Managerial position who was affected by the Glass Cliff.
• The majority of respondents (52%) also do not know of any effect of the Glass Cliff on women in higher positions of employment, while 23% said yes or moderately and 26% said that they did not know.

Policy Considerations • Evidence of the Glass Ceiling and Glass Cliff can be described as invisible, hence the difficulty lies in becoming aware of their existance, after one understands the concepts.
While this study has confirmed that situations of Glass Cliff are much more difficult to detect due to the low female participaton in Malta and especially with the low number of women in Managerial grades, the factors that make up the Glass Ceiling are very evident.

• More research of this phenomenon and how to detect various types of discrimination in employment within large and small organisations and companies should be conducted and results disseminated through the media and press.

IV.
IV.

Factors That Hinder women From Occupying Managerial Posts/ Promotions Children and Childcare responsibilities • Slightly more than half the women in the survey had current or past (51%) caring responsibilities.

Of these, one in every four women was in the higher age cohort (35-64 years) • Working women in the Service sector form the largest group with caring responsibilities followed by those in the Elementary Sector.
• Women working in the Management Sector make up the smallest number of respondents with caring responsibilities.

• Although illegal, more than half of the respondents (53%) that had been asked questions on their plans and commitments related to their personal lives (15% of all respondents) during their interview on their current employment, were also asked whether they had children or not.

• Moreover 31% recalled that they were asked whether they planned to have children or not.
• 77% of all respondents who had current or past caring responsibilities had such responsibilities while they were employed by their current employer.

• From those respondents with caring responsibilities, the largest number of respondents (40%) claimed that caring responsibilities did not affect their job and maintained their working hours.

This was primarily indicated by workers in Managerial grades.
• Workers primarily in the Elementary sector claimed that they reduced their working hours but maintained their employment, followed by those working in the Service Sector.

• Out of every 7 workers with caring responsibilities, 1 had to change her job for a less demanding one.

• Some respondents with childcare responsibilities claimed that the aspects they looked for in a job changed when they had these new responsibilities (34%).
A large number of these started looking at the ‘working hours’ and ‘flexitime’ aspect.

Policy Considerations • Clearly motherhood has a negative impact on the working time patterns of women and more so on their career advancement.

Policies targeted towards the involvement of fathers in taking on their fair share of parenthood would not only give more time to women to focus more on their career paths but would also reap benefits for the well being of the family.
Unlocking the Female Potential - Research Report 35 • Childcare provision financed by the government by means of subsidies, for example, should be considered as an investment and not a financial burden for the government’s finances.
• The introduction of ‘after school activities’ in all schools through the increase in school opening hours to offer children non-academic tuition like sports, arts, drama, music, dancing etc., will also help women retain their jobs and not miss out on opportunities for promotion and training.

Childcare • The respondents that had caring responsibilities in the past indicated that they were not in paid employment during that time (39%).
Another 22% stated that the grandparents used to take care of their children, when they were at work.

• From all the respondents who currently had caring responsibilities, the grandparents were indicated as responsible for child caring arrangements by more than half of workers (53%), followed by shared care with their husband/partners(20%).

Other respondents make use of a childcare centre or a childminder (11%) and the remainder gave ‘other’ responses.
• The majority of those using private childcare services are workers in the Management sector, followed by those working in the Service sector and then those in the Elementary sector.
• Respondents believe that financial subsidies towards the choice of a preferred childcare centre or having an onsite childcare centre at the workplace is helpful in developing and advancing a woman’s career (89%) • A large majority of respondents agree that having to leave work to pick up children from school is an obstacle for women’s career (60%) and that the availability of ‘after-school activities’ at the same school premises is helpful for a woman to keep her career (76%).
Policy Considerations • Grandparents are still the major providers of childcare.

However more parents are making use of childcare facilities and learning of the benefits.

In future there will be less grandparents available for childminding, so policies targeted towards the awareness of the benefits of quality childcare should be an effective way of giving more opportunities to working mothers.
• Ongoing campaigns about the benefits of quality childcare should help to challenge the motherhood mandate which is so ingrained in the Maltese culture and puts mothers in a grave guilt dilemma about whether they are making the right decisions.
• At the moment, not all childcare centres are regulated under the National Standards of Child Day Care Facilities (2006) and therefore there are still some centres which are operating outside these regulations, endangering the wellbeing of the children in their care.

It is now felt imperative and urgent that these regulations become legislation as indicated by government years back.
Childcare centres which are regulated and which invest heavily in providing high standards of service, are not operating on a level playing field.

• Affordability of childcare is also an issue for parents.

In the survey, more respondents in the managerial grade used childcare, suggesting that they can better afford it than those in the lower grades.
• With more mothers returning to the labour market and retaining their employment, more income to the government in terms of tax and Social Security contributions will be generated.

Some of this revenue should be pooled towards subsidising parents to choose quality childcare.

socialisation, stereotyping and Expectations • Respondents who currently have or had caring responsibilities in the past, were asked to specify the aspects they looked for in a job before having such responsibilities.
‘The salary being offered’ was considered by 28.5%.

This was claimed mainly by the respondents at an Elementary occupation.

Another 24% specified that they considered how much the job inspired them.

In this case, this was mainly stated by those occupying a Managerial position.

36 National Commission for the Promotion of Equality • Nine out of ten of all survey respondents (87%) claimed that they have never been discriminated against due to their gender and motherhood.
• One out of ten of all survey respondents (10%) stated that they felt discriminated against due to being a mother or a woman.

This was mainly coming from those holding a Managerial grade.

• Almost half of all the respondents in the survey believe that in Malta, employers attribute certain jobs to female or male.

Only about 1 in 3 (28.5%) did not agree.

• Three out of five respondents agree that in Malta managerial posts are occupied by males.
More than half of these (63%) said they believe this is so due to the cultural norm in Malta that males are usually in authority.

Others believe that mothers would not be able to take very demanding jobs or that they would eventually have to leave their jobs to take care of their family.
• Two out of five respondents feel that in Malta, women have to prove their ability and need to perform harder than males and that an error made by a woman at the workplace is more noticeable than a similar error made by a male employee.

• Most respondents in the managerial grades (87%) claim they are respected by their subordinates.
• While 38% thought that males and females do not feel awkward taking instructions from a female manager, 32% believed that only male employees do not like to take orders from a female manager, but another 20% felt that both males and females disliked taking orders from a female superior.

• Although illegal, 15% of respondents stated that they were asked questions on their plans and commitments related to their personal lives during the interview.
Policy Considerations • Women predominate in certain occupations as reflected in the survey.

These occupations are usually those that attract the lower levels of skill, pay and responsibility which then gives rise to the pay gap phenomenon.

This also reflects the value given by society to women’s skills and work and operate as subtle barriers limiting women’s career development.
Policies targeted at encouraging women to consider all areas of study and work should help towards combating sex segregation at work.

• Attitudes and perceptions towards gendered roles and expectations on what a women is expected to do are changing very slowly.

However there is a clear sign of ambivalence from respondents in their opinions towards the motherhood mandate and childcare.
Respondents are also not aware that being asked illegal questions pertinent to their status during an interview and not being given due promotion constitutes discrimination.

NCPE, as well as NGOs and Unions should have the necessary resources to reach out to employers, employees and other stakeholders about what constitutes discriminatory practices.

More awareness on the benefits of quality childcare should also help change attitudes towards childcare.
• The media can also be a powerful tool to combat the negative effect of gender stereotyping at work.

Media campaigns to challenge the portrayals of gender-related behaviour should be ongoing.

• Assumptions and false impressions regarding women’s abilities, commitment and career intentions limits women’s potential at work.

The societal and organisational culture that fosters the ‘old boys network’ and keeps men in positions of power is a strong indicator of the Glass Ceiling.
Organisations should encourage women, especially in middle and higher management, to find time to meet informally between themselves even by supporting and organising ‘days’ or ‘clubs’ that allow female employees to meet without disrupting their family schedule.

Household duties • Most respondents from all Sectors believed that Maltese society considers housework as women’s duty and that this puts extra pressure on working women (69% and 84% respectively).
Unlocking the Female Potential - Research Report 37 • Most duties (cooking, washing clothes, housework, shopping and helping kids with homework) are performed by most of respondents with more help from grandparents rather than the husband/partner.

Policy Considerations • As long as housework will remain mainly the responsibility of the mother, it will continue to present itself as a barrier for her to advance in her career.
• Policies should be designed to encourage fathers to work less hours a day and to make them aware that they must also have an equal obligation to participate in the private sphere.

• A number of short and long term benefits are gained when the father takes on his fair share of household chores and these benefits can be part of a media campaign to help change the culture that domestic duties are the sole responsibility of the mother.
Job Commitments and work-Life balance • During the time of having caring responsibilities, 59% of the respondents, mainly in the Elementary and Service sector, did not receive any promotions.

Meanwhile, 1 in 4 respondents did receive a promotion, primarily from those working in the Managerial grades.

• Only 11% of those who have or had caring responsibilities had to refuse a job promotion and 14% had to refuse training due to their caring responsibilities.
These were mostly from those working in the Service sector or Managerial sector.

• A large number of respondents (67%) believe that caring responsibilities do influence a woman’s decison on whether to pursue a career or not.

• Almost all respondents (93%) claim that opting for flexible hours is fundamental for a woman’s career.

Onsite childcare facilities and financial subsidies towards childcare were also mentioned by 89% of respondents.
Policy Considerations • Support for employees to find a better balance between family and work will impact positively on women’s advancement.

Although women are typically the primary caregivers, employers (and society in general) make false assumptions regarding women’s availability for a job without ‘disruptions’ from the family.

• Offering flexibility might be a problem for certain job positions not only in the private sector but also in the public sector.
Flexible working, like compressed working hours, job sharing, shift work, working from home, reduced hours, career breaks, annual hours can cover working hours or else from a different location.

• Awareness of the benefits of fathers taking up parental leave should be encouraged.
Strategies adopted by countries such as the Scandinavian ones where parental leave is paid, have led to the take up from fathers being high; and therefore this has proven to be an effective measure towards a better work-life balance.

Education and Training • The majority of respondents agreed that advanced education is helpful to enhance women’s career.

Policy Considerations • Training for persons should be designed to meet the needs of women with caring responsibilities.
• The school curriculum should feature, from the early years, positive role models of women in leadership and decision-making positions; and, later on at secondary level, provide clear information about all job options and careers.

• The ETC should design a special programme targeted at girls at secondary school level to reduce stereotypical career pathways.
38 National Commission for the Promotion of Equality • A training programme offering personal development to women in non-Managerial grades offered by organisations like ETC and personnel departments could help empower women.

sexual harassment • Seven out of ten claimed that their employer does not have an ‘equal opportunity policy’.
• Only one in ten respondents indicated that they had experienced some form of sexual harassment at the workplace but less than half did not report the abuse or avoided the perpetrator.

Only one in three of those harassed said they confronted the abuser personally.

Policy Considerations • Sexual harassment is considered a barrier that hinders women’s career advancement, in the form of problems or stress affecting their wellbeing at work.
Even though the Maltese Employment and Industral Relations Act 29 (2002) and the Chapter 456 Equality For Men and Women Act explicitly deals with sexual harassment as being unlawful, there is still lack of awareness about it, especially about how to recognise it when it occurs and what can be done thereafter.

Therefore the drawing up of a sexual harassment policy and complaints procedure by the employer should help employees combat this problem.

Trade Unions should be instrumental in this initiative.
NCPE gives this support as part of its remit.

• Information campaigns are essential for employees and employers to take action and know about their rights, duties and means of redress.

2.2.2 ACTIVITY II: Assessing The Relevance of ‘Economic Independence’ to the Maltese Female I.

Profile of the Two Cohorts (n=600) • 3 out of 5 of the inactive/unemployed respondents are between 45-59 years.

• 1 out of 3 respondents working in the Elementary/Service sector are between 15 -24 years.
• 1 out of 3 respondents working as Managers are between 25-34 years.
• The majority of respondents who work in the Elementary/Service sector have a secondary or post secondary level of education • Almost all respondents who work as Managers have a post-secondary or tertiary level of education • The majority of respondents who are inactive or unemployed possess a secondary level of education • 3 out of 5 respondents are married (57%) while 1 out of 3 are single (33%) • 3 out of 5 respondents have or had caring responsibilities.
• Half of respondents have current caring responsibilities.

• The majority of respondents have between 1 – 2 children.

• 23% of all respondents claimed they were currently receiving some kind of social benefits, with the majority of them being respondents who are inactive/ unemployed.

• 75% of respondents receive social benefits (various types).

Unemployed/ Inactive respondents • 88% of the unemployed respondents are actively looking for a job but not formally registering for work.
• 75% of respondents have been inactive for more than 10 years.

• 1 out of 5 of respondents of the unemployed and inactive respondents have never been employed because they were housewives with caring responsibilities.

• 9 out of 10 unemployed/inactive respondents who were employed in the past worked in the Elementary/Service sector.

• A large majority (93%) of inactive/unemployed respondents used to be employed in the private sector.
Unlocking the Female Potential - Research Report 39 Policy Considerations • A good number of women are actively seeking employment, even if not registering formally.

Policy makers should actively tap into this resource and assist women to participate in the labour market with relative training and mentoring to encourage them to find employment.

• Long-term unemployed are more likely to remain without a job compared with the newly jobless.
The ETC needs to provide more job training to women who have been longest out of work and give them the skills they need for the present labour market.

• Women who have been out of the labour market for a long time may have run out of unemployment benefits and may often face financial, health and personal problems.

The risk of poverty and economic dependency may give them restricted access to adequate disposable income and limit their right to choose their own lifestyle, thus their own empowerment.
• The fact that the large majority of unemployed women used to work in the Elementary and Service Sector indicates that women working in the higher level of Management have less risk of losing their job and therefore their economical independence.

• The public sector may offer better conditions for women to be able to retain their employment.
The government should take the lead on this issue and study ways on how to encourage private employers to improve the conditions for their employees without burdening the employers financially.

• Domestic violence can be often linked with the vulnerability of women when they are economically dependent on their husband/partner.

Programmes and campaigns can help empower women who are victims of domestic violence to encourage them to move out of this abuse and find paid work.
Employed respondents • 21% of respondents engaged as Elementary/service workers are employed in the Retail and Wholesale sector, and another 20% in the Hospitality and Tourism sector.

• Respondents working at Managerial grades are mostly employed in the Education (26%) and the Health and Social Care sectors (19.5%).

• More than half of those working in the Elementary/Service and Management sector worked in the private sector.
• Elementary/ Service workers generally earn a gross salary of less than €10,000 per annum.

• Managers earn a gross salary of between €15,000 and €20,000 yearly.

• More than half of the respondents who are employed and married/cohabiting earn less than their husband/ partner.

Policy Considerations • Women working in all sectors predominate in certain occupations which is charactertisic of horizontal segregation.
This very often gives rise to the pay gap where different wages are applied to ‘women’s work’ and to ‘men’s work’.

A policy response could be targeted to reduce wage inequality and improve the remuneration of low paid female-dominated jobs.

II.

defining Economic Independence • “The ability to choose own lifestyle” is the definition mostly mentioned spontaneously mainly by respondents working in the Elementary/Service Sectors, and Management (27%).
• “The ability to provide a source of income independently without relying on another person” is another definition mostly mentioned by the inactive and unemployed respondents (20%).

• “Earning enough to live comfortably and providing for future dependents” was another popular definition (14%).
• “Being able to support the family alone in case of emergency”, “Having a steady source of income from a job” and “Being able to spend one’s money as one likes” were also mentioned to define this term when prompted.

40 National Commission for the Promotion of Equality • 83% of respondents from all employment sectors and grades agree that further education improves a woman’s chances of becoming ‘economically independent’.
• 76% feel that women have to make sacrifices and undergo pressure and stress for them to become ‘economically independent’.

Policy Considerations • Whether prompted or asked to define ‘economical independence’ spontaneously, respondents linked it with the general well-being that a woman receives when she does not have to rely on anyone for money.

Most responses did not reveal the need of having an abundance of wealth that the term ‘affluence’ suggests.
Wellbeing of women through economic independence in society has a ripple effect on family and society in general and public policy plays an essential part in strengthening structures that gives women control over their living conditions through having a job that makes work pay.
• Achieving economic independence for women could lead to being successful in their accessing higher paying jobs, being more assertive and empowered, increase in general well being for themselves and for the family which will then contribute to their social independence and increase value of self-worth.

Feeling ‘Economically Independent’ • 63% of respondents presently feel ‘economically independent’, especially those who are in Managerial grades.
• Inactive/ unemployed respondents feel the least ‘economically independent’ (40%).

• Having a job is the main reason why respondents feel ‘economically independent’.

• Being able to provide for self and family and earning enough to live comfortably are also reasons why employed females feel economically independent.

• Inactive/ unemployed respondents feel that having easy access to the husband’s/partner’s income and being in control of the household’s finances makes them feel ‘economically independent’.
• Overall, having more peace of mind financially and not having to rely on another person for a source of income are the main advantages that economic independence gives to females.

• Respondents feel more financially secure now than ten years ago, because they used to be dependent on their parents then, they now have a full time job or a better salary than before.

• Inactive/unemployed respondents who feel financially independent said that the husband has now found a better job with a higher salary.
Reasons for Not Feeling ‘Economically Independent’ include: • The dependence on husband/partner for money.

• Not earning enough money.

• Income not being enough to cover the expenses.

• Social security benefits not being sufficient, mentioned especially by respondents who are currently inactive/unemployed.

• Almost half of the respondents, who presently do not feel financially independent, pointed out that they are not doing anything to increase their economic independence.
This was stated by 56% of the inactive/unemployed.

• Respondents claim that the drastic increase in the cost-of-living and the fact that they have stopped working makes them feel financially insecure.

• Respondents holding managerial posts are more confident about their economical security when they reach pensionable age.

The inactive/unamployed are the least confident.


Unlocking the Female Potential - Research Report 41 Policy Considerations • Education is strongly linked to better chances of getting a job, which may also attract higher wages.

Although there are more female university students and graduates every year than males, the rate of school leavers who continue tertiary education is one of the lowest in Europe.
The school curriculum should emphasise the benefits for women and men having a job and being financially independent.

Girls and boys should be more empowered at school to dream big and realise that they can achieve anything.

More empowerment for girls and boys from early years means more choices in studies and employment to reach their full potential.
It also means that they will have more economic power and access to more work opportunities which will translate in their social independence and empowerment.

• Women working in low paying jobs are more at risk of losing their job.

Adequate policies and structures should help improve the conditions of employment for women in precarious work.
• The yearly government budget should focus more on women, especially those who for various reasons are on the poverty line because the drastic increases of the cost of living hits them much harder than others.

• Women who are dependent on social security benefits are also prone to feeling financially insecure.

Rather than increasing these benefits, government should invest in creating more jobs and help these women become economically independent.
• More research should investigate to find out the reasons why some women who are economically dependent are not doing anything to seek employment.

These discouraged workers may be assisted to find the right incentives to find paid work.

• Pensions are also an issue linked with economic independence for women because they are sometimes depending on the ‘household’ through a joint income tax return, for example when the married couple is in business and therefore cannot determine individual incomes.
Women who are separated or cohabiting may be more at risk.

Having individuals responsible for their own Social Security Contributions and Income Tax will give peace of mind with regards to the future.

• Women who are unemployed or inactive but who might be working in the black economy are also missing out on paying social security contributions and therefore will not be eligible for a full pension.

More incentives and awareness on the benefits of working legally should be a priority for policy makers.
• Widows are also prone to being economically dependent since they do not always get a full pension even though they have contributed to society through their unpaid work at home.

This recommendation should also be extended to couples where both partners have worked.

Reasons why Employed women work • 45% of respondents in all employment sectors claim that they are working because they have a financial need to make ends meet or because one pay cheque is not enough to go beyond their basic needs.
• One out of ten respondents claimed that they are the sole breadwinners.

• 13% of respondents work for their personal well being.

Reasons why Inactive/Unemployed women do Not work • More than half (53%) of inactive respondents claim that the reason why they are not working is because they have children to take care of.

• 45% of inactive respondents claim that it is due to housework.

• 1 out of 5 of inactive respondents maintains that they have no financial needs.
Perceptions on women in Paid work vs Traditional Family Roles • 86% of respondents believe that women seek employment primarily because of financial need.

• 48% of respondents think that women are becoming more educated so they wish to apply what they studied.

42 National Commission for the Promotion of Equality • 41% feel that women want to work because they want to be more ‘economically independent’.
• Having more women in the labour market is perceived positively by the respondents, especially those who themselves are in employment.

• 7 out of 10 females agree in principle that a woman should go out to work to be economically independent.

However, 56% of those inactive/unemployed respondents who agreed in principle, tend to disagree in the case that the woman has caring responsibilities.

• 72% of respondents agree that in Malta, women have full responsibility of bringing up their children.
• 68% of respondents believe that husbands/partners still expect that housework is done by the woman.

• 62% of respondents feel that there is still the perception that the husband is still considered to be the head of household.

• 42% of respondents do not agree that providing for the family is a man’s responsibility.

• More than half of respondents believe that even though there are more women working, traditional gender roles have remain intact.
• 43% of respondents believe that in dual earning families, there exists a higher risk of family problems within the family.

This was mainly indicated by inactive/unemployed respondents.

Perceived Factors Hindering women to Take Up Employment and suggestions • 44% of all respondents believe that having children hinders women from seeking employment.

• 23% of all respondents reckon that the responsibilities of family and work would be too stressful.
• 12% of all respondents think that the lack of support structures and family friendly measures are an obstacle for female participation.

• Only 3% of all respondents think that there is a lack of childcare centres in Malta.

• A high 95% of all respondents believe that family roles are to be shared equally between partners to be able to encourage women consider employment.
• A large majority of all respondents believe that more support systems and family friendly measures, education for children when still young, and awareness campaigns will help women go out to work.

Policy Considerations • The main obstacle facing women with regards to being economically independent through paid work is the trouble reconciling domestic and family responsibilities and employment.

This is a constant hurdle that keeps being mentioned throughout the study.
Various policy implications and recommendations have already been highlighted in this chapter namely: policies aimed at involving fathers in taking on their fair share of domestic duties; childcare subsidies for parents; awareness campaigns on the benefits of quality childcare; ‘after-school’ activities in all schools; media campaigns to challenge the traditional gender roles; more flexibility in employment etc.
• Social expectations and attitudes towards gender roles are changing very slowly in Maltese society which has an ingrained culture towards traditional roles and the motherhood mandate.

A mother is in a serious dilemma when she faces a decision to go back to work leaving her child/ren in care, even for just a few hours a day.

The response given by respondents shows how ambivalent they are towards this issue.
Ongoing and innovative media literacy programs regarding the portrayals of women and men at work and home can make important progress.

III.

Positive and negative aspects of employment on women • 88% of employed respondents say they feel work is something positive.

• 81% of employed respondents feel that work empowered them and affected their lifestyle in a positive manner.

• 77% of employed respondents feel that employment impacted positively on their well-being.
Unlocking the Female Potential - Research Report 43 • Respondents employed in higher grades report better positive impact than those in the lower grades.

• 2 out of 5 of all respondents claim that they lead a stressful life.

• 47% of respondents who work as Managers said they were stressed, 37% who worked in the elementary/service sector and 3% of inactive/unemployed also feel they were stressed.

• Respondents attribute stress not only to paid work but also to their personal life problems.
• 1 out of 3 employed respondents feel they are not being paid enough.

• Respondents working in the elementary/ service sector prefer working longer hours to earn more money.

• Respondents working as managers prefer to work regular hours and earn less money.

• Most employed respondents feel that it is still financially worthwhile to go to work after calculating the expenses incurred which are related to employment (e.g.

personal grooming, help at home, etc.)


and after income tax and national insurance contributions are deducted from the salary.

Policy Considerations • Research studies results on the positive aspects of working women which allows them to achieve economic independence and empowerment should be disseminated widely.
• Sharing best practices related to women’s economic independence by government measures and strategies of individual companies may influence the improvement of economic and social gender equality.

2.2.3 ACTIVITY III: Analysing the Effect of social security benefits on w omen in Their decision to Take Up Employment or Not I.
Profile of The Unemployed Cohort (n=500) • 68% of respondents are male, majority of which are between 35-64 years • 32% of respondents are female mainly between 15-34 years • 54% of respondents hold a secondary level of education • 53% of respondents are single • 67% of respondents do not have any caring responsibilities • 23% of respondents have caring responsibilities and are the main carers (both males and females) • Most respondents have 1 or 2 children • 9 out of 10 respondents are currently registering for work with ETC • 2 out of 5 have been unemployed for 1 to 5 years • Those registering for work for a longer time are aged 35 – 64 years • 88% of all respondents were employed in the past working in the elementary and services sector in the private sector • 3 out of 5 respondents used to earn a gross salary of less than €10,000 per annum in their last employment • Only 12% of respondents were never employed, these are under 34 years of age and were mostly students.
social background • 74% of all respondents’ households fall within the DE socio economic classification • 82% of all respondents that fall within the DE socio economic class are males and 56% are females • 73% of all respondents never had their parent unemployed during the latter’s employable age.

• Only 16% had their parent unemployed during their employable age.

These are primarily males.

• Almost half of respondents (48%), mostly male, are unemployed due to redundancies at their workplace.
44 National Commission for the Promotion of Equality social security benefits and beneficiaries • 64% of respondents are receiving benefits: 70% of males and only 49% of females.

• Respondents of a low level of education and who fall within the DE socio-economic classification tend to be more dependent on social security benefits than those who hold a higher level of education and whose households form part of the AB and C1C2 classifications.
• Social benefits for those seeking employment are the benefits mostly given to the respondents (74%).

• 59% of the respondents receive more than f151 in benefits every four weeks and have been receiving them for less than 3 years, the latter being mostly the case for females aged between 15 and 34 years.

• 17% of the respondents are getting between 76 and 100 every 4 weeks.
• Respondents who possess a high level of education are those who have been dependent on benefits for the shortest time, with the high majority of them having been receiving such benefits for less than a year.

Policy Considerations • Policies targeted at unemployed women to help them participate in the labour market should be different for different cohorts and status since women have different needs.
A woman between 35-64 years will not be interested in child care subsidies as much as a woman who is still rearing a young family but might be interested in tax credits or topping up of Social Security contributions, for example.

• Education and training programmes designed by the ETC intended for women to seek employment successfully may find more fertile ground with younger cohorts than with the older ones.

II.
II.

Looking For Employment • 93% of respondents, both male and female wish to find a job mainly because they have financial needs and because they wish to keep up with the standard of living.

• 54% of respondents claim that the main reason why they cannot find a job is because there is a lack of job opportunities, mainly indicated by males and females between 15-34 years.

• 84% of both male and female respondents are looking for full-time employment.
• A high number of females over 35 years of age wish to find a job on a part-time basis.

Many of these wish such type of work because, being the main carer in the household they do not wish to work full time.

• 37% of male and female respondents wish to find a job at an elementary/ plant and machine operator/ assembler level.

Others, mostly females, wish to find a service worker/ shop and sales worker or clerk job position.
• 73% of male and female respondents would also be willing to be engaged in a job which they do not actually desire, even if this is at a lower grade.

• 75% of respondents are not undergoing any training to improve their chances of finding a job.

• 25% of respondents are undergoing training: computer/ECDL, language, food handling, security, health and safety, and job skills course.
Policy Considerations • Since a number of unemployed respondents, including females previously in the manufacturing sector and especially those in the higher cohorts, have gone through redundencies, the ETC should design specific programmes targeted at such persons who are finding it difficult to re- integrate into the labour market.
• Tax credits and other incentives which are currently available to women returners, who may be benefiting from some social security benefits needs to be revised to make sure that it would pay off financially for women considering going back to the labour market.
Unlocking the Female Potential - Research Report 45 • The cooperative model of business enterprise is to be recommended as ideal for those women seeking to return to the labour market due to its values of self-help, democratic decision making, emphasis on education and training and social responsibility amongst others.
The resilience of this model in the face of the recent global recession is well documented and demonstrates the potential of this form of business enterprise to guarantee sustainable employment opportunities in a wide variety of economic sectors.
• It is being recommended that the government invests in a promotional and educational campaign to empower women to come together with others using this model, thus creating work opportunities for themselves with conditions which can be as flexible and family-friendly as they wish.

• The ETC should design and offer training courses on “Setting up your own business” using the cooperative model of enterprise.
This can be done in conjunction with Koperattivi Malta, the federation of Maltese cooperatives, which can offer its expertise and resources to ensure the effectiveness of such an initiative.

• Furthermore, it is being recommended that legislators and policy makers ensure that all legislation and policies are coop-friendly and that a level-playing field for this form of enterprise is guaranteed.

III.
III.

Abused vs Fair social security system • 45% of respondents feel that the social security system in Malta is being abused of, this being due to the high number of persons who register for employment and are doing informal work simultaneously.

• Respondents in the oldest cohort are more sceptical of the benefits system than those of a younger age.
• Others also tend to feel that the system does not work fairly for everyone, mainly because not everyone receives the same amount in benefits and the people who are truly in need are not getting sufficient assistance through these benefits.

• Working informally and getting benefits is considered by the respondents as a main reason of abuse.

• Other instances of abuse that respondents mention are ‘single’ women who have the support of a partner but still take benefits.
• People registering for work and receive benefits but do not really wish to work through laziness is also considered as abuse.

• 25% of respondents mainly younger than 34 years feel that the benefits are not abused of.

• 33% or respondents feel that the system of social security benefits in Malta does not work fairly for everyone.

• 30% of all respondents feel that the system is quite fair.

Policy Considerations • Respondents tend to feel that there is abuse of the social security benefits.
Government should always have an effective system to ensure that this does not happen.

In an effort to curb the abuse of social benefits, recipients who are abusing of benefits would have to reconsider their position and seek employment.
benefits vs Employment • 75% of respondents, who are the main income earners, claim that the financial benefits they receive are not enough to support their household (77% males and 67% females) • 11% of respondents maintain that the benefits they receive are enough to support their household • 12% of respondents are not receiving any benefits • 71% of respondents argue that the benefits they receive do not hinder them from looking for employment (72% males and 67% females) 46 National Commission for the Promotion of Equality • 13% of respondents maintain that benefits discourage unemployed persons from looking for a job • A bit less than half of respondents who wish to find a part time job say that they would be earning more through employment than they are currently receiving in benefits • Only one out of ten respondents say that they would not be earning more from a job than the benefits • Half of respondents say that they would earning more if they had a job • 26% of respondents did not know if they would be earning more through employment • 23% of respondents claim that they would earn less.
Awareness and availing of Government Incentives • ‘Ifta˙ in-Negozju Tieg˙ek’ (Start your own Business) scheme which was aimed at promoting entrepreneurship and thus increasing the participation in the labour market, is the scheme which the respondents are mostly aware of.

• “I CAN” Employability Programme and the Work Trial Scheme were also known to the respondents.

• Bridging the Gap Scheme, tax incentives on child care services are the incentives that the respondents are the least aware of.
• The “I CAN” Employability Programme is the scheme which was made use of the most by respondents, followed by the Work Trial Scheme and the Training Subsidy Scheme Objectives.

• Even though it was the scheme which respondents were mostly aware of, the “Ifta˙ in-Negozju Tieg˙ek” (Start your own Business) scheme was the one which was the least used by the respondents, followed by tax incentives on child care services.
Policy Considerations • More awareness on incentives to enable unemployed persons to make full use of them is imperative.

• Awareness raising campaigns on the incentives and programmes should include the benefits of dual earning spouses especially to women.

Respondents’ suggestions For Increased Participation in Labour Market • The government/ authorities should increase job opportunities.

• Offer incentives to employers to employ Maltese employees rather than foreigners.

• Increase salaries.


• Offer incentives targeting older employees.

• Offer more work opportunities in Gozo.

• Offer more training opportunities.

• Offer incentives targeted towards separated persons.

• More availability of childcare services.


2.3 Analysing Inactivity From A Gender Perspective – salient Conclusions and Policy Considerations Overriding Research Objectives The overriding research objective of this research project aimed at researching inactivity in the labour market from a gender perspective.

This was researched by way of two Activities.

ACTIVITY I: to analyse inactivity from a gender perspective.
This research project focused on identifying, understanding and validating the reasons underlying the inactivity of the female segment in the Maltese and Gozitan population.

Unlocking the Female Potential - Research Report 47 ACTIVITY II: to conduct an ‘inactive population skills’ study to understand better where and why the skills of the inactive do not match the requirements of the current labour market.
The following are the salient conclusions and research findings emanating from the studies and policy considerations addressing these Research Objectives.

2.3.1 ACTIVITY I: Analysing Inactivity From A Gender Perspective I.

Profile of the Inactive woman • The majority of inactive women are married and have one or two children, aged 13 years or over.

• More than half of inactive respondents have a secondary level of education and the vast majority (81%), are not pursuing any education or training.
• Nearly one in every four women aged between 15-34 years is either not satisfied or, not at all satisfied, with her activity status.

• The percentage of women who are not satisfied or not at all satisfied, goes down to 16% in the case of older women whose age is between 35- 59.

• Those who are satisfied or very satisfied with their activity status amount to 43%, in the case of those who are 15-34 years old.

This percentage goes up to 55% in the case of older women in the 35-59 age bracket.
• The vast majority (84%) of inactive women, who are under 35, expressed an interest in finding a job.

• Nearly half (46%) of the older women (35-59 years old) are also interested in finding a job.

• Less than one out of ten inactive women aged between 15-35 is not interested in finding a job.

• One out of three inactive women aged 35-59 is not interested in finding a job.

• Nearly all inactive women (90%) claimed that they would be willing to be trained in order to become employable.
• The mothers of nearly three out of every four women who participated in the survey were also inactive in the labour market.

Policy Considerations • There are clear differences in the orientation to paid work between younger and older inactive women.

• The fact that 84% of those aged 15-34 expressed an interest in finding a job is encouraging and policy makers should take note of this cohort of women who are more willing to re-enter the labour market.
Policies geared at this age group are likely to yield better results.

• A clear distinction should be made between policies geared at younger women who are in their childbearing and childrearing years, and older women whose children are older.

• Incentives geared at younger women which for example focus on child-care credits and NI credits, may not be effective or attractive to older women.
Specific polices need to be carved out for the cohort of older women (35-59) in order to attract them back to the labour market.

• It is extremely encouraging to note that 90% of inactive women are willing to further their education and training in order to become employable.

ETC should consider targeting part of its budget and resources for this cohort of potential workers.

II.

Past Employment History • One out of every four women (26%) never worked in the labour market.
• Just over a third (34%) of inactive women were absent from the labour market for more than ten years.

• The majority of women (73%) who previously worked did so on a full-time basis.

• The largest group of inactive women (37.5%) previously worked in the manufacturing sector.
48 National Commission for the Promotion of Equality Policy Considerations • Since the largest group of inactive women previously worked in the manufacturing sector and since their numbers are substantial, specific policies could be targeted at women who worked in this specific sector.
• Government could have specific policies geared at employers in the manufacturing sector in order to encourage them to offer more flexible and innovative working conditions in order to attract this cohort of women back to similar employment.

• In view of the decreasing manufacturing sector, women previously employed in this area may need to be retrained in order to enable them to work in different sectors where more job opportunities exist.

III.
III.

Reason for Their Inactivity • Over a third of the inactive women (38%), irrespective of their age, said that they were not working in order to take care of their children.

• A small minority (6%) were not working in order to take care of their parents (the percentage goes up to 8.2% of those aged 35-59).

• An even smaller minority (3%) were taking are of other relatives (the percentage goes up to 5.1% of those aged 35-59).
• One out of every five women (20%) in the 35-59 age bracket, indicated that they feel too old to look for work and nearly the same amount (17%) said they are not motivated to work.

• Only 7% of those under between 15-34 years indicated that they lack the motivation to work.

• On average, 3% do not think it is financially worthwhile to work.

• On average, 11% said they can afford to remain out of the labour market.

However, fewer younger women (7%) said so.


Policy Considerations • The care of children is proving to be the biggest stumbling block for Maltese women.

• This highlights the urgency to tackle important issues like the universal provision of childcare for the under 3’s, and the provision of after school services for school-age children, without further delays.

• Childcare services which tally with typical working hours are likely to ease the headaches for working parents and enable more women to work.
• Elderly care is causing problems to a much smaller cohort of inactive women (9%), however more services for the elderly and the disabled could also reduce the number of women being affected negatively.

IV.

Motivation to work?

• Three out of every four women want to work for financial reasons.

• Nearly one out every three women want to work in order to socialise.

• Just under a third (29%) want to pursue a career.
Policy Considerations • Policies on making work pay are likely to make a difference to women.

Hence, one needs to analyse how the current tax credits on offer to women returnees, affect women in low paid or part-time jobs.

Other incentives may be required to address such women whose income falls below the taxable income threshold.

• Highlighting the benefits of dual income for the family is important when communicating with inactive women.
Unlocking the Female Potential - Research Report 49 V. Recruitment services • A majority of inactive women (60%) said they would seek work through ETC or other recruitment agencies.

• Just over half (56%) prefer to find work through newspapers.
Policy Considerations • With the majority of inactive women claiming that they are likely to seek help through ETC to find work, Malta’s Public Employment Service should cater for inactive women as a specific target group in order to offer tailor made services in line with their needs.

• ETC should have programmes and possibly a specific unit that focuses on the need of women wanting to return to paid work.

VI.
VI.

Gender Roles • Nearly three quarters of respondents (74%) agree that it is possible for a woman to be a good mother and to have a career at the same time if she has support.

• Over half of respondents (58%) claimed that they agree or strongly agree that both men and women should work.

• Just over half of respondents (51%) disagree with statements about traditional gendered roles, namely that men should work and women care for the family.
• Nearly three quarters of respondents (73%) think that ideally a woman with caring.

responsibilities should work on a flexi-time/part-time/reduced hours/ teleworking basis.

• Less than half of respondents (40%) agree or strongly agree that mothers of young children should not work.

• Nearly half (49%) think that the father should be the main breadwinner when the children are small.

Policy Considerations • It is clear that perceptions about gender roles are slowly changing.
More education on the benefits of equal gender roles could speed up the process towards more gender equality.

• There should be more focus on men’s role in achieving gender equality.

A lot more can be done, for example to encourage more men to share the household chores and caring roles with their partners/spouse.
• NCPE should follow up the recommendations of this project and work with other entities in order to ensure that the employment and caring gaps between women and men continue to be reduced, thus ensuring more equitable gender roles.

VII.

Perceptions of Childcare Facilities • Just over a third (35%) claim that there are no childcare services in their town or village.

• A similar amount (35%), do not know whether such facilities exist in their town or village.
• Less than a third of inactive women (30%) are aware of childcare services in their locality.

• Less than half (42%) are willing to use the services of a childcare centre.

• Well over half of respondents (65%) still prefer to take care of their children themselves.

• Over half (54%) agreed that childcare centres are beneficial to children.

• Well over half of respondents (63%) believe that childcare centres are beneficial to children if only used for a few hours a day.
• Less than half (41%) believe that if they take their children to childcare they would feel as though they are ‘abandoning’ their children and hence they would not consider themselves to be good mothers for doing so.

• Less than half (42%) would feel that their mind is at rest when their child is at the childcare centre.
50 National Commission for the Promotion of Equality Policy Considerations • The fact that a little less than half (42%) of inactive mothers are willing to use the childcare centres, shows that perceptions on the use of childcare are slowly changing.

However, the findings indicate that inactive women are still confused on childcare and mothers are still riddled with guilt feelings if they send their children to childcare centres.
• Educating inactive women and the general public on the benefits of quality childcare is essential in order to increase the confidence of those using them.

Addressing negative misconceptions is also important.

• At present, childcare centres are regulated though the National Standards for Child Care Facilities (2006).

However, these are not legally binding and not all childcare centres are obliged to comply with them.
Since over five years have elapsed since these regulations have been enacted, childcare centres should finally become regulated by an act of law without further delays as this is likely to increase the confidence of parents in their use.

• The fact that 70% of inactive women either do not know whether childcare services exist in their locality or said there were none, shows that this issue requires much more attention than it has been given in the past by policymakers.
• The availability of more childcare centres should decrease the number of inactive women claiming they are not aware of, or do not have, a childcare centre in their locality.

Policy makers should consider using EU funds to increase the number of childcare centres.

• NCPE should ensure that awareness about this vital service does not dwindle.

VIII.
VIII.

Perceptions of Childcare Facilities (by those who had used them, n=36 respondents) • The vast majority of those who use childcare (78%) believe that the level of quality of childcare facilities was either good or very good.

• Only 8% believe that the service offered in childcare was very poor or poor.

• Just under half of the respondents (42%) would like to see lower prices being charged for the use of childcare.

• More than a third (39%) want more childcare centres to be available.
• Less than a third (31%) want extended opening hours of these hours which match typical office hours and the same amount believe that the staff should be better trained/more qualified.

Policy Considerations • The issue of affordability remains high on the agenda of those who use childcare services.
Since incentives to use childcare centres is tied to a tax break, policy makers should find ways of supporting mothers and fathers on low income who do not pay tax because they fall under the established thresholds.

Single parents may need more help on this.

• The vast majority (78%) of mothers who used childcare centres are very satisfied with the service.
The positive experience of such families could be useful in media campaigns or in Public Announcements to encourage more parents in similar situations to use them.

• The issue of the opening hours of the childcare centres is of some concern to inactive mothers.

Could the opening hours of child care centres become more regulated in order to ensure that working parents are well serviced without one of the parents having to change to part-time jobs, or to give up work, in order to pick up their children?
IX.

Perceptions of Elderly Care Facilities (n= 600 respondents) • Nearly half of respondents (46%) prefer to take care of their elderly themselves rather than using a care facility and (41%) feel they would feel they are abandoning them, if they did use a care facility.

• Less than half of the respondents (42%) would be willing to retire in an old people’s home.

• Just over half of inactive women (59%) think that the carers are professional and know how to handle their relative.
Unlocking the Female Potential - Research Report 51 • A majority of respondents (62%) feel that their mind is at rest when their relative is at the care centre.

Policy Considerations • Like in the case of the use of childcare, there is still some resistance to the use of care facilities for the elderly.

• More daycare facilities for the elderly in the community could solve the needs of inactive women who care for elderly parents but who could care for them at night.
• More homes for the elderly providing 24 hour care facilities are also necessary for inactive women who deal with elderly requiring more round the clock assistance.

X.

Government Incentives to Encourage More women to work • A large percentage of women (68%) were not aware of any government incentive to encourage more women to remain or return to the labour market.

• Only a small proportion (13%) of those aged 15-34 were aware of the d2000 tax rebate (23% of those aged 35+ knew).
• An even smaller proportion (4%) of those aged 15-34 were aware of the d1000 tax rebate on those who use childcare centres.

• Less than one in ten (8%) of those aged 15-34 were aware of the National Insurance credits to parents.

• Less than one in ten (8%) of those aged 15-34 were aware of the existence of subsidised childcare centres.

• It is abundantly clear that more information is needed on incentives earmarked at encouraging more women to return to the labour market.
A sustained campaign by different stakeholders should help in disseminating information on such incentives.

Policy Considerations • NCPE together with government entities can play an important role in raising awareness on these issues, using free air and radio time to give information on this subject to the general public.

• Childcare centres should alert parents who use their services on the childcare tax rebates.
• The income tax department could also give out more targeted information on tax incentives targeted at women returnees.

XI.

suggestions for services That would Encourage More Mothers to work a.

Flexible working Conditions • The vast majority of women (81%) agree with Teleworking and with reduced working hours (77%).

• More than three out of every four women (79 %) agree with flexible working hours.
Policy Considerations • The issue of flexible working arrangements, especially for women in the private sector, should be given more attention by policy makers.

• Keeping in mind that a number of employers already acknowledge the importance of family friendly measures, government should consider introducing a clause in the Employment and Industrial Relations Act (2002) giving working parents the right to request flexible working arrangements.
Parents whose request is rejected should have the right to appeal the decision.

This would give a legal base to transparency mechanisms within companies.

Equality Mark certified companies have already formally taken on board such practices.

52 National Commission for the Promotion of Equality • Policy makers should legislate in ways that make fathers share some of the family responsibilities so that mothers can extend their working time.
• One needs to check whether requests for flexible working conditions are so high because, for example, school opening hours do not tally with typical full-time working hours.

Requests for flexible working arrangements may decrease if childcare and school opening hours are more in line with normal working hours.

b.

Incentives to women Returnees • The vast majority of women (82%) agree with tax or financial benefits in the first 5 years for inactive women who return to work.
Policy Considerations • It is abundantly clear that the vast majority are in favour of tax benefits to encourage more women to return to work.

The issue of raising awareness on such benefits cannot be stressed enough, since it is seen so positively.

c. Incentives to Employers • A large proportion of inactive women (79%) agree with tax credits or financial benefits to employers who introduce flexible work arrangements.
Policy Considerations • Policy makers should find ways of encouraging employers to offer more family friendly measures to both women and men.

• This could be done through tax credits and incentives to buy equipment like laptops, for workers to work from home, for example.

d. Childcare Issues • A large majority of inactive women (83%) suggest the setting up of childcare centres at the place of work or close to work.
• More than three out of four women (78%) suggest the setting up of childcare centres in each locality attached to primary /secondary schools.

• The majority (72%) believe that childcare should always be subsidised.

• 70% agree that childcare centres should have an extended range of services and opening hours (only 9% disagree).

• There is less consensus (39%) on the issue of the extension of school opening hours through after-school play activities.
Policy Considerations • There is no doubt that there is wide consensus amongst inactive women on the need to set up more childcare centres both at the place of work or close to work, and also in each and every locality.

Policy makers should ensure that childcare services are widely available and accessible in order to allow working parents to choose the services that best suit their needs.
• Since nearly 40% agree on the need to extend school opening hours through play activities, policy makers should raise awareness about the available services and should continue investing in such schemes, since their uptake is likely to increase as the number of younger women also increases in the labour market.

e. Facilities for the Elderly • The vast majority of respondents (81%) agree that there should be more governmental facilities for the elderly/people with disability.
Unlocking the Female Potential - Research Report 53 Policy Considerations • The need for more government facilities for the elderly/persons with disability is evident and policy makers should continue investing in this area.

f. Awareness Raising • 70% agree with educational campaigns to change traditional gendered roles.

Policy Consideration • NCPE and other stakeholders should take note of this high demand for educational campaigns on gendered roles.
This could be done by tapping EU funds and by using the local media.

g. Education and Training • The vast majority (86%) of inactive women agree with the proposal for more training for inactive women.

Policy Considerations • ETC should organise tailor-made courses for inactive women in order to support them in their bid to become active in the labour market.

h. Other services • Well over half (64%) agree with the introduction of longer shop office hours/ Sunday shopping.

Only 18% disagree.
Only 18% disagree.

Policy Considerations • Policy makers should take note of this demand with regards to shop and office hours on Sunday.

i. Maternity Leave • The majority (63%) of respondents believe that maternity leave should be extended and should be paid in full.

19% of inactive women said that this does not affect them.

• Close to a third of respondents (29%) believe it should be extended to 6 months, whilst (27%) believe it should be extended to a full year.
• More than three out of every four inactive women (78%) would still consider making use of the maternity leave extension if they are only partially paid for this leave extension.

Policy Considerations • Whilst the majority of inactive women (63%) agree that maternity leave should be extended and paid in full, it is interesting to note that the vast majority (78%) of inactive women would still consider taking the leave even if they are only paid partially for the extension.
This shows that they are willing to bargain some of their income for more time with their baby.

However, unless maternity leave is paid, mothers with low means and those living on one income, may be constrained to return to paid work earlier, whilst those who can afford to, will take a longer maternity leave.
• Whilst by 2013 the maternity leave is due to increase to 18 weeks from the current 14 weeks (2011), this still falls short of the 20 weeks proposed by the Estrela Report, which also suggests that the leave is fully paid.
54 National Commission for the Promotion of Equality 2.3.2 ACTIVITY II: Assessing the skills of Inactive women I. Respondent Profile: Inactive Females and Local Employers Profile of Inactive Females (n=600) • 18% reached no formal level of education, some 29% attained a school-leaving certificate level and 27% possess an Ordinary level of education.19% obtained an Advanced level or equivalent level of education.

6.5% possess a tertiary level of education.


• The younger inactive females tend to possess a higher level of education than the older ones.

• 64% of the women are married, 2.2% co-habit, 28% are single and 5.3% are annulled/ divorced/ separated/ widowed.

• 64% of the women have child-caring responsibilities and are mothers of 1-2 children.

• 7% have dependent-adult caring responsibilities.


• 38% of the females have been out of paid employment for more than 10 years, while 25% never worked in their lives.

• 40% were employed in the ‘manufacturing sector’ and a third of these were employed as a ‘plant and machine operator/ assembler’.

25% held a ‘service/ market and sales worker’ position.

• Over 40% had held their last employment for more than five years and the high majority of these were employed on full-time basis.
Profile of Employers (n=600) • Interviewed companies employed at least one employee • Companies hailed from Malta’s 9 leading industry sectors.

• More than 57% of the employers are micro-companies (1-9 employees); 25% are small enterprises (10-49 employees) and 18% are medium-to-large enterprises (50+ employees).

• 87% hailed from the private sector and the remaining 13% from the public sector.

• 5.6% employers hailed from Gozo.


• Within the last 5 years, 26% of the employers recruited inactive females who were inactive for five years and over.

• The ‘health, social work and care work sector’ employs the highest number of female employees, who were previously inactive for five years and over, followed by the ‘education’ sector and the ‘public service’ sector.
• The companies which employ the larger number of ‘previously inactive’ females, possess a higher female-to-male workforce ratio and also offer family-friendly measures more than other employers.

• From the employers who employ previously inactive females, 43% employed women with an ‘Ordinary’ level standard of education, 32% employed women possessing a school leaving certificate and 23% employed inactive females holding an ‘Advanced’ level standard or equivalent.
Policy Considerations • Since nearly one in five women (19%) has an advanced level of education and a further 6.5% have a tertiary level of education, this shows that there is a considerable cohort of educated inactive women, who could possibly further their education and training in order to increase their chances of re-entering the labour market.
• MCAST, ITS, ETC and University should organise specific courses that cater for those who are currently inactive but who already have a certain level of education.

Currently few, if any courses, cater specifically for women returners in these institutions.
• Since those with lower levels of education are older, one could consider organising specific training courses for this cohort of inactive women combining work related skills, social skills and for example writing and reading skills for those who have no formal education.
Those with Unlocking the Female Potential - Research Report 55 a school leaving certificate and those who possess O’level standard of education, could be offered similar courses but with a higher level of academic content to build on their existing qualifications.

• Since the biggest cohort of inactive women (40%) worked in the manufacturing sector, one could consider organising sector specific training in order to encourage these women to re- enter the labour market.
Building on their past experiences and their strengths, such women could be offered courses that update their skills in order to make them more employable.

• It is fundamental that when organising courses aimed at attracting women back to the labour market one should consider the location, timing, means of advertising the course and its length in order to ensure that they reflect the needs of such women.
• The largest proportions of previously inactive women have entered sectors like health, social work, care work, and education.

Such sectors are normally administered by government and hence they have more flexible working.

This shows that work-life reconciliation remains an important factor for women with caring responsibilities.

Hence, employers should be made aware that by offering flexible working conditions they are likely to attract more workers to their organisation.

II.
II.

The skills of Inactive Females Language skills • 75% of inactive females consider themselves proficient users of oral and written Maltese.

• 60% of inactive females feel they are proficient users of oral and written English.

• 22% feel they are proficient in Italian.

• Local employers’ perceptions on the language skills of inactive women were slightly different.
64% of the employers, who recruited inactive women during the last five years, feel that these females are proficient in Maltese, while 49% of these employers believe that these females are proficient in English.

10% of these employers believe that these females are proficient in Italian.

Personal skills • Responsibility, communication and reliability are the three leading personal skills/ qualities characterising inactive women.
• Number crunching and calculations, creativity and artistic skills are their weakest personal skills.

• The employers who engage previously inactive women also perceive and confirm these as the strongest and weakest personal skills of inactive women.

Critical skills • Both inactive females and employers who employ inactive females perceive that the strongest critical skills characterising inactive females are teamwork, time management, customer handling and problem solving.
• Their weakest skills are project management, negotiating, financial management and entrepreneurial skills.

ICT skills • 60% and 53% of the inactive females believe they have good or very good skills in using email and searching the internet respectively.

• 44% believe they have good or very good skills using word processing packages and 31% possess good or very good proficiency with spreadsheet packages.

• 12% believe they possess good or very good proficiency in graphic design packages.
• Local employers employing inactive females also confirm these ICT competency levels.

56 National Commission for the Promotion of Equality Policy Considerations Employers seem to undervalue the skills of inactive women.
Hence it is important that when speaking about the inactive population, one needs to point out that this is not a homogeneous group, but a mixed cohort ranging from those who have a post secondary or tertiary level of education (19% and 6.5% respectively), to those with no formal qualifications who amount to 18% but, who may have varying additional skills ranging from ICT to language and other personal skills that are useful at the workplace.
• Inactive women have been perceived to be good at teamwork, time management, customer handling and problem solving.

Furthermore, responsibility, communication and reliability were identified as being important qualities characterising inactive women.

When designing courses for inactive women, one should build upon these strengths and make participants aware of them as a selling point during their interviews.
• More language training is needed to increase the pool of inactive women who are able to speak a foreign language fluently.

• It is encouraging to note that nearly half (44%) of inactive women have good or very good skills in word processing and over half (60%) are able to use email.

III.
III.

Employee skills Required by Employers Practical skills Required • 44% of all employers feel that the most important practical skills they look for when recruiting new employees (not necessarily inactive females) are previous work experience and team work.

• 42% of employers perceive sound social skills as essential in their line of business.

• Inactive females also confirmed that the practical skills most requested by local employers are previous work experience, teamwork and computer/ ICT skills.
• 81% of the employers who recruited inactive females in the last five years observed that inactive women do possess sound teamwork skills but unfortunately a significant number of them do not have the required job experience.

Personal skills Required • 53% of all employers perceive ‘honesty’ as the most important personal skill they look for in an employee at their workplace.
49% indicated ‘reliability/ taking work seriously’ and 45% indicated ‘courtesy/ politeness’ as the most important personal skill they look for in an employee.

• Inactive females also confirmed the above three personal skills as those mostly sought after by employers.

They also mentioned ‘punctuality’.

specific Technical skills Required • 45% of all employers require prospective candidates to possess specific technical skills in their respective line of business.
These technical skills largely comprise ‘IT and computer software skills’, ‘mechanical skills’ and ‘engineering skills’ and are mostly required in the ‘financial, business and community services sector’, the ‘transport, communications and ICT sector’ and in the ‘health, social work and care work sector’.

• 17% of inactive females possess some kind of specific technical skill.
The technical skills of the younger age group females were largely related to the fields of ‘beauty and hairdressing’, ‘art and creativity’, and ‘media and graphic design’ while the technical skills of the older age group females were sewing and crafts skills.
Policy Considerations • Since one out of four inactive female respondents indicated that they have never worked in their lives and more than a third (38%) stated that they have been out of paid employment for more than 10 years, lack of work experience is likely to hinder them from finding paid Unlocking the Female Potential - Research Report 57 work.
Hence, when organising courses for inactive women, where possible, these should include a work-experience or a work-taster, to enable such women to refresh their skills and increase their work experience in order to adapt to today’s work needs and environment.

Such courses should have elements that focus on the self esteem of women and on the importance of equitable gender roles, in order to ensure that women are sufficiently empowered to return to work, after a long absence from the labour market IV.
Training Training Attended by Inactive Females • 72% of inactive women do not attend any type of training.

The two salient reasons for this are because they do not have the time to attend courses or training or simply because they are not interested or motivated in doing so.

• 22% are undergoing some type of training, while 8.5% plan to do so in future.
A good majority of these are undergoing training or plan to undergo training with the specific objective of improving their job prospects and enhance their employability potential.

• Other inactive women are attending training for their own personal development and to widen their knowledge, in general.

• 72% of the employers who recruited inactive females in the last five years observed that these females are furthering their studies through training and courses.
• Some 40% of all inactive women never participated in any computer training.

• Another 20% learnt computer skills alone at home (self-taught) without any formal computer training.

19% took a course in computer training either at University or at a private education institution.

• 75% of inactive women do not possess an ECDL certificate.
Inactive Females’ Future Employment Ambitions • 30% of inactive females either do not see themselves working in any business sector in future (16%) or do not know which business sector to work in (13%).

• 19% of inactive females would see themselves working in the ‘health, social work and care work’ sector, 14% in the ‘education’ sector and 13% in the ‘wholesale and retail trade’ sector.
10% of inactive females see themselves working in the ‘public administration’ sector and a further 10% would prefer working in the ‘hotel and restaurants’ sector.

Training (for Inactive Females) Recommended by Local Employers and Inactive Females Themselves • 36% of all employers suggest that inactive females should undergo more computer skills and ICT-related training for these to increase their chances of finding employment.
• 31% of employers suggest that inactive females should seek job-specific training to be able to acquire specific technical skills.

• 20% of employers recommended that inactive females take on social skills training (e.g.

teamwork, assertiveness, customer care, time management, etc).

• Yet another 20% of employers recommended that they attend general training on new work practices/ retraining.
• These findings substantiate the employers’ perceptions on the most required ‘employee skills’ (social skills and computer skills) required by them and that the most lacking skills among inactive females are technical skills.
• Inactive women recommended the following training or courses which may enhance their skills and assist them in finding employment, which largely match the training recommended by local employers: - Basic computer skills - Social skills training 58 National Commission for the Promotion of Equality - Communication courses/ basic training to keep up with the current work environment/ be able to integrate - Inactive women also indicated that training courses should be made available in all localities and that part-time courses should also be held in the morning.
- Inactive women suggested that job opportunities and courses offered should be better advertised.

Policy Considerations The areas of work which interest most inactive women are: health, social and care work (19%) followed by work in the education sector (14%).

Jobs in these two sectors are likely to be in the Public domain.
Because government is trying to control the number of jobs in the public sector/ service, such women should be encouraged to explore alternative areas of work offered by the Private sector.

Alternatively, if there is demand for such jobs in the public sector/service, one should ensure that such jobs are marketed in ways that attract the attention of inactive women, amongst others.
Unless such marketing earmarks inactive women, there is the risk that this category of women who are not registering for work, will not become aware of such vacancies and work opportunities.

• Courses related to the wholesale and retail trade sector and to the hotels and restaurants’ sector are also likely to attract interest since 13% and 10% of inactive women declared that they prefer to work there.
• As reiterated earlier, the timing and location of courses aimed at inactive women, should take into consideration the specific needs of such women.

For example, those with small children are more likely to be in a position to attend training courses when their children are at school.

Moreover, if courses are held closer to their town or village, inactive women may be more inclined to attend than if, for example, the courses entail a longer journey.
• When advertising courses aimed at inactive women, one should ensure that they reach the target audience.

Different mediums may need to be used in order to reach them.

Schools could be a good medium for disseminating courses aimed, amongst others, at younger mothers whose children attend primary or secondary schools.

V. Job Opportunities Available • 38% of all employers do not have any job vacancies (over the last five years) which could have been appropriate for inactive females seeking employment.
In fact, these employers did not employ any previously inactive females over the last five years.

These employers were largely engaged in the ‘real estate and construction sector’.

• Another 35% of employers did have job vacancies (over the last five years) appropriate for inactive females seeking employment.

These employers hailed largely from the ‘hospitality and tourism sector’ and the ‘public administration’ sector.
• An additional 27% of employers claimed that some of their job vacancy opportunities were deemed to be appropriate for inactive females seeking employment.

These hailed from the ‘health, social work and care work sector’ and the ‘financial, business and community services sector’.
• Almost half (45%) of all employers find difficulty in filling job positions requiring ‘low-skilled’ employees as against almost a third (27%) of employers, whose difficulty lies more in filling in ‘high-skilled’ job positions.
• The following findings relating to the difficulties encountered by employers to fill in job positions emerge across all of Malta’s 9 leading business sectors: - 15% and 7% of all employers encounter difficulty in filling in their ‘operational (in services)’ and ‘operational (in manufacturing)’ job vacancy positions respectively.

- 8.5% and 8% of all employers find difficulty in filling in their ’salespersons’ and ‘elementary workers/ unskilled workers’ job positions respectively.
Unlocking the Female Potential - Research Report 59 - The more difficult-to-fill ‘specialised/ skilled positions’ include ‘technician’ (7%), ‘managerial/ line managers’ (6%) and ‘senior management’ (4.5%) respectively.

- 32% of employers do not find difficulty in filling in job positions.
• The study’s research findings concur with information obtained from the Employment & Training Corporation (ETC) which shows that the most sought after and advertised job positions across Malta’s 9 business sectors are largely positions, which do not demand highly specialised technical skills and high qualifications.
The 3 most sought after positions (by business sector) advertised on ETC’s website/ recruitment facilities during the period May 2010 – May 2011 comprised: - Financial, Business and Community Service: Customer Care/ Telephone Operator; Cleaner/ Room Attendant; Cleaner.

- Retail and Wholesale: Sales Person; Delivery Person; Sales Person (Promoter).

- Real Estate and Construction: Construction, Concrete Shutterer; Electrician (Building); Labourer (Building Construction).
- Hospitality and Tourism: Cleaner/ Room Attendant; Waiter, Waitress; Chef/ Sous Chef or Chef De Partie’.

- Transport, Communications and Ict: Salesperson (Travel); Clerk, Accounting and Bookkeeping; Computer Professional.

- Health and Social Work and Care Work: Storekeeper; Nurse, State Registered (Srn); Instructor/ Other Associated Professional.

- Public Administration: Teacher, Primary Education Facilitator (Education Environment); Care Worker/ Children.
• 64% of all employers do not take ‘gender’ into consideration when they recruit new employees.

• 28% of all employers take ‘gender’ into consideration for certain job positions, which require physical strength (where male applicants are preferred) and which require good customer interface and organisational skills (where female applicants are preferred).

This finding emerged more in the ‘health, social work and care work’ sector.
Policy Considerations • This research confirmed that the most sought after and advertised job positions across Malta’s 9 business sectors are largely positions which do not demand highly specialised technical skills and high qualifications.

When one considers that nearly half of inactive women (47%) have a secondary level of education or lower, one may need to increase awareness about work opportunities for this cohort of women who may still be able to find a job, in spite of their low qualifications.
• In order to make work pay, government should consider giving in-work incentives to women in low paying jobs.

• ETC could consider organising job fairs/ information sessions for inactive women in order to increase their awareness about current work opportunities and about training courses available to them.

These could possibly be held in collaboration with local councils.
• Whilst it is positive to note that 64% of employers claim that they do not take gender into consideration when recruiting new employees, it is worrying to note that 28% do so and tend to prefer men or women for specific jobs.

This shows that certain employers are not aware that it is illegal to discriminate on the basis of gender.

NCPE and other government entities should continue to raise awareness about such issues with both employers and prospective employees.
60 National Commission for the Promotion of Equality 2.4 Research on Gozitan women in Employment - salient Conclusions and Policy Considerations Overriding Research Objectives The overriding objective of this project aimed at exploring and understanding the factors affecting Gozitan women, in order to identify their perceptions and needs in the area of paid employment.
The following are the salient conclusions and research findings emanating from the two studies and policy considerations addressing these Research Objectives.

2.4.1 Gozitan women in Employment I.

Profile of the Employed Gozitan women (n=500) • 77.4% of women work in Gozo, while the rest in Malta.

Younger women are more likely to be working in Malta.

48% either own an accommodation in Malta or rent one.

The rest commute, mostly on a daily basis.


• 30% have a tertiary level of education, slightly higher than the Maltese respondents.

• 43% are single, 53% are married or cohabiting.

• The most prevalent household formation is that of four persons.

• The majority of the older cohort have caring responsibilities, mainly children.

• About 72% are employed in lower level jobs, ranging from elementary jobs to clerical work.

The rest are in technical/professional/managerial grades.
• The three main areas of employment for the younger group are retail and wholesale, education, tourism and travel, while for the older group the areas are education, retail and wholesale, and health and social work.

Only 2.5% still work in the manufacturing sector.

• 41% are employed with the public sector and this is higher for the older group.

This figure is double the Maltese respondents (20.4%).

• 72% work on a full-time basis, which is higher than the 65% of Maltese.
• 45% earn less than 10,000, lower than the Maltese (48%), only 1.8% earn more than their husband, compared to 5.6% for Maltese.

Policy Considerations • One fourth of women work in Malta and only about half commute to and fro.

The fact that half of these have bought accommodation in Malta will probably mean they intend to settle down in Malta, meaning a loss in human resources for Gozo.
More attention needs to be given to retain Human Resources in Gozo either by improving access to the mainland to make commuting easier on a daily basis or creating job opportunities in Gozo itself.

• Although 30% of Gozitan women have a tertiary level of education, only 26% occupy professional or managerial level jobs.

Education appears to be the most popular sector for women probably because this is perceived to be by many the only professional sector which accommodates women with children.
The public sector is also found to be more accommodating and in fact employs a higher proportion of people than the private sector in Malta.

More attention can be given to marketing other sectors such as IT, accountancy or legal services which can be provided online irrespective of residency.

• Salaries tend to be lower in Gozo than in Malta and this is mainly due to a higher supply of women and the prevalence of lower level types of jobs.
Policy needs to focus on new types of jobs which can be encouraged in Gozo, for example in the creative and knowledge industries.

Unlocking the Female Potential - Research Report 61 II.

Reasons why Gozitan women work • Main reason for working is financial necessity, and this is higher in the older group but at the same percentage as Maltese respondents (69%).

• The second reason is to be financial independent and this was higher for the younger group and also higher than the Maltese respondents.
• Other reasons include socialisation, to keep updated on currents events, self-development and a sense of fulfillment.

• Only 2.4% chose career as their first option.

Policy Considerations • If the main reason is necessity, there may be many reasons: inflationary processes, excessive home demands; mismanagement of money; low salaries.

Appropriate policies depend on the source of this necessity.

Studies need to be conducted to ascertain these.


• Soft reasons such as socialisation and self-development lead to more emancipation and fulfillment and are to be encouraged as a positive element connected with female employment.

Women need to be confident that careers are achievable.

Awareness programmes are needed in all of these cases.

III.

Needs and difficulties Faced by Females in Employment • 65% indicate the main problem is juggling family and work, compared to 62.6% for Maltese.
• The second problem for Gozitans is the restricted labour market on the island, at 9.6%, which was only 2% for the Maltese labour market.

• Lack of support from partner/husband accounted for 3.2% for Gozitans and 5% for Maltese.

• The lack of flexible work conditions was seen as a problem by 2% of Gozitans and 3.4% of Maltese.

• After having children 27% of Gozitan workers stopped working while 44% of Maltese did so.

• Only 13.6% of Maltese kept on working full-time, compared to 31% of Gozitans.
• 75% utilised mainly grandparents as babysitters while the Maltese cohort was slightly lower at 65%.

Only 8% and 11% respectively made use of childcare centres.

• 74% of Gozitans, compared to 52% of Maltese also continued working full-time in the case of dependent elderly or disabled relatives.

• 77% believe women are looking for jobs at the lower end, restaurants, hotels, cleaning, retail outlets and clerical, while only 8% look for a professional job.
This is compared to 67% and 11.6% respectively for Maltese.

Policy Considerations • Juggling family and work can be made easier by offering more flexible workplaces and by instilling the idea that family is an equal unit and not separate entities with different roles.

• Policies focused on job creation in Gozo is the optimal way of increasing employment on the island without the need to travel to Malta.
• Gozitans find more support from family and relatives and this allows them to remain in full- time employment.

The creation of affordable childcare centres, catering for longer hours, may provide more possibilities for women working.

Public private partnerships may be a good system to adopt.

• Job prospects are believed to exist only in elementary occupations.

Programmes focusing on self-employment may encourage a new breed of business women.
Encouragement of foreign direct investment or micro-finance measures may also be an aid in this respect.

62 National Commission for the Promotion of Equality IV.

Career development and Advancement • 92% of all respondents indicate that having a job is important or very important.

• 15% of Gozitans compared to 21% of Maltese see their work as a career rather than a job.

46% of all respondents see it primarily as a job, while 38% (compared to 32% of Maltese) see it as both a job and a career.
• In order for a woman to work, further education and training is seen to be the most important factor by 39% of Gozitans and 29.6% of Maltese.

The second relates to opportunities on the market by 28% of Gozitans and 24.8% of Maltese.

According to 16% of Maltese and 12.8% of Gozitans the third option is the woman’s own initiative and ambition.

• Gender does not appear to be an issue when considering promotions in the public sector for 61.5% and 64.7% of Gozitan and Maltese respondents respectively.
However, 25% and 30.4% still see it as a problem while the others refused to commit themselves.

In the case of the private sector, 65% (Gozo) and 53.5% (Malta) do not consider gender to be an issue in the case of promotions, while 24.7% (Gozo) and 35% (Malta) consider it a problem.

Policy Considerations • Gozitans see their job as less of a career, and yet they believe that further education and training are important.
One of the demands made during the qualitative phase was the need to organise more courses in Gozo, even if at times these were not financially feasible.

Policy should thus be focused on subsidising such courses when demand is not high because of the restrictions of the small labour market.

• Gender remains a problem for about one fourth of respondents both in the private and public sector.

More transparency in selection criteria may need to be more evident.
V. societal Perceptions on working women • Most respondents feel that society has changed its perceptions towards working women and more Gozitans (90.2%) think so compared to the Maltese (86.6%).

There is hardly any difference between the two age-groups.

• 83.4% of Gozitans and 72% of Maltese believe it has become the norm for a woman to work.

• Most respondents consider it an accomplishment for a woman to work.

• Women are appreciated for being able to balance family and work.
• Over half of all respondents (52% for Gozo and 50.4% for Malta) believe that, now, duties at home are shared.

However, an average of 38% of all respondents still consider that the onus remains on the woman.

The percentage is slightly higher in Gozo (39.6%) compared to Malta (37.2%).

• More Gozitans (60%) than Maltese (43.2%) feel that children need to be taught at an early age that the roles of males and females are not different.
• The second choice (higher for Maltese) was the knowledge that sharing responsibilities led to a healthier family relationship.

• The third option for Maltese is the fact that a wife’s job does not mean accommodating her husband/partner, while for Gozitans it was the fact that raising children is not solely a woman’s role.

Policy Considerations • Only half of respondents actually believe that household chores are shared in a family.
Educational campaigns may bring awareness; however, trends do not change overnight, based on publicity campaigns.

Educational policy from a young age has a more long-term effect.

The policy needs to be accompanied by possible changes in educational material and even curriculum to include changes in traditional roles and stereotypes.

Many educational systems abroad offer good examples of gender equality in the home.

Unlocking the Female Potential - Research Report 63 3.
THE sITUATION OF MALE ANd FEMALE ENTREPRENEURs ANd VULNERAbLE wORKERs IN MALTA 3.1 Research Objectives 3.1.1 Overriding Research Objective The overriding research objective of this project aimed at researching the situation of male and female entrepreneurs and vulnerable workers in Malta.

This was researched by way of two Activities.


ACTIVITY I: A comparative study focusing on male and female entrepreneurs, seeking to explore their main reasons for making such a choice in their lives, also looking at their overall expectations.

ACTIVITY II: A study to increase the knowledge of the reality of ‘vulnerable’ workers in Malta.
This research study sought to explore self/employed/contract workers in the tourist industry, the cleaning industry and language schools and to try and assess and understand what makes their situation vulnerable.

3.1.2 Project specific Objectives Activity I The specific research objectives of Activity I comprised the following: • To explore and identify the major differences characterising male and female entrepreneurs in their initial motivation factors that encouraged them to take up entrepreneurship.
the training opportunities that they participated in, the support structures and incentives that they make use of, their main achievements and challenges and their future plans.

• To explore and identify the particular fields that male and female entrepreneurs are engaged in and analyse the reasons behind any potential gender segregation in entrepreneurship in Malta and Gozo.
• To carry out a needs assessment in order to identify their challenges and to recommend ways to address these challenges and enhance the support structures available to them.

• To develop recommendations on how potential male and female entrepreneurs in Malta and Gozo may be assisted in the transition between training, self-employment and business creation.

Activity II The specific research objectives of Activity II comprised the following: To explore and identify: • The meaning of ‘vulnerability’.
• Profiles of the persons who work in the tourist industry, cleaning services and language schools.

• What are the conditions that make jobs in the tourist industry, in the cleaning services and in language schools vulnerable.

• The differences between grades and positions within each industry and establish which grades are most vulnerable within each of the above industries.
• Propose recommendations on how working conditions can be improved to reduce vulnerability and respective consequences of being a vulnerable worker.

64 National Commission for the Promotion of Equality 3.2 A Review of Recent Literature 3.2.1 A definition of Entrepreneurship A definition of Entrepreneurship There are various interpretations and definitions of entrepreneurship.
According to academics and business experts, the definition of entrepreneurship evolves around the combining of ideas, hard work, management, meeting market demands and adjusting to the ever-changing business market.

However, more importantly, it describes the key directive to any business, ie innovation.

Innovation is, in fact, by far the primary factor that governs the very creation of a small business or entrepreneurship.
As the business guru Peter F Drucker claimed some two decades ago: “Innovation is the specific instrument of entrepreneurship … the act that endows resources with a new capacity to create wealth” (Drucker, 1985).

In practice, entrepreneurship and innovation are very closely correlated, however the exact nature of the relationship remains very hard to identify (Offerle, 2006).
However, one must note that “for most of industrial history, small firms have been responsible for the bulk of breakthrough products” (The Economist, 2004).

However, defining innovation is very difficult and it has given rise to a wealth of academic literature (Edwards, 2004) and at times it does not constitute the micro entrepreneur’s first priority (Offerle, 2006).

For the purpose of this paper, innovation will be defined as “the successful exploitation of new ideas” (DTI-UK, 2003).
However, it must be borne in mind that having a bright idea is not sufficient.

An inventor does not become an innovator until he/she has managed to turn his/ her idea into something new which will bring extra value to the consumer of his/her original idea (Offerle, 2006).

So it is essential that one differentiates between invention and innovation.

Invention is the manifestation of an idea.

Innovation is the commercial application and successful exploitation of the idea.

(Business Link, 2005).


Moreover, for the purpose of this study, the notion of innovation will be extended to refer to both processes and/or products/services.

Innovations can be anything that introduces the inventions of new products that change the marketplace or even create a new marketplace.

Some such innovations may even replace current innovations to become the preferred product or process.
defining Micro, small and Medium-sized Enterprises In 1996, the European Commission adopted a recommendation establishing the first common definition of small and medium-sized enterprises in the EU (Commission Recommendation 96/280/EC).
This definition was then replaced by the Commission Recommendation concerning the definition of micro, small and medium-sized enterprises of 6 May 2002 (Commission Recommendation 2003/361/EC) which entered into force on 1 January 2005 and is now mandatory for national state aid schemes and community programmes.

SMEs face particular difficulties which the EU and national legislation try to address by granting them various advantages.
The application of a common definition by the Commission, Member States, the EIB (European Investment Bank) and the EIF (European Investment Fund) ensures consistency and effectiveness of those policies targeting SMEs and, therefore, limits the risk of distortions of competition in the Single Market.
By virtue of this Recommendation, in all the Member States, enterprises qualify as micro, small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) if they fulfill the criteria laid down in the Recommendation which are summarised in Table 3.1 below.

In addition to the staff headcount ceiling, an enterprise qualifies as an SME, if it meets either the turnover ceiling or the balance sheet ceiling, but not necessarily both.
Unlocking the Female Potential - Research Report 65 TABLE 3.1 – Defining Size of Enterprise TABLE 3.1 – Defining Size of Enterprise Enterprise category Headcount Turnover or Balance sheet total medium-sized Small Micro < 250 < 50 < 10 ≤ € 50 million ≤ € 10 million ≤ € 2 million ≤ € 43 million ≤ € 10 million ≤ € 2 million Source: Commission Recommendation 2003/361/EC of 6 May 2003 concerning definition of micro, small and medium-sized enterprises.
European Commission, 2003 Source: Commission Recommendation 2003/361/EC of 6 May 2003 concerning definition of micro, small and medium-sized enterprises.
European Commission, 2003 The Contribution of Micro and Small Enterprises to the Economy The Contribution of Micro and small Enterprises to the Economy Micro, small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) remain the back bone of the European Union Micro, small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) remain the backbone of the European Union economy as they are a major source of entrepreneurial skills, innovation and employment.
Given that 99.8 per cent of all enterprises in the EU are SMEs, a ratio that has been fairly stable over the past economy as they are a major source of entrepreneurial skills, innovation and employment.

Given years, the typical EU’s enterprise is an SME, or more specifically a micro-enterprise with less than 10 that 99.8% of all enterprises in the EU are SMEs, a ratio that has been fairly stable over the past employees.
In 2010, 19.2 million micro-enterprises operated in the EU, comprising 92 per cent of all years, the typical EU’s enterprise is an SME, or more specifically a micro-enterprise with less than European enterprises.

This is clearly a marked contrast when compared with the number of large 10 employees.

In 2010, 19.2 million micro-enterprises operated in the EU, comprising 92% of all enterprises in the EU, accounting for only 0.2 per cent.

(European Commission, DG Enterprise, 2011).

European enterprises.


This is clearly a marked contrast when compared with the number of large enterprises in the EU, accounting for only 0.2%.

(European Commission, DG Enterprise, 2011).


The essential role of micro and small businesses in boosting the overall economic growth of a country is being increasingly acknowledged: “a vibrant small business sector creates wealth and employment, generates competitive pressure that drives innovative activity and improves the range, quality and prices of goods and services for consumers”.

(Financial Times, 2004).


The essential role of micro and small businesses in boosting the overall economic growth of a country is being increasingly acknowledged: “a vibrant small business sector creates wealth and employment, generates competitive pressure that drives innovative activity and improves the range, quality and prices of goods and services for consumers”.

(Financial Times, 2004).


Reaching Out To Micro and Small Business Entrepreneurs Challenges Faced by SMEs Micro, small and medium-sized enterprises comprise all types of firms ranging from one-person businesses to co-operatives.

Whilst some enterprises offer very traditional services or craft products, many others are fast-growing high-tech companies.

Despite these differences, European micro, small and medium-sized enterprises share many challenges.
Reaching Out To Micro and small business Entrepreneurs Figure 3.1 below illustrates the most important challenges / problems EU SMEs are facing (European Commission, 2008 – Report on the Results of the Open Consultation on a Small Business Act for Europe).

Challenges Faced by sMEs Micro, small and medium-sized enterprises comprise all types of firms ranging from one-person businesses to co-operatives.
Whilst some enterprises offer very traditional services or craft products, many others are fast-growing high-tech companies.

Despite these differences, European FIGURE 3.1 – Most Important Challenges/ Problems EU SMEs Face micro, small and medium-sized enterprises share many challenges.
Adm inistrative and regularity burden Acces s to finance Figure 3.1 illustrates the most important challenges / problems EU SMEs are facing (European Commission, 2008 – Report on the Results of the Open Consultation on a Small Business Act for Europe).
Acces s to public procurem ent Lack of s kills Taxation Unfair/ too s trong com petition Labour law Late paym ents Acces s to Single Market Acces s to EU programm es Acces s to international m arkets The two salient challenges / problems facing most micro, small and medium-sized enterprises in Europe are ‘administrative and regulatory burden’ and ‘gaining access to appropriate finance’.
The cost of administrative and regulatory procedures for a small company can be up to ten times more than for a large company making this burden disproportionately heavy for small business.

Moreover, ‘access to appropriate finance’ ranked a close second problem faced by European SMEs.

Investors and banks often shy away from financing start-ups or young SMEs due to the risks 0 involved.
Moreover, entrepreneurs sometimes have limited understanding of investors’ or banks’ concerns, which makes it harder for them to find the financial backing they need.
Ins tability world econom y/ energy cos ts Acces s to inform ation and advice 80 100 120 140 160 Num be r of Re plie s 20 40 60 SME definition 68 A new “small business Act” (sbA) for Europe In March 2008, the European Council expressed strong support for an initiative to further strengthen micro, small and medium-sized enterprises’ (SMEs) sustainable growth and competitiveness, by way of the “Small Business Act” (SBA) for Europe.
At the heart of this SBA is the conviction that achieving the best possible framework conditions for SMEs depends first and foremost on society’s recognition of entrepreneurs.
The general climate in society should lead 66 National Commission for the Promotion of Equality TABLE 3.1 – Defining Size of Enterprise Enterprise category Headcount Turnover or Balance sheet total medium-sized Small Micro < 250 < 50 < 10 ≤ € 50 million ≤ € 10 million ≤ € 2 million ≤ € 43 million ≤ € 10 million ≤ € 2 million Source: Commission Recommendation 2003/361/EC of 6 May 2003 concerning definition of micro, small and medium-sized enterprises.
European Commission, 2003 The Contribution of Micro and Small Enterprises to the Economy Micro, small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) remain the back bone of the European Union economy as they are a major source of entrepreneurial skills, innovation and employment.

Given that 99.8 per cent of all enterprises in the EU are SMEs, a ratio that has been fairly stable over the past years, the typical EU’s enterprise is an SME, or more specifically a micro-enterprise with less than 10 employees.
In 2010, 19.2 million micro-enterprises operated in the EU, comprising 92 per cent of all European enterprises.

This is clearly a marked contrast when compared with the number of large enterprises in the EU, accounting for only 0.2 per cent.

(European Commission, DG Enterprise, 2011).


The essential role of micro and small businesses in boosting the overall economic growth of a country is being increasingly acknowledged: “a vibrant small business sector creates wealth and employment, generates competitive pressure that drives innovative activity and improves the range, quality and prices of goods and services for consumers”.

(Financial Times, 2004).


Reaching Out To Micro and Small Business Entrepreneurs Challenges Faced by SMEs Micro, small and medium-sized enterprises comprise all types of firms ranging from one-person businesses to co-operatives.

Whilst some enterprises offer very traditional services or craft products, many others are fast-growing high-tech companies.

Despite these differences, European micro, small and medium-sized enterprises share many challenges.
Figure 3.1 below illustrates the most important challenges / problems EU SMEs are facing (European Commission, 2008 – Report on the Results of the Open Consultation on a Small Business Act for Europe).
FIGURE 3.1 – Most Important Challenges/ Problems EU SMEs Face FIGURE 3.1 – Most Important Challenges/ Problems EU SMEs Face Adm inistrative and regularity burden Acces s to finance Taxation Lack of s kills Acces s to public procurem ent Unfair/ too s trong com petition Labour law Acces s to Single Market Acces s to EU programm es Late paym ents Acces s to international m arkets Acces s to inform ation and advice Ins tability world econom y/ energy cos ts SME definition 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 Num be r of Re plie s SOURCE: Report on the Results of the Open Consultation on a Small Business Act for Europe.
European Commission, 2008 68 individuals to consider the option of starting their own business as attractive, and acknowledge that SMEs contribute substantially to employment growth and economic prosperity … the “Think Small First” principle.
(European Commission, 2008) This is why the “Small Business Act” aims to improve the overall policy approach to entrepreneurship, to irreversibly anchor the “Think Small First” principle in policy-making from regulation to public service, and to promote SMEs’ growth by helping them tackle the remaining problems which hamper their development.

The “Small Business Act” aims at developing a comprehensive policy framework for the EU and its Member States through a set of 10 principles.
These 10 principles are essential to (a) bring added value to at EU level, (b) create a level playing field for SMEs and (c) improve the legal and administrative environment throughout the EU.

(European Commission, 2008).

These 10 principles comprise: • Entrepreneurship: Create an environment in which entrepreneurs and family businesses can thrive and entrepreneurship is rewarded.

• Second Chance: Ensure that honest entrepreneurs who have faced bankruptcy quickly get a second chance.
• Think Small First: Design rules according to the “Think Small First” principle • Responsive Administration: Make public administrations responsive to SMEs’ needs • Public Procurement & State Aid: Adapt public policy tools to SME needs: facilitate SMEs’ participation in public procurement and better use State Aid possibilities for SMEs.

• Finance: Facilitate SMEs’ access to finance and develop a legal and business environment supportive to timely payments in commercial transactions.
• Single Market: Help SMEs to benefit more from the opportunities offered by the Single Market • Skills & Innovation: Promote the upgrading of skills in SMEs and all forms of innovation • Environment: Enable SMEs to turn environmental challenges into opportunities • Internationalisation: Encourage and support SMEs to benefit from the growth of markets.

Unlocking the Female Potential - Research Report 67 Malta’s Small Business Bill is currently being discussed in Parliament.
Availability of Micro-credits and Micro-Loans In the past, surveys have shown that new entrepreneurs often find it difficult to borrow small amounts of money because many banks see micro-credit, in particular micro-loans to start-ups, as a high-risk, low-return activity where overhead costs are high in relation to the amount lent.

(European Commission, 2010).


In November 2007, the European Commission launched the “European initiative for the development of micro-credit in support of growth and employment”, which is currently being implemented by the Directorate-General for Regional Policy.

This initiative focuses on unemployed or inactive people who want to go into self-employment but, for various reasons, do not have access to traditional banking services.
The initiative sets up a framework which is focused on four main areas, namely, (a) the legal and institutional environment in the Member States; (b) further changing the climate in favour of entrepreneurship; (c) promoting the spread of best practices, including training; and (d) providing additional financial capital for micro-credit institutions.

(European Commission, 2010).


business support services offered by Local Government The UK scenario Although the small and medium-sized enterprises in the UK that are familiar with Government services, appear fairly satisfied, only a small majority of them turn to Government business support.

At any rate, the smaller the firm, the less frequent the call for Government help.
In UK, it appears that a significant number of small firms do not use Government business support services simply because they do not sense the need for them (Offerle, 2005) Moreover, it appears that the UK Government has acknowledged the shortcomings of the services it offers to its micro- and small business community.

Many micro and small business enterprises in UK see Government business support services as fragmented, confusing and difficult to access and not particularly customer focused.
(DTI, 2004).

Moreover, micro firms need time and money, the two assets these enterprises are probably the shortest of.

The blame may be put on the UK Government for not showing enough initiative to meet the specific needs of micro enterprises.

Micro firms, especially family businesses, are usually too small to afford to employ personnel to face up to the growing constraints imposed on them by administrative tasks and strict deadlines with hefty penalties/ fines if such deadlines are not adhered to.
(Offerle, 2005).

The Malta scenario In 2007, the Malta Enterprise Act underwent a revision to include a new range of incentives in line with the current EU State Aid policies.

The remit of Malta Enterprise included that of articulating incentives to promote the growth and sustainability of the local economy through SMEs.
(Camilleri, 2008) The range of incentives which Malta Enterprise offers to micro, small and medium-sized enterprises operating in Malta comprise: • The Malta Enterprise Act Investment Aid is open to all manufacturing activities and sub- contractor sectors to which local manufacturing SMEs may benefit.

Under the previous ‘Business Promotion Act (BPA), investment aid was restricted to the target sectors involved in export.
68 National Commission for the Promotion of Equality • The Malta Enterprise Act also established the principle of positive discrimination towards SMEs by offering higher “Intensity Levels”.

Intensity levels are the percentage of assistance that each member state can give.

The intensity levels awarded to SMEs in Malta are higher than large companies, also operating in Malta.
• The Act also allows for incentives for manufacturing SMEs to promote the sales of their locally manufactured goods abroad, particularly in the EU market.

• Malta Enterprise facilitates and houses the setting up of promising micro enterprises at its Kordin Business Incubation Centre.

• SMEs engaged in manufacturing sectors are supported with loan guarantees, soft loans and loan interest subsidies.
• Malta Enterprise offers various support measures for the innovation and competitiveness of SMEs and also offers assistance related to a number of EU programmes and projects.

• ETC offers a range of a wide ranging of training schemes to which SMEs are also eligible.
Exploring Male and Female Entrepreneurship Potential Exploiting Untapped Entrepreneurship Potential In women The general thrust of Government policy of any country is to segment the business community into as many sub-groups with common interests as possible.

In a sense, it is akin to the EU subsidiarity principle (Offerle, 2006).

Entrepreneurship potential in women needs to be better exploited.
In Europe, there is a continuing gender gap in terms of entrepreneurship, which translates into fewer women entrepreneurs.

(European Commission, 2008).

It is interesting to note that in the UK, female entrepreneurs / owners of micro and small businesses, may still be classified as a minority in need of support (Offerle, 2006).

Although around 26% of all self-employed persons are female in the UK, they are still the largest under- represented group in terms of business enterprise (SBS, 2004).
The UK Government made a significant effort to encourage the development of female entrepreneurship (BCC, 2004) which may prove crucial since there are indications that female businesses in UK are more innovative than male businesses.

Female entrepreneurs are more likely to use new technology and to be providing a product or service that is new to the market.

(DTI, UK, 2005).
(DTI, UK, 2005).

Assessing Entrepreneurial Motivations between men and women It is interesting to assess what motivates entrepreneurs to start their own business.

In a study (Cariand & Carland, 1991) among male/female entrepreneurs and male/female (employed) managers, the results clearly showed a marked and definitive difference between preference for innovation, propensity for risk-taking and the need for achievement between entrepreneurs and managers.
Moreover, both male and female entrepreneurs showed stronger personality traits than their management counterparts.

However, do entrepreneurial motivations differ between male and female entrepreneurs?

In a study of women’s entrepreneurial motivation, Hisrich and Brush (1985) explored the reasons why women business-owners started their own business.
Most frequently cited were “push” factors or frustration and boredom in their previous jobs; followed by interest in the business, with “pull” factors such as autonomy a distant third.

Moreover, in another recent study conducted with aspiring male and female entrepreneurs, the results support previous studies in that women are less concerned with making money and often choose business proprietorship as a result of career dissatisfaction.
They also see entrepreneurship as a means of meeting simultaneously their own career needs and the needs of their children (Cromie, 2007) Unlocking the Female Potential - Research Report 69 A number of studies were conducted to examine the reasons why men initiate ventures (Shane, Kolvereid and Westhead, 1991, Dubini 1988, Scheinberg and MacMillian 1988) These studies found that men start their businesses primarily as a result of “pull” factors, such as the opportunity to work independently, to have greater control over one’s work and to earn more money.
There is a lesser influence from “push” factors, such as limited advancement opportunities, job frustration and avoiding an unreasonable boss or unsafe working conditions.

Thus “push” factors seem to be a more important influence for women than for men (Buttner, Moore, 1997).

Assessing Personality styles of Male and Female Entrepreneurs A number of studies have been conducted on assessing the personality (psychological) traits characterising male and female entrepreneurs.
One interesting study (Envick, Langford, 2003) assessed the personality traits of male and female entrepreneurs using the ‘Big-Five Personality Model’ (Goldberg 1990, Goldberg 1992).

The five factors comprise ‘adjustment’ which determines confidence versus instability; ‘sociability’ which measures extraversion versus introversion.
The third personality factor is ‘conscientiousness’ which determines impulsiveness versus cautiousness and the fourth factor is ‘agreeableness’ which measures team-orientation versus self-interest.

The fifth factor is ‘intellectual openness’ which involves practicality versus originality.

The research findings indicated that female entrepreneurs are significantly more open than their male counterparts.

They are more adjusted, more social and agreeable but not to a significant degree.
On the other hand, the results showed that male entrepreneurs are significantly more conscientious than female entrepreneurs, meaning that male entrepreneurs were more cautious and less impulsive than females.

The authors of this study (Envick, Langford) claim that this finding “is a mystery” for them since the only explanation in the literature is that both male and female groups that score high on adjustment also obtain high scores on conscientiousness (Pullkkinen, 1996).
Their study did not indicate this.

They conclude their report by indicating “Perhaps, this finding is unique to entrepreneurs”.

(Envick, Langford, 2003).

distinguishing business characteristics of sMEs run by men and women An interesting nationwide study conducted among male-run and female-run SMEs in the UK showed that female businesses are generally smaller than their male counterparts, they have a narrower product range and are usually sole proprietorships.
Female-run businesses tend to have domestic customers and rely more than male businesses on part-time personnel (Mukhtar, 1998) Comparing the Performance of Male- and Female-Controlled businesses A study conducted in the US (Kepler & Shane, 2007) aimed at researching whether there is a performance difference between male- and female-owned ventures.
The results showed that while gender was shown not to affect new venture performance when preferences, motivation and expectations were controlled, the differences observed among men’s and women’s new business ventures included the following: • Men had more business experience prior to opening the business and higher expectations.

• Women entrepreneurs had a larger average household size.

• The educational backgrounds of male and female entrepreneurs were similar.
• Women were less likely than men to purchase their business.

• Women were more likely to have positive revenues, but men were more likely to own an employer firm.

• Female owners were more likely to prefer low risk/return businesses.

• Men spent slightly more time on their new ventures than women.

• Male owners were more likely to start a business to make money, had higher expectations for their business and did more research to identify business opportunities.
70 National Commission for the Promotion of Equality • Male entrepreneurs were more likely to found technologically intensive businesses, businesses that lose their competitive advantage more quickly and businesses that have a less geographically localised customer base.

• Male owners spent more effort searching for business opportunities than their female counterparts.
An earlier study conducted in Australia (Watson, 2002) aimed at comparing the relative performance of businesses controlled by males with those controlled by females.

In assessing performance, the researcher related output measures (total income and profit) to input measures (total assets and owner’s equity).

The results indicated that female-owned businesses had significantly lower total income and profits compared to male-controlled businesses.
However, there were also significantly fewer resources invested in the female-controlled businesses compared to the male-controlled businesses.

When business outputs were related to inputs (and after controlling for industry, age of business, and the number of days the business operated), the results indicated that there were no significant differences in the performances of male- and female-controlled businesses.
Interestingly, before including the control variables, the study showed that there was evidence to suggest that female-controlled businesses outperformed the male-controlled businesses.

Comparing Assistance Needs of Male and Female Pre-venture Entrepreneurs A study, over a 24-month period, (Chrisman, Carsrud, DeCastro, Herron, 1990) was conducted among aspiring American male and female entrepreneurs, who received consulting assistance from a state-level Small Business Development Centre (SBDC).
These male and female entrepreneurs were assessed in terms of (a) the strategic, administrative and operating assistance they received from SBDC, (b) their evaluation of the value of the consulting services and (c) their propensity to initiate ventures after receiving SBDC assistance.

Results showed that male and female entrepreneurs are virtually identical in terms of their assistance needs.
Females did not appear to require different types of assistance and the virtually identical ratings of service value among males and females also indicated that both genders were equally satisfied with the assistance received.

Taken together, the research findings suggested that females suffer no significant entrepreneurial disadvantages compared to males in terms of ‘assistance needs’.
There appears to be scant published recent literature available on the training opportunities and informal support structures (and differences in) being offered to male and female entrepreneurs.

The business Population in Malta – A demographic structure The Maltese business Population – by Unit size According to NSO’s Business Demographics 2002 – 2010 (NSO, 2011), as at 2010, the business population in Malta comprised 64,298 units.
48,796 (76%) of these consisted of sole ownership/ partnership, limited liability companies/public companies amounted to 14,528 units (23%) and ‘other’ units (1%) accounted for 974.

In 2010, the population of micro enterprises (engaging between 0 – 9 employees) stood at 62,389 business units, accounting for a significant 97% of the Malta’s total business population, while 1,492 units (2.3%) were small enterprises, employing between 10 – 49 employees.
0.7% of Malta’s business population comprising 336 medium-sized enterprises, engaging between 50 – 249 employees and 81 large enterprises, employing 250+ employees.

(NSO, 2011).

Unlocking the Female Potential - Research Report 71 self-Employed Persons in Malta Table 3.2 below illustrates that the total number of self-employed persons (with and without employees) in Malta (including Gozo) amounts to 23,931.

Only a mere 13.7 per cent (3,639) of these are female.
However, as indicated in the Labour Force Survey Q2/2011, this figure might be under-represented due to the small sample size compiled by NSO.

The Entrepreneur Population in Malta There are no official NSO statistics on the number of entrepreneurs operating in Malta.

This is because the business population demographics, produced by NSO’s Business Demographics, comprise ‘structure of units’ details by ‘type of legal organisation’, by ‘employment size’, by ‘industry type’ (NACE) only.
NSO’s Labour Force Survey, on the other hand, gives details of the number of self-employed persons operating with and without employee, classified by sex.

Availability of Literature and Research studies on Entrepreneurship in Malta To date, no official qualitative and quantitative research studies assessing the situation of local entrepreneurs exists in Malta.

Worthy of mention however, is that in November 2000, by virtue of the Act XXI of 2000, The Malta Crafts Council was set up.
The Council’s aims are focused on the encouragement, promotion and regulation of local crafts, craftspersons and entrepreneurs dealing in Maltese crafts products.

The Council also publishes a “Directory of Craftsmen and Entrepreneurs” which comprises the contact details of its 800-count entrepreneur and craftsperson members.

(Commerce Division 2007 - Directory of Craftsmen and Entrepreneurs, Malta Crafts Council, Second Edition).
Investigating Entrepreneurship in Malta In 2006, a qualitative research study (Fsadni, 2006) was conducted among micro and small business entrepreneurs in Malta.

The study consisted of two focus group sessions and one-to-one in-depth personal interviews conducted with 72 Maltese and Gozitan entrepreneurs.

18 of the 72 survey respondents were female, however the research findings did not illustrate distinctions among male and female respondents.
The overall objective of this research was to qualitatively compile primary information on local Small Businesses, on the basis of which a ‘Base Research Report’ on entrepreneurship in Malta was drawn up on behalf of Malta Enterprise.
The objectives of this research study comprised the following: (a) assess the current and prospective state of affairs of entrepreneurship and start-up enterprises in Malta; (b) obtain a better understanding of the entrepreneurial needs & difficulties encountered by Maltese SMEs; (c) collect & analyse the impact of present and past entrepreneurship support measures, initiatives, and incentives and highlight shortcomings of such assistance; (d) assess the effectiveness of Malta based institutions which (either directly or indirectly) play a vital stake in enterprise success & formation; and (e) propose recommendations for such future support measures, initiatives, and incentives.
are female.
However, as indicated in the Labour Force Survey Q2/2011, this figure might be under- represented due to the small sample size compiled by NSO TABLE 3.2 – No of Self-Employed Persons in Malta (including Gozo) TABLE 3.2 – No of Self-Employed Persons in Malta (including Gozo) Self-employed with employees 6,186 1,440 7,724 Self-employed without employees 14,106 2,199 16,477 Total 20,292 3,639 23,931 Males Females Total Source: NSO, Labour Force Survey: Q2/2011 Source: NSO, Labour Force Survey: Q2/2011 The Entrepreneur Population in Malta There are no official NSO statistics on the number of entrepreneurs operating in Malta, this is because the business population demographics, produced by NSO’s Business Demographics comprise ‘structure of units’ details by ‘type of legal organisation’, by ‘employment size’, by ‘industry type’ (NACE) only.
NSO’s Labour Force Survey, on the other hand, gives details of the number of self- employed persons operating with and without employee, classified by sex.

National Commission for the Promotion of Equality 72 Availability of Literature and Research Studies on Entrepreneurship in Malta To date, no official qualitative and quantitative research studies assessing the situation of local entrepreneurs exists in Malta.
Worthy of mention however, is that in November 2000, by virtue of the Act XXI of 2000, The Malta Crafts Council was set up.

The Council’s aims are focused on the encouragement, promotion and regulation of local crafts, craftspersons and entrepreneurs dealing in Maltese crafts products.

The Council also publishes a “Directory of Craftsmen and Entrepreneurs” which comprises the contact details of its 800-count entrepreneur and craftsperson members.
(Commerce Division 2007 - Directory of Craftsmen and Entrepreneurs, Malta Crafts Council, Second Edition).

Investigating Entrepreneurship in Malta In 2006, a qualitative research study (Fsadni, 2006) was conducted among micro and small business entrepreneurs in Malta.

The study consisted of two focus group sessions and one-to-one in-depth personal interviews conducted with 72 Maltese and Gozitan entrepreneurs.
18 of the 72 survey respondents were female, however the research findings did not illustrate distinctions among male and female respondents.

The overall objective of this Research Project was to qualitatively compile primary information on local Small Businesses on the basis of which a ‘Base Research Report’ on entrepreneurship in Malta was drawn up on behalf of Malta Enterprise.

The objectives of this research study comprised the following: [a].
assess the current and prospective state of affairs of entrepreneurship and start-up enterprises in Malta; [b].

obtain a better understanding of the entrepreneurial needs & difficulties encountered by Maltese SMEs; [c].

collect & analyse the impact of present and past entrepreneurship support measures, initiatives, and incentives and highlight shortcomings of such assistance; [d].
assess the effectiveness of Malta based institutions which (either directly or indirectly) play a vital stake in enterprise success & formation; and [e].

propose recommendations for such future support measures, initiatives, and incentives.

The following are the salient research findings of this 2006 study, which are still relevant today and concurred with the new 2011 study: Reasons for Setting Up Own Company/Operation.
A significant 31% of the respondents indicate that the reason for setting up their own company/operation was because they wanted to do something on their own and be their ‘own 74 The following are the salient research findings of this 2006 study, which are still relevant today and concurred with the new 2011 study: • Reasons for Setting Up Own Company/Operation A significant 31% of the respondents indicate that the reason for setting up their own company/ operation was because they wanted to do something on their own and be their ‘own boss’; while a close 28% indicated that it was always their objective/dream to set up their own company operation.
• Most Pressing Needs/Difficulties & Obstacles/Problems Faced In The First 12 Months of Operation 55% of the problems/limitations faced by the respondents, in their first 12 months of operation, were of an ‘internal’ nature, ie.

limitations/ difficulties which were inherent to or emanating from their operation and on which they had control over; while the remaining 45% of the obstacles/ problems encountered by these entrepreneurs emanated from Malta’s ‘external’ environment.
The findings clearly show that the 2 most pressing external difficulties/obstacles encountered by these entrepreneurs were [a] ‘finding the first clients/securing the first orders,’ which accounted for 34% [of first mentions] and [b] ‘loads of red tape/bureaucracy from Government departments/authorities’ which accounted for 19% (of first mentions).
The findings clearly show that the most pressing internal limitation/difficulty encountered by these entrepreneurs was ‘financial difficulties/limitations’: a staggering 63% (of first mentions).
• The Attractiveness of Malta’s External Environment Towards The Setting Up of Small Businesses/Operations 53% of all the entrepreneur-respondents indicated that Malta’s external environment did encourage them to set up their own company/operation, however an equally high 45% of the respondents claimed that it was not.

What is also interesting to note is that 8 of the 15 ‘start- up’ respondents (ie.
have/are set/setting up their small business in 2005-2006) indicated that they do not find Malta’s existing external environment encouraging enough for them to set up a business.

The major reasons underlying 32 ‘experienced’ entrepreneur-respondents’ replies to finding Malta’s external environment attractive to setting up a small business included: ‘the healthy economic situation of the country,’ which accounted for 11% (of the first mentions of all ‘positive’ replies).
The main reasons underlying the 6 ‘start-up’ entrepreneur-respondents’ positive replies were varied.
The main reasons underlying the 24 ‘experienced’ entrepreneur-respondents’ replies to finding Malta’s external environment unattractive to setting up a small business included ‘not enough focus/attention from Government to promote/encourage individuals to set up their own company/operation’ accounting for a significant 22% (of all ‘negative’ first mentions) and ‘the adverse economic situation of the country’ which accounted for 13% (of all ‘negative’ first mentions).
The 8 ‘start-up entrepreneur-respondents observed that the main reasons for their ‘negative’ replies included: ‘the exorbitant taxes and NI contributions to be paid by Maltese entrepreneurs’ which accounted for 6% (of all ‘negative’ first mentions).

• The Maltese Entrepreneur’s Current Needs & Difficulties 62% of the problems/limitations currently faced by the entrepreneur-respondents are of an ‘external’ nature, ie.
difficulties/ obstacles emanating from Malta’s external environment and on which the entrepreneurs have no control on.

The remaining 38% of the limitations/difficulties currently faced by these entrepreneurs today are those inherent to their own company/operation, ie.

emanating from their ‘internal’ environment.


The findings clearly show that the two most pressing difficulties/obstacles currently faced by the ‘experienced’ entrepreneurs are (a) ‘finding new clients/securing orders due to fierce competition’ which accounts for a significant 26% (of all ‘external’ first mentions) and (b) ‘exorbitant taxes and NI contributions to be paid by small businesses’ which accounts for 11% (of all ‘external’ first mentions).
Unlocking the Female Potential - Research Report 73 • A Would-be Entrepreneur’s Start-Up Prospects In Malta Today 68% of the ‘experienced’ entrepreneur-respondents observed that they do not think Malta’s external environment today is conducive to, and encouraging for, an individual to set up his/ her own business/operation.

A low 28% of the respondents observed that it is, while 4% indicated a ‘don’t know’ answer.
• Strategy To Be Adopted By Malta Government Vis-à-vis Entrepreneur Assistance The entrepreneur-respondents proposed the following recommendations for Government’s small business assistance strategy: - More focus/attention from Government/public institutions to small businesses - Offer more financing assistance - Reduce red tape/bureaucracy by Govt/public institutions - Better promotion of incentives/schemes/initiatives for small businesses.
• Assistance/Support Schemes/Incentives To Be Offered By Public Institutions The entrepreneur-respondents recommended the following specific support schemes/incentives to be offered by Malta-based public institutions/organisations: - More financial assistance - More training services - Provide factory space - More marketing & management assistance - More consultancy services – various - Reduce red tape/bureaucracy.
Conclusion – The Need for an Empirical Investigation into the distinctions between Male and Female Entrepreneurship in Malta In the light of the above review of available literature on the subject, it is evident that there is an urgent need to conduct an empirical investigation into the distinctions between male and female entrepreneurship in Malta as to their respective initial motivation factors that encouraged them to take up entrepreneurship, the challenges and problems they face, their needs and expectations, the support systems they require vis-à-vis training, self-employment, business creation, maintaining a work-life balance, etc.
This research study will be delving further into these areas by way of a thorough qualitative and quantitative primary research and will attempt to come up with recommendations on same.

3.2.2 Vulnerable Employment definition of Vulnerable Employment The ICSE (International Classification by Status in Employment) (ICSE,1993) defines six different types of employment statuses, namely: • Wage and salary workers, also known as employees.

• Self-employed workers with employees, also known as employers.
• Self-employed workers without employees, also known as own-account workers.

• Members of producers’ co-operatives.

• Contributing family workers, also known as unpaid family workers.

• Workers not classifiable by status.


The three underlying criteria used by ICSE to define the above status groups are (a) the types of economic risks that these employment statuses face in their work; (b) the strength of institutional attachment between the person and the job; and (c) the type of authority over establishments and other workers that the job-holder has, or will have, as an explicit or implicit result of the employment contract.

(ICSE Stats, ILO, 2009).


74 National Commission for the Promotion of Equality The ILO (International Labour Organisation) considers status (iii) “own-account workers” and status (v) “contributing family workers” as “vulnerable employment”.

Much regard has been, and is still being given, to these two statuses by the ILO in that it considers “the proportion of own- account and contributing family workers in total employment”, ie.
“vulnerable employment rate” as one of the four salient, new economic indicators towards attaining the new MDG (Millennium Development Goals) Target 1B, that of “Achieving full and productive employment and decent work for all, including women and young people”.

(Guide to New MDGs, ILO, 2009).


In fact, this new economic indicator, together with three others, namely, growth rate of labour productivity (GDP per person employed); employment-to-population ratio and proportion of employed people living below the poverty line, are an essential contribution to monitoring the ‘Decent Work Agenda’, as recommended by the 2008 ILO Declaration on Social Justice for a Fair Globalisation (Declaration of Social Justice, ILO, 2008).
The ‘vulnerable employment rate’ indicator is, in fact, a measure of what are deemed to be the more vulnerable statuses of employment, namely: (a) own-account workers and (b) contributing family workers (ILO, 2009).

The vulnerable employment rate is calculated as a sum of own-account and contributing family workers as a proportion of total employment, i.e.
: Vulnerable employment rate = [(number of own-account workers + no of contributing family workers) / total employment] x 100 (Guide to New MDG’s.ILO,2009).

The 1993 ICSE defines “own-account workers” as those workers who, working on their own account or with one or more partners, hold the type of jobs defined as “self-employment jobs” (i.e.
jobs where the remuneration is directly dependent upon the profits derived from the goods and services produced), and have not engaged on a continuous basis any employees to work for them.

This International Classification also defines “contributing family workers” as those workers who hold “self-employment jobs” as own-account workers in a market-oriented establishment operated by a related person living in the same household (ICSE,1993).
Vulnerable employment is a newly defined measure of persons who are employed under relatively precarious circumstances as indicated by the status of employment.

Because contributing family workers and own-account workers are less likely to have formal work arrangements, access to benefits or social protection programmes and are more “at risk” to economic cycles, these are the statuses categorised as “vulnerable” (Guide to, ILO, 2009).
According to the ILO, this indicator is highly gender-sensitive since, historically, contributing family work is a status that is dominated by women.

There is also a connection between vulnerable employment and poverty: if the proportion of vulnerable workers is sizeable, it may be an indication of wide-spread poverty.
The connection arises because workers in the vulnerable statuses lack the social protection and safety nets to guard against times of low economic demand and often are incapable of generating sufficient savings for themselves and their families to offset these times (Guide to, ILO, 2009).
However, the ILO cautions that this indicator is not without its limitations, as some wage and salaried workers might also carry high economic risk and some own-account workers might be quite well off and not vulnerable at all.
But, despite the limitations, vulnerable employment is especially relevant for the less developed economies and regions, and the fact that a strong correlation has been established between high poverty rates for a region and high shares in vulnerable employment does substantiate the weight of the new indicator to measure progress towards the goal of decent employment for all.
Unlocking the Female Potential - Research Report 75 Moreover, the ILO also observes that when using this indicator on status in employment to assess vulnerable employment, one has to also bear in mind that there are often differences in definitions, as well as in coverage, across countries and for different years, resulting from variations in information sources methodologies that make comparisons difficult (Guide to, ILO, 2009).
Vulnerable Employment Today - A Global Perspective The collapse of the American investment bank, Lehman Brothers Holdings Inc, in 15 September 2008 triggered a paralysis in the global financial system that transitioned into a global economic and jobs crisis that plagued the world through 2009.

The crisis spread rapidly across the globe, crippling economies, reducing enterprise capacities, and forcing millions of people out of work.
Moreover, many workers have fallen into more vulnerable forms of employment which, in turn, has worsened decent work deficits, precarious employment situations have swollen and the ranks of the working poor have increased.

Before the 2009 economic crisis, the share of vulnerable employment was on a downward trend in all regions, decreasing globally by 3.9 percentage points between 1998 and 2008.
Between 2007 and 2008, the global number of workers in vulnerable employment may also have decreased for the first time, by around 10.5 million people, or 1.1 percentage points, to just below half of all workers (49.5%) (Global Employment Trends January 2010, ILO 2010).

This positive trend was broken due to the impact of the global economic crisis.
In previous editions of the Global Employment Trends (GET), there was insufficient data to generate a 2009 global vulnerable employment, so three scenarios were produced by ILO to illustrate how vulnerable employment would be affected by the 2009 crisis (Trends Econometric Models, October 2009, ILO 2010).

In the first scenario, the vulnerable employment rate was projected based on long-term trends.
In the second scenario, the projection was made on the basis of the elasticity of the vulnerable employment rate of the GDP growth rate observed in the year with the largest year-on-year drop in GDP on record.

The third scenario applied the largest year-on-year increase in the vulnerable employment rate on record to each country’s unemployment rate.
On the basis of these three scenarios, the Global Employment Trends 2010 report projected a global vulnerable employment rate of 49.4% (scenario 1) to 52.8%, equivalent to between 1.48 and 1.59 billion workers worldwide.

The report also noted that the most optimistic scenario was unlikely to be realised (Global Employment Trends January 2010, ILO 2010).
On the basis of available data (Trends Econometric Models, October 2010, ILO 2011), the current estimate of the number of workers in vulnerable employment in 2009 is 1.53 billion, an increase of more than 146 million since 1999.

This corresponds to a global vulnerable employment rate of 50.1%, i.e.

between scenarios 1 and 2 of the Global Employment Trends 2010 report.
The vulnerable employment rate remained roughly flat between 2008 and 2009, versus a steady and substantial average decline in the years preceding the crisis.

Increases were observed in the vulnerable employment rate in three regions in 2009: Latin America and the Caribbean, North Africa and Sub-Saharan Africa.

The highest shares of vulnerable employment are in South Asia (78% of total employment in 2009), Sub-Saharan Africa (75.8%) and South-East Asia and the Pacific (61.8%).
In Developed Economies and European Union, vulnerable employment accounts for 9.7% of total employment in 2009; the vulnerable employment among males stands at 10.8% and of females at 8.4%.

Table 3.3 illustrates “Vulnerable employment shares by Sex, World and Regions (%) between 1999–2009 (Global Employment Trends, ILO, 2011).
76 National Commission for the Promotion of Equality between high poverty rates for a region and high shares in vulnerable employment does substantiate the weight of the new indicator to measure progress towards the goal of decent employment for all.
Moreover, the ILO also observes that when using this indicator on status in employment to assess vulnerable employment, one has to also bear in mind that there are often differences in definitions, as well as in coverage, across countries and for different years, resulting from variations in information sources methodologies that make comparisons difficult.

(Guide to, ILO, 2009).


Vulnerable Employment Today - A Global Perspective The collapse of the American investment bank, Lehman Brothers Holdings Inc, in 15 September 2008 triggered a paralysis in the global financial system that transitioned into a global economic and jobs crisis that plagued the world through 2009.

The crisis spread rapidly across the globe, crippling economies, reducing enterprise capacities, and forcing millions of people out of work.
Moreover, many workers have fallen into more vulnerable forms of employment which, in turn, has worsened decent work deficits, precarious employment situations have swollen and the ranks of the working poor have increased.

Before the 2009 economic crisis, the share of vulnerable employment was on a downward trend in all regions, decreasing globally by 3.9 percentage points between 1998 and 2008.
Between 2007 and 2008, the global number of workers in vulnerable employment may also have decreased for the first time, by around 10.5 million people, or 1.1 percentage points, to just below half of all workers (49.5 per cent).

(Global Employment Trends January 2010, ILO 2010).

This positive trend was broken due to the impact of the global economic crisis.
In previous editions of the Global Employment Trends (GET), there was insufficient data to generate a 2009 global vulnerable employment, so three scenarios were produced by ILO to illustrate how vulnerable employment would be affected by the 2009 crisis (Trends Econometric Models, October 2009, ILO 2010).

In the first scenario, the vulnerable employment rate was projected based on long-term trends.
In the second scenario, the projection was made on the basis of the elasticity of the vulnerable employment rate of the GDP growth rate observed in the year with the largest year-on-year drop in GDP on record.

The third scenario applied the largest year-on-year increase in the vulnerable employment rate on record to each country’s unemployment rate.
On the basis of these three scenarios, the Global Employment Trends 2010 report projected a global vulnerable employment rate of 49.4 per cent (scenario 1) to 52.8 per cent, equivalent to between 1.48 and 1.59 billion workers worldwide.

The report also noted that the most optimistic scenario was unlikely to be realised.

(Global Employment Trends January 2010, ILO 2010).


On the basis of available data (Trends Econometric Models, October 2010, ILO 2011), the current estimate of the number of workers in vulnerable employment in 2009 is 1.53 billion, an increase of more than 146 million since 1999.

This corresponds to a global vulnerable employment rate of 50.1 per cent, i.e.

between scenarios 1 and 2 of the Global Employment Trends 2010 report.
The vulnerable employment rate remained roughly flat between 2008 and 2009, versus a steady and substantial average decline in the years preceding the crisis.

Increases were observed in the vulnerable employment rate in three regions in 2009: Latin America and the Caribbean, North Africa and Sub-Saharan Africa.

The highest shares of vulnerable employment are in South Asia (78 per cent of total employment in 2009), Sub-Saharan Africa (75.8 per cent) and South-East Asia and the Pacific (61.8 per cent).
In Developed Economies and European Union, vulnerable employment accounts for 9.7 per cent of total employment in 2009; the vulnerable employment among males stands at 10.8 per cent and of females at 8.4 per cent.

Table 3.3 below illustrates “Vulnerable employment shares by Sex, World and Regions (%) between 1999 – 2009.
(Global Employment Trends, ILO, 2011) TABLE 3.3 – Vulnerable Employment Shares by Sex, World and Regions (%) TABLE 3.3 – Vulnerable Employment Shares by Sex, World and Regions (%) BOTH SEXES 1998 1999 2000 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 World Developed Economies and European Union Central and South-Eastern Europe (Non-EU) & CIS 53.7 53.5 53.3 51.9 51.4 51.0 50.2 50.1 78 11.3 11.1 10.8 10.3 10.0 9.9 9.7 9.7 24.1 26.7 25.6 22.8 21.9 20.7 20.4 20.0 East Asia 61.4 60.2 59.1 55.8 55.2 54.5 52.2 50.8 South-East and the Pacific 63.8 66.2 65.5 62.6 62.3 62.0 62.5 61.8 South Asia 81.9 81.1 82.1 80.5 80.2 79.9 78.9 78.5 Latin America and the Caribbean 35.7 36.1 35.8 33.8 32.7 32.3 31.8 32.2 Middle East North Africa 36.8 36.0 35.7 33.9 33.7 33.3 32.9 32.7 43.7 42.1 42.4 42.6 41.1 41.2 340.2 40.4 Sub-Saharan Africa 80.5 79.9 79.5 77.1 76.6 76.0 75.3 75.8 MALES 1998 1999 2000 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 World Developed Economies and European Union Central and South-Eastern Europe (Non-EU) & CIS 52.0 51.8 51.8 50.5 50.0 49.5 48.9 48.9 11.8 11.7 11.4 11.3 11.0 10.9 10.7 10.8 24.7 26.7 25.8 23.3 22.4 20.9 20.6 20.2 East Asia 56.7 55.7 54.7 51.9 51.3 50.6 48.9 47.8 South-East and the Pacific 60.4 62.5 61.8 59.6 59.3 58.7 59.7 58.9 South Asia 79.0 78.1 79.9 78.0 77.5 77.2 76.2 75.8 Latin America and the Caribbean 35.0 35.4 38.3 33.5 32.6 31.8 31.3 31.6 Middle East North Africa 33.6 32.4 31.8 30.2 30.1 29.8 29.8 29.6 40.1 38.7 38.2 37.0 35.4 35.1 34.1 34.9 Sub-Saharan Africa 75.5 74.5 74.0 70.1 69.6 69.2 68.5 69.5 FEMALES 1998 1999 2000 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 World Developed Economies and European Union Central and South-Eastern Europe (Non-EU) & CIS 56.3 56.1 55.5 54.0 53.5 53.2 52.1 51.8 10.7 10.3 10.1 9.1 8.8 8.6 8.4 8.4 23.4 26.7 25.4 22.1 21.3 20.4 20.2 19.8 East Asia 67.1 65.7 64.4 60.6 59.9 59.2 56.2 54.6 South-East and the Pacific 68..6 71.3 70.6 67.0 66.5 66.6 66.4 65.7 South Asia 89.2 88.5 87.6 86.5 86.3 86.1 85.0 84.5 Latin America and the Caribbean 37.0 37.3 36.5 34.3 33.0 33.0 32.6 33.2 Middle East North Africa Sub-Saharan
 Africa 49.9 50.8 51.6 48.0 46.8 46.5 44.2 43.7 55.4 52.9 56.0 59.7 58.3 59.3 58.2 56.7 87.3 84.0 SOURCES: Trends Econometric Models, October 2010, ILO, SOURCES: Trends Econometric Models, October 2010, ILO, Global Employment Trends, ILO, 2011 Global Employment Trends, ILO, 2011 87.1 86.2 86.9 85.6 84.0 84.9 Gender Inequality in Sectoral Employment and Vulnerable Employment 79 Unlocking the Female Potential - Research Report 77 Gender Inequality in sectoral Employment and Vulnerable Employment The publication ‘Global Employment Trends for Women’ issued by ILO in 2009 (Global Trends – Women, ILO, 2009) gives some significant indicators of the situation of women in labour markets around the world and the extent of vulnerable employment hitting women in all the five continents.
This report reconfirms that gender inequality remains as issue within labour markets globally.

Women suffer multiple disadvantages in terms of access to labour markets, and often to participation rates and unemployment rates are a persistent feature of global labour markets.
In 2008, an estimated 6.3% of the world’s female labour force was not working but looking for work, up from 6.0% in 2007, while the corresponding rate for males was 5.9% in 2008, up from 5.5% in 2007 (Global Trends – Women, ILO, 2009).

Women also face constraints in terms of sectors of economic activity in which they would like to work and working conditions to which they aspire.

Women are also often in a disadvantaged position in terms of the share of vulnerable employment (i.e.
unpaid family workers and own- account workers) in total employment.

These workers are most likely to be characterized by insecure employment, low earnings and low productivity.

Moreover, those women who are able to secure the relative comfort of wage and salaried employment are often not receiving the same remuneration as their male counterparts.

(Global Trends – Women, ILO, 2009).


Given the constraints women are facing, promoting gender equality and empowering women is not only an important goal of the Millennium Declaration in itself, it is also pivotal to achieving the new target on full and productive employment and decent work for all, and virtually all remaining goals and targets (Guide to, ILO, 2009).

Out of the 3.0 billion people that were employed around the world in 2008, 1.2 billion are women (40.4%).
Only a small proportion of employed women are working in industry (18.3% in 2008, as compared to 26.6% of men); the larger majority are in agriculture and, increasingly, in the services sector.
The services sector accounted for 46.3% of all female employment in 2008, as compared to 41.2% of male employment (Trends Econometric Models 2009, Key Indicators 2007, ILO, 2009) As evidenced in the world statistics of the vulnerable employment shares by sex and regions indicated in Figure IV above, (Trends Econometric Models, October 2009, ILO, 2009) apart from the differences in sectoral employment between men and women, there are important differences in working conditions.
At a global level, the share of vulnerable employment in total female employment was 52.7% in 2007, as compared to 49.2% for men, which represents a decline of 0.6 percentage points over the previous year for both men and women.

The move away from vulnerable employment into wage and salaried work can be a major step towards economic freedom and self-determination for many women.
Economic independence or at least co-determination in resource distribution within the family is highest when women earn wages and salaries or are employers, lower when they are own-account workers and lowest when they are contributing family workers.

The share of women in wage and salaried work grew from 41.8% in 1997 to 45.5% in 2007, but the status group of female own-account workers saw a stronger increase.
Vide Table 3.4 below (Trends Economic Models, January 2009, ILO 2009) Vulnerable Employment in Malta The objective of this Project is to explore and increase the knowledge and reality of vulnerable workers in three specific industries, operating in Malta, namely, the tourist industry, the cleaning industry and the language schools.

To date, no official ‘vulnerable employment’ figures or profiles of ‘vulnerable workers’ are comprised in NSO’s Labour Force Survey (NSO, 2011).
This project attempts to compile profiles of vulnerable workers engaged in these three industries.

78 National Commission for the Promotion of Equality The publication ‘Global Employment Trends for Women’ issued by ILO in 2009 (Global Trends – Women, ILO, 2009) gives some significant indicators of the situation of women in labour markets around the world and the extent of vulnerable employment hitting women in all the five continents.
This report reconfirms that gender inequality remains as issue within labour markets globally.

Women suffer multiple disadvantages in terms of access to labour markets, and often to participation rates and unemployment rates are a persistent feature of global labour markets.
In 2008, an estimated 6.3 per cent of the world’s female labour force was not working but looking for work, up from 6.0 per cent in 2007, while the corresponding rate for males was 5.9 per cent in 2008, up from 5.5 per cent in 2007 (Global Trends – Women, ILO, 2009).

Women also face constraints in terms of sectors of economic activity in which they would like to work and working conditions to which they aspire.
Women are also often in a disadvantaged position in terms of the share of vulnerable employment (i.e.

unpaid family workers and own-account workers) in total employment.

These workers are most likely to be characterized by insecure employment, low earnings and low productivity.

Moreover, those women who are able to secure the relative comfort of wage and salaried employment are often not receiving the same remuneration as their male counterparts.

(Global Trends – Women, ILO, 2009).


Given the constraints women are facing, promoting gender equality and empowering women is not only an important goal of the Millennium Declaration in itself, it is also pivotal to achieving the new target on full and productive employment and decent work for all, and virtually all remaining goals and targets (Guide to, ILO, 2009).

Out of the 3.0 billion people that were employed around the world in 2008, 1.2 billion are women (40.4 per cent.
Only a small proportion of employed women are working in industry (18.3 per cent in 2008, as compared to 26.6 per cent of men); the larger majority are in agriculture and, increasingly, in the services sector.
The services sector accounted for 46.3 per cent of all female employment in 2008, as compared to 41.2 per cent of male employment (Trends Econometric Models 2009, Key Indicators 2007, ILO, 2009) As evidenced in the world statistics of the vulnerable employment shares by sex and regions indicated in Figure IV above, (Trends Econometric Models, October 2009, ILO, 2009) apart from the differences in sectoral employment between men and women, there are important differences in working conditions.
At a global level, the share of vulnerable employment in total female employment was 52.7 per cent in 2007, as compared to 49.2 per cent for men, which represents a decline of 0.6 percentage points over the previous year for both men and women.

The move away from vulnerable employment into wage and salaried work can be a major step towards economic freedom and self-determination for many women.
Economic independence or at least co-determination in resource distribution within the family is highest when women earn wages and salaries or are employers, lower when they are own-account workers and lowest when they are contributing family workers.

The share of women in wage and salaried work grew from 41.8 per cent in 1997 to 45.5 per cent in 2007, but the status group of female own-account workers saw a stronger increase.

Vide Table 3.4 below.


(Trends Economic Models, January 2009, ILO 2009) TABLE 3.4 – Distribution of female status in Employment, 2007 TABLE 3.4 – Distribution of female status in Employment, 2007 (Percentage Point Change from 1997 in brackets) (Percentage Point Change from 1997 in brackets) Female Employment Status % (& point change from ’97) Wage & Salaried Workers Own-Account Workers Contributing Family Workers Employers Source: Trends Economic Models, January 2009, ILO 2009.
46% (+3.7) 28% (+5.4) 24% (-9.3) 2% (+0.3) Source: Trends Economic Models, January 2009, ILO 2009.
80 Vulnerable Employment in Malta 3.3 Research Methodology 3.3.1 Research Methodology In order to achieve the research objectives of Activities I and II, set out in Section 3.1 above, the research methodology adopted for these Activities comprised the following: • A review of recent international and local literature and official international and national surveys conducted by recognised statistics bodies, i.e.
Eurostat, European Union, National Statistics Office Malta, Employment & Training Corporation Malta, etc.

• A qualitative research exercise involving a three-tier research study.

The object of this thorough qualitative research phase was to obtain an ‘in-depth’ understanding of the perceptions and opinions of male and female entrepreneurs, self-employed individuals and vulnerable workers in Malta and Gozo and to also assess and explore their work situation.
The qualitative stage also served as a platform which provided the context for the quantitative studies and insights on the salient issues and research areas that needed to be included in the subsequent quantitative stage.

It is worthy of mention that this qualitative research phase addressed the research objectives of Activity I and Activity II.
The three tiers comprised: - Tier One: one-to-one personal interviews with 20 key stakeholders (Senior government officials; representatives from women associations, employers and employer association officials, trade union and employees’ representatives; non-governmental organisations).

- Tier Two: one-to-one personal interviews with 19 male and female entrepreneurs and self- employed individuals operating in Malta and Gozo.
These one-to-one personal interviews were conducted with: • 5 male entrepreneurs, two with employees and two without employees.

3 of these entrepreneurs operate in Malta and 2 in Gozo.

• 5 female entrepreneurs, two with employees and two without employees.

3 of these entrepreneurs operate in Malta and 2 in Gozo.

• 3 male or female entrepreneurs, operating in the tourist industry.

• 3 male or female entrepreneurs, operating in the cleaning industry.
• 3 male or female entrepreneurs, operating in language schools.

The perceptions and opinions of these stakeholders and entrepreneur respondents were examined on the following research areas: • Major Differences in Initial Motivation Factors – Male vs Female • Business Sectors engaged in – Male vs Female • Salient Challenges and Problems faced • Services and Support Structures to assist Local Entrepreneurs • Services and Support Structures to assist Potential/Would-Be Entrepreneurs.
- Tier Three: 6 focus group (FG) sessions were held, composed of: • 4 focus group sessions with Maltese self-employed/ contract workers hailing from the Tourist, Cleaning and Language School Industries • 2 focus group sessions with Gozitan self-employed/ contract workers hailing from the three afore-mentioned Industries.
Unlocking the Female Potential - Research Report 79 The choice of participants for the FG sessions was based on pre-established FG respondent profiles in order to invite a balanced mix of participants, this choice resulting in contrasting perspectives and opinions during the discussion.
Respondents’ ages varied from 18 - 60 years, status being single or married/separated, with participants being either currently in employment or having worked in the Tourist, Cleaning, or Language School Industries in the recent past.

The designations of workers varied from blue-collar to managerial, with respondents having either a definite or indefinite contract; being self-employed; and being engaged either on full-time, part-time, seasonally or during weekends.
The opinions and views of the stakeholders and Maltese and Gozitan self-employed/ contract workers hailing from the Tourist, Cleaning, and Language School Industries were sought on the following research areas: • Profiles of Persons employed in the Tourist/ Cleaning/ Language School Industries.

• Conditions rendering Jobs ‘Vulnerable’.

• Differences between Grades and Positions within the Tourist/ Cleaning/ Language School Industries.
• Recommendations on Improved Working Conditions and Reduced Vulnerability.

.

• A quantitative research exercise was then conducted.

This Phase consisted of two distinct quantitative research studies; one conducted with ‘entrepreneur’ respondents and one with persons, characterised as ‘vulnerable employees’.
- The ‘Entrepreneur’ Research Study: A quantitative research study with at least 600 (602 actually conducted) male and female entrepreneurs and self-employed persons hailing from Malta and Gozo was conducted to understand the salient reasons for making such a choice in their lives and to look into their expectations and the challenges/ difficulties they encounter.

This 600-count frame ensured statistically significant findings at a confidence level of 95% at a confidence interval of +/-4.
The research approach adopted was by way of a 30-minute face-to-face interview.

The 602-count sample frame comprised male and female entrepreneur respondents.

82% (495 respondents) were male and 18% (107 respondents) were female.

Some 90% (545 respondents) were Maltese entrepreneurs while the remaining 9% (57 respondents) were Gozitans.

A mix of entrepreneur respondents with existing (or past) caring responsibilities and with no caring responsibilities was also obtained.
- The ‘Vulnerable Employees’ Research Study: Yet another quantitative research study was conducted with at least 600 (602 actually conducted) male and female individuals, whose existing conditions of employment render them ‘vulnerable workers.

Once again, this 600-count frame ensures statistically significant findings at a confidence level of 95% at a confidence interval of +/-4.
This survey focused on researching the situation of vulnerable workers hailing from three industries, namely, the Tourism industry (316 respondents), the Cleaning industry (208 respondents) and the Language Schools industry (78 respondents).

94% (564 respondents) of the survey respondents were Maltese while the remaining 6% (35 respondents) were foreigners.

A total of 462 respondents (77%) hailed from Malta, while the remaining 140 respondents (23%) were Gozitans.
Based on the research findings on what constitutes ‘vulnerable employment’ in Malta and on the realities of vulnerable workers engaged within these three industry sectors (such findings emerged from the preliminary qualitative research conducted), for the purpose of this survey, ‘vulnerable workers’ in Malta (and Gozo) are characterised as workers who are not given (at least) the basic working conditions they are entitled to (as stipulated by Maltese law) by their employers and by those workers who are ‘forced’ (not by choice) by employers to take on a ‘self-employed’ status.
Hence, vulnerable employees are largely those who are employed under any of the following conditions (among others): 80 National Commission for the Promotion of Equality • Are employed informally, i.e.
without a formal registration • Are paid less than the official minimum wage/ hourly rate • Are not paid the hourly rate for overtime work, work performed on public holidays, etc • Are not paid for (or given) vacation leave, sick leave, government bonuses, cost-of-living increases, etc • Are employed ‘on contract’ of one year or less • Are asked to work irregular hours or are employed as casual workers and hence do not have job security • Whose employer does not pay his/her share of NI contributions • Do not pay their share of NI contributions • Are forced by their employers to take on a ‘self-employed’ status • Are foreigners who do not have a work permit or are employed informally.
NB.

For the purpose of this study, ‘family workers’ (up to family members living in the same household) are not considered as vulnerable workers.

3.3.2 shortcomings of the Research study No significant obstacles were encountered, throughout the whole course of compiling primary data for this two-tier research study.
However, what posed some difficulty at the initial secondary information collection phase is the lack of official NSO statistics available to determine the official population size and demographic statistics of male and female entrepreneurs operating in Malta and also of vulnerable employment statistics.

However, the sample quotas adopted for both research studies ensured the provision of statistically significant research findings, notwithstanding the unavailability of these official population figures.
3.4 ACTIVITY I - Entrepreneurship in Malta This Section will focus entirely on highlighting the salient research findings, which emerged from the qualitative and quantitative primary data.

Section 3.4.1 will highlight on the salient qualitative research findings and Section 3.4.2 will then present the salient quantitative research findings addressing Activity I’s research objectives.

3.4.1.
3.4.1.

Qualitative Research - The salient Findings The role of the robust qualitative study conducted for Activity I was to uncover salient views, perceptions and issues relating to the situation of male and female entrepreneurs operating in Malta and Gozo.

The ‘semi-structured interview’ research instruments produced were designed to elicit the views of key stakeholders and entrepreneurs to gain insight on entrepreneurs and self- employed individuals’ situation from a variety of perspectives.
The research findings identified at this qualitative research phase elicited a number of salient issues and patterns, which were then, in turn, addressed in the quantitative phase with a larger sample of ‘male and female entrepreneur’ respondents.

These issues and research areas are presented below.

Reasons given both by male and female entrepreneurs for setting up their own business centred mainly on ambition coupled with the urge to develop and advance.
Setting up one’s own business after being discriminated against in the former workplace; and having the courage to set up an innovative business were other motivating factors mentioned by both male and female entrepreneurs.

The prospect of making money was not the main driver for all entrepreneurs but working towards being better-off financially has been the motivating factor for some in setting up their own business.
Unlocking the Female Potential - Research Report 81 The majority of male and female respondents perceived that gender is not an issue in entrepreneurship.

In running a business, male entrepreneurs tend to adopt a more aggressive personality style; whilst female entrepreneurs were described as taking longer to consider and evaluate, being more calculative and conscientious.
The survey respondents believe that the female entrepreneur acts cautiously as she is always considering two fronts: the home front/family and the business front.

Male entrepreneurship is very predominant in Malta/ Gozo and present in all sectors.

Contrastingly female entrepreneurship was termed as still developing.

Male entrepreneurs in Malta are mostly involved in the Construction Sector; in Gozo these are mostly found in retail trade and the restaurant business.
On the other hand, female entrepreneurs in Malta set up business more in the Beauty sector and the Retail Sector.

The organisation of business events, waste management, electrical energy saving, and the ICT Industry are other fields where female entrepreneurship is present.

In Gozo, female entrepreneurs are mostly involved in businesses of an artistic nature, namely the beauty industry, catering and patisserie, whilst a number of females also run their own retail outlets.
One major difficulty encountered by all entrepreneurs in the initial 12-month period was the placing of enquiries at the various Governmental departments which resulted in an endless list of fact-finding errands.

For some, the main challenge concerned their lack of knowledge in running a business, the organisation of the administrative set-up and the engagement of the right personnel for the required job positions.
Competitiveness in prices was, and still, is a challenge for both established and prospective entrepreneurs – being innovative and identifying a niche area which has not been already exploited by other entrepreneurs was the tool to success.

It was perceived that Gozitan entrepreneurs face more difficulties than Maltese entrepreneurs because the island’s insularity largely affects all businesses.
Gozitan entrepreneurs in the Hospitality Industry face the challenge that Gozo is not promoted as a separate destination from Malta.

The seasonality of the tourist industry hits Gozo in a harsher manner and becomes a challenge when trying to sell a tourism product on an island which is on virtual shutdown for three months.
Connectivity to the island is not at its best – taxis charging exorbitant rates from MIA to Cirkewwa, the irregularity or lack thereof of bus service from MIA to Cirkewwa, the Gozo Channel Service being unpredictable and the lack of bus service on Gozo.

(NB.

The fieldwork operations were conducted prior to Arriva’s public transport system being launched.)
3.4.2 Quantitative Research – salient Findings This section highlights the salient findings which emerged from the quantitative research study conducted specifically to address the research objectives of Activity I.

The following salient research findings emerge from this quantitative research study.
I. Respondent Profile Gender of Entrepreneur, Year of Establishment of business and Engagement of Employees A total of 602 entrepreneurs were interviewed for the purpose of this research project, of whom 82% (495 respondents) were male and 18% (107 respondents) were female.

Some 90% (545 respondents) were Maltese entrepreneurs while the remaining 9% (57 respondents) were Gozitans.
82 National Commission for the Promotion of Equality Almost 19% (112 respondents) of the entrepreneurs established their business between 2006 and 2010, and the majority of these were female entrepreneurs.

Moreover, 17% (102 respondents) of the respondents, started their business before 1980.

These were largely males.

The majority (56% - 336 respondents) of the entrepreneurs interviewed hold a ‘sole-trader/ self- employed without employees’ status.
Some 80% (271 respondents) are male, whilst the remaining 20% (65 respondents) are female.

The remaining 266 (44%) of the respondents engage employees.

The high majority of the latter respondents engage between 1 - 4 employees.

business sector engaged in 34% (36 respondents) and 36% (179 respondents) of the female and male interviewed entrepreneurs respectively hail from the Wholesale and Retail sector.
Almost 31% (33 respondents) of the female respondents are engaged in the Financial, Business Services and Community Services sector, while 17% (84 respondents) of the male respondents stated that they are involved in the A total of 602 entrepreneurs were interviewed for the purpose of this research project, of whom 82% (495 Real Estate and Construction sector.

Figure 3.2 highlights this finding.

respondents) were male and 18% (107 respondents) were female.
Some 90% (545 respondents) were Maltese entrepreneurs while the remaining 9% (57 respondents) were Gozitans.

II.

Motivations for setting up own business and different Managing style of Male and Female Entrepreneurs Almost 19% (112 respondents) of the entrepreneurs established their business between 2006 and 2010, and the majority of these were female entrepreneurs.

Moreover, 17% (102 respondents) of the respondents, started their business before 1980.

These were largely males.


Initial Motivations for setting up Own business As Figure 3.3 shows, the main motivation that drove the respondent entrepreneurs to set up their The majority (56% - 336 respondents) of the entrepreneurs interviewed hold a ‘sole-trader/ self-employed own business was ‘ambition’.

This was indicated by more than 32% (195 respondents) of the without employees’ status.
Some 80% (271 respondents) are male, whilst the remaining 20% (65 total number of entrepreneur respondents and was equally mentioned by both male and female respondents) are female.

The remaining 266 (44%) of the respondents engage employees.

The high respondents.

majority of the latter respondents engage between 1 - 4 employees.

Business sector engaged in ‘Being one’s own boss’ was the second motivation for entrepreneurs to set up their own business.
In fact, this was mentioned by 11% (65 respondents) of the respondents and was more evident 34% (36 respondents) and 36% (179 respondents) of the female and male interviewed entrepreneurs among male respondents.

‘The opportunity to be better-off financially’ was voiced by 10% (60 respectively hail from the Wholesale and Retail sector.

Almost 31% (33 respondents) of the female respondents) of the respondents as their prime motivation for setting up their own business.
This respondents are engaged in the Financial, Business Services and Community Services sector, while 17% latter motivation was more common among female entrepreneurs.

(84 respondents) of the male respondents stated that they are involved in the Real Estate and Construction sector.

Figure 3.2 below highlights this finding.


FIGURE 3.2 – Business Sector Engaged in by Entrepreneurs (in %s) FIGURE 3.2 – Business Sector Engaged in by Entrepreneurs (in %s) 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 e l a M e l a m e F Manufacturing: Manufacturing Concerns Financial: Banks, Financial Institutions, Insurance, Business Services Wholesale & Retail Real Estate: Construction & Real Estate Transport & Communications: Transports, Telecomms, ICT companies Tourism: Hospitality & Tourism II.
Motivations for setting up own Business and Different Managing Styles of Male and Female Entrepreneurs Unlocking the Female Potential - Research Report 83 Initial Motivations for Setting up Own Business As Figure 3.3 below shows, the main motivation that drove the respondent entrepreneurs to set up their own business was ‘ambition’.

This was indicated by more than 32% (195 respondents) of the total number of entrepreneur respondents and was equally mentioned by both male and female respondents.
‘Being one’s own boss’ was the second motivation for entrepreneurs to set up their own business.

In fact, this was mentioned by 11% (65 respondents) of the respondents and was more evident among male respondents.

‘The opportunity to be better-off financially’ was voiced by 10% (60 respondents) of the 85 respondents as their prime motivation for setting up their own business.

This latter motivation was more common among female entrepreneurs.
FIGURE 3.3 – Initial Motivation for Setting up Own Business (in %s) FIGURE 3.3 – Initial Motivation for Setting up Own Business (in %s) 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 e l a M Ambition Urge to develop and advance Trust in one's potential Being better-off financially Being the 'Boss' Achieving a sense of fulfilment Inability to fit in full-time employment e l a m e F Having more flexibility on the job Having more flexibility on the job to combine work/family commitments Discrimination at the former workplace Identifying an innovative niche Other Don't Know/ Don't Remember ‘The setting up of something from nothing’ is considered by more than 24% (147 respondents) of the respondents as their biggest achievement since setting up their business.
This was followed by more ‘The setting up of something from nothing’ is considered by more than 24% (147 respondents) of than 20% (122 respondents) who indicated ‘the setting up something for themselves/ being their own the respondents as their biggest achievement since setting up their business.

This was followed boss’ as the biggest achievement.
Another 20% (121 respondents) claimed that the fact that ‘they are by more than 20% (122 respondents) who indicated ‘the setting up something for themselves/ now doing something they always wanted to do’ is considered as the main accomplishment.

It is worth being their own boss’ as the biggest achievement.
Another 20% (121 respondents) claimed that pointing out that no differences resulted between male and female entrepreneurs with regards to what the fact that ‘they are now doing something they always wanted to do’ is considered as the main constitutes to be their biggest achievement since they set up their own business.

accomplishment.
accomplishment.

It is worth pointing out that no differences resulted between male and female entrepreneurs with regards to what constitutes to be their biggest achievement since they set up Different findings emerged between male and female entrepreneurs with regards to the training received their own business.

before setting up their own business.


In fact, whilst a good 55% (271 respondents) of the male respondents communicated that they did not undergo any training but only had previous work experience Different findings emerged between male and female entrepreneurs with regards to the training before setting up their business, this was indicated by a significantly lower 36% (39 respondents) of the received before setting up their own business.
In fact, whilst a good 55% (271 respondents) of female entrepreneurs.

Another 21% (22 respondents) of the female respondents stated that they the male respondents communicated that they did not undergo any training but only had previous attended private courses before establishing their own business.

This finding is highlighted in Table 3.5 work experience before setting up their business, this was indicated by a significantly lower below 36% (39 respondents) of the female entrepreneurs.
Another 21% (22 respondents) of the female respondents stated that they attended private courses before establishing their own business.

This finding is highlighted in Table 3.4.

TABLE 3.5 – Training Attended Before Setting Up of Business differences between Male and Female Entrepreneurs on How They Manage Their business The majority (54% - 323 respondents) of the interviewed entrepreneurs perceived no differences in how males and females manage their business.
This was stated by 54.5% (270 respondents) of the male respondents and 49.5% (53 respondents) of the female respondents.

On the other hand, 244 (40.5%) respondents indicated that differences do exist.

These perceptions will be further substantiated and illustrated in the study at a later stage.

Among these there were 48% (51 respondents) of the female respondents and 39% (193 respondents) of the male respondents.
The 244 interviewed entrepreneurs who indicated that there are differences on how male and female entrepreneurs manage a business, were asked to specify these perceived differences.

More than 46% (113 respondents) indicated that men are usually more adventurous and risk-taking.
The 86 84 National Commission for the Promotion of Equality TABLE 3.5 – Training Attended Before Setting Up of Business Counts Break % Respondents Total Male Fem ale Total 602 495 107 University degree/di- plom a/course related directly to the line of business MCAST/ITS or equivalent ETC course/ Local council course or equivalent Private courses (eg.

private educational institution, private tutor, etc.)
Previous w ork experience only No training at all No training and no previous w ork experience Refused/ Don't rem em ber - - 18 16.8% 12 11.2% 1 0.9% 22 20.6% 39 36.4% 17 15.9% 7 6.5% 1 0.9% Differences Between Male and Female Entrepreneurs on How They Manage Their Business respondents who voiced these perceptions were largely male (96 respondents) and the rest were female (17 respondents).
Moreover, almost half (121 respondents) of these same 244 respondents The majority (54% - 323 respondents) of the interviewed entrepreneurs perceived no differences in how observed that female entrepreneurs tend to be more cautious when taking decisions and risks.

males and females manage their business.


This was stated by 54.5% (270 respondents) of the male This was stated by 50% (97 respondents) of the male respondents and by 47% (24 respondents) respondents and 49.5% (53 respondents) of the female respondents.

On the other hand, 244 (40.5%) of the female respondents.

Figures 3.4 and 3.5 illustrate the perceived differences in gender when respondents indicated that differences do exist.
These perceptions will be further substantiated and entrepreneurs make decisions and take risks in business.

illustrated in the study at a later stage.

Among these there were 48% (51 respondents) of the female respondents and 39% (193 respondents) of the male respondents.
Almost 49% (297 respondents) of the whole interviewed entrepreneur cohort pointed out that there is a difference in how male and female entrepreneurs behave with and relate with their The 244 interviewed entrepreneurs who indicated that there are differences on how male and female employees.

This was mainly observed by more than half (55% - 59 respondents) of the female entrepreneurs manage a business, were asked to specify these perceived differences.

More than 46% respondent cohort.


Nevertheless, another 41% (248 respondents) of the total respondents believe (113 respondents) indicated that men are usually more adventurous and risk-taking.

The respondents that such a difference does not exist.

This was largely expressed by the male respondents (42% - who voiced these perceptions were largely male (96 respondents) and the rest were female (17 207 respondents).

respondents).
respondents).

Moreover, almost half (121 respondents) of these same 244 respondents observed that female entrepreneurs tend to be more cautious when taking decisions and risks.

This was stated by 50% When the entrepreneurs were asked whether, in their opinion, female entrepreneurs tend to be (97 respondents) of the male respondents and by 47% (24 respondents) of the female respondents.
more emotive in their interaction with their employees than their male counterparts, more than Figures 3.4 and 3.5 below illustrate the perceived differences in gender when entrepreneurs take 49% (297 respondents) gave a positive response.

This was indicated by 55% (59 respondents) decisions and risks in business.

and 48% (238 respondents) of the female and male respondents respectively.

Meanwhile, some 30% (180 respondents) of the respondents, predominantly male, replied in the negative.
It is opportune to note that before asking this question, the Research Consultant reminded all the survey respondents that ‘the use of emotive behaviour when interacting with employees means being more approachable as an employer, by using people’s skills and be communicative with employees’.
FIGURE 3.4 – How Male Entrepreneurs Take Decisions and Risks (in %s) Unlocking the Female Potential - Research Report 85 87 FIGURE 3.4 – How Male Entrepreneurs are Perceived to Make Decisions and Take Risks (in %s) 50 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 50 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 e l a M e l a M e l a m e F e l a m e F Men use an aggressive personality style Men are adventurous and risk-takers Men go straight to the point Men tackle situations without hesitation Men consider two fronts: the family and the business Other Men use an aggressive personality style Don't Know/ Don't Remember Men are adventurous and risk-takers Men go straight to the point 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Men tackle situations without hesitation FIGURE 3.5 – How Female Entrepreneurs Take Decisions and Risks (in %s) Men consider two fronts: the family and the business Other Don't Know/ Don't Remember FIGURE 3.5 – How Female Entrepreneurs are Perceived to Make Decisions and Take Risks (in %s) FIGURE 3.5 – How Female Entrepreneurs Take Decisions and Risks (in %s) 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 e l a M e l a M Females are cautious Females take long to consider and evaluate Females are emotive e l a m e F e l a m e F Females are cautious Females discuss matters with husband/father before taking decisions Females take long to consider and evaluate Females consider two fronts: the family and the business Females are emotive Other Females discuss matters with husband/father before taking decisions Don't Know/ Don't Remember Females consider two fronts: the family and the business Other Don't Know/ Don't Remember Almost 49% (297 respondents) of the whole interviewed entrepreneur cohort pointed out that there is a difference in how male and female entrepreneurs behave with and relate with their employees.
This was Almost 49% (297 respondents) of the whole interviewed entrepreneur cohort pointed out that there is a mainly observed by more than half (55% - 59 respondents) of the female respondent cohort.

difference in how male and female entrepreneurs behave with and relate with their employees.

This was Nevertheless, another 41% (248 respondents) of the total respondents believe that such a difference does mainly observed by more than half (55% - 59 respondents) of the female respondent cohort.

not exist.
not exist.

This was largely expressed by the male respondents (42% - 207 respondents).

Nevertheless, another 41% (248 respondents) of the total respondents believe that such a difference does not exist.

This was largely expressed by the male respondents (42% - 207 respondents).
Entrepreneurship and Caring Responsibilities A total of 263 respondents (44%) mentioned that they currently have or have had caring When the entrepreneurs were asked whether, in their opinion, female entrepreneurs tend to be more responsibilities in the past; 67% (72 respondents) of these entrepreneurs were female.
Another emotive in their interaction with their employees than their male counterparts, more than 49% (297 When the entrepreneurs were asked whether, in their opinion, female entrepreneurs tend to be more 23% (141 respondents) pointed out that they have caring responsibilities but they are not the respondents) gave a positive response.
This was indicated by 55% (59 respondents) and 48% (238 emotive in their interaction with their employees than their male counterparts, more than 49% (297 respondents) of the female and male respondents respectively.

Meanwhile, some 30% (180 respondents) respondents) gave a positive response.

This was indicated by 55% (59 respondents) and 48% (238 ‘main carer’ within their household.

The latter were primarily male respondents.


Moreover, another respondents) of the female and male respondents respectively.

Meanwhile, some 30% (180 respondents) 88 32% (190 respondents) stated that they never had caring responsibilities.

Figure 3.6 depicts more 88 details on this research area.

86 National Commission for the Promotion of Equality of the respondents, predominantly male, replied in the negative.
It is opportune to note that before asking this question, the Research Consultant reminded all the survey respondents that ‘the use of emotive behaviour when interacting with employees means being more approachable as an employer, by using people’s skills and be communicative with employees’.
Entrepreneurship and Caring Responsibilities A total of 263 respondents (44%) mentioned that they currently have or have had caring responsibilities in the past; 67% (72 respondents) of these entrepreneurs were female.

Another 23% (141 respondents) pointed out that they have caring responsibilities but they are not the ‘main carer’ within their household.

The latter were primarily male respondents.

Moreover, another 32% (190 respondents) stated that they never had caring responsibilities.
Figure 3.6 depicts more details on this research area.
FIGURE 3.6 – Caring Responsibilities Since Setting Up Own Business (in %s) FIGURE 3.6 – Caring Responsibilities Since Setting Up Own Business (in %s) 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 e l a M e l a m e F Yes, past/current caring responsibilities Yes, but I am not the main carer No, never had caring responsibilities Don't know/ Don't remember Refused The adoption of flexi-time was the arrangement mostly used by entrepreneurs to obtain a balance The adoption of flexi-time was the arrangement mostly used by entrepreneurs to obtain a between their work and caring responsibilities.
In fact, this was indicated by 37.5% (27 respondents) of balance between their work and caring responsibilities.

In fact, this was indicated by 37.5% (27 the female respondents and by 20% (38 respondents) of the male respondents.

The child-minding of the respondents) of the female respondents and by 20% (38 respondents) of the male respondents.
children by the grandparents was also mentioned by 35% (25 respondents) of the female entrepreneurs The child-minding of the children by the grandparents was also mentioned by 35% (25 and by 16% (30 respondents) of the male entrepreneurs.

respondents) of the female entrepreneurs and by 16% (30 respondents) of the male entrepreneurs.
The 404 entrepreneurs, who either currently have / have had caring responsibilities or who are not the The 404 entrepreneurs, who either currently have / have had caring responsibilities or who main carer, were asked to indicate how these ‘caring responsibilities’ affected the decision to establish are not the main carer, were asked to indicate how these ‘caring responsibilities’ affected the own business.
A high 68% (273 respondents) pointed out that their caring responsibilities did not affect decision to establish own business.

A high 68% (273 respondents) pointed out that their caring their decision to set up own business.

It is worth mentioning, though, that this was mainly the case with responsibilities did not affect their decision to set up own business.

It is worth mentioning, male entrepreneurs, where 73% (240 respondents) stated this.
On the other hand, this same observation though, that this was mainly the case with male entrepreneurs, where 73% (240 respondents) was made by a lower 44% (33 respondents) of the female entrepreneurs, as is clearly illustrated in Table stated this.

On the other hand, this same observation was made by a lower 44% (33 respondents) 3.6 below.

of the female entrepreneurs, as is clearly illustrated in Table 3.6 below.
More than 12% (50 respondents) of the entrepreneur respondents claimed that caring responsibilities did More than 12% (50 respondents) of the entrepreneur respondents claimed that caring have an effect on their decision to set up their own business because they needed to earn money to responsibilities did have an effect on their decision to set up their own business because they support their caring responsibilities.

This was equally observed by male and female respondents.
needed to earn money to support their caring responsibilities.

This was equally observed by male and female respondents.

A clear finding emerges that caring responsibilities do have a stronger impact on female entrepreneurs than male entrepreneurs vis-à-vis their decision to start a business.

Less than half of the female 89 A clear finding emerges that caring responsibilities do have a stronger impact on female entrepreneurs than male entrepreneurs vis-à-vis their decision to start a business.
Less than half of the female entrepreneurs indicated that their decision were not affected by the responsibilities while the others either started their own business to address the needs that come with having responsibilities or waited until the children are old enough before setting up their own business.

This finding also emerged for the male entrepreneurs with caring responsibilities, but to a much lesser extent.
A very high 70% (346 respondents) of the male entrepreneur respondents were the main income earners of their household at the time they set up their own business.

On the other hand, almost 58% (62 respondents) of the female respondents interviewed stated that when they started their own business, the main income earner of their household was in full employment.
Unlocking the Female Potential - Research Report 87 entrepreneurs indicated that their decision was not affected by the responsibilities while the others either started their own business to address the needs that come with having responsibilities or waited until the children are old enough before setting up their own business.

This finding also emerged for the male entrepreneurs with caring responsibilities, but to a much lesser extent.
TABLE 3.6 – Caring Responsibilities Affecting The Decision To Start a Business TABLE 3.6 – Caring Responsibilities Affecting The Decision To Start a Business Counts Break % Respondents Total Yes, I started m y ow n business to be able to w ork on flexi-tim e Yes, I w aited until m y dependents w ere older/ w ent to school before I started m y ow n business Yes, I started m y ow n business because I needed incom e due to m y caring responsibilities No, m y caring responsibilities did not affect m y choice of self-em ploym ent/ setting up ow n business in any w ay Other Don't know / Don't rem em ber Refused Total 404 42 10.4% 16 4.0% Male 329 31 9.4% 3 0.9% Fem ale - - A very high 70% (346 respondents) of the male entrepreneur respondents were the main income earners of their household at the time they set up their own business.
On the other hand, almost 58% (62 respondents) of the female respondents interviewed stated that when they started their own business, the main income earner of their household was in full employment.

Being the main income earner of his household did not influence the male entrepreneurs’ decision to start a business.

This finding is depicted in Table 3.6 below where a high 78% (384 respondents) of the male respondents indicated that they were either not influenced or not at all influenced.
With regards to the female respondents, who, in their majority, had the main income Being the main income earner of his household did not influence the male entrepreneurs’ decision to start earner of the household in full employment before setting up their own business, a high 73% (78 a business.
This finding is depicted in Table 3.7 below where a high 78% (384 respondents) of the male respondents) of these indicated that this either did not influence or did not at all influence their respondents indicated that they were either not influenced or not at all influenced.

With regards to the decision to start their own business.
female respondents, who, in their majority, had the main income earner of the household in full employment before setting up their own business, a high 73% (78 respondents) of these indicated that this either did not influence or did not at all influence their decision to start their own business.

III.
III.

Gender segregation in Entrepreneurship TABLE 3.7 – The Influence of Whether The Household’s Main Income Earner Is In Full-Time Employment or The Issue of Gender in Entrepreneurship Not on The Entrepreneur’s Decision to Set Up Own Business More than 62% (374 respondents) stated that in their line of business the gender of the entrepreneur is not an issue.

This was stated by 60% (299 respondents) of the male entrepreneurs and by 70% (75 respondents) of the female entrepreneurs.
Nevertheless, 35% (212 respondents) claimed that gender presents an issue in their line of business; 182 of these respondents were male and 30 were female.

This finding is illustrated in Table 3.8.

Another interesting finding that emerged in the study was that according to 86% (157 respondents) of the 182 male respondents, who indicated that gender is an issue in their line of business, said that being a male helped them in achieving more success.
Meanwhile, 77% (23 respondents) of the 30 female entrepreneurs also stated that gender is an issue in their line of business: these respondents indicated that being female helped them to achieve more success.
90 88 National Commission for the Promotion of Equality Counts Break % Respondents Total Male Fem ale Total 602 495 107 No influence at all 349 TABLE 3.7 – The Influence of Whether The Household’s Main Income 58.0% Earner Is In Full-Time Employment or Not on The Entrepreneur’s 29 Slightly influenced Decision to Set Up Own Business 27.1% m y decision 84 17.0% 113 18.8% 49 45.8% 300 60.6% Som ew hat influenced m y decision Counts Break % Respondents Heavily influenced Total m y decision Don't know / Don't No influence at all rem em ber Slightly influenced m y decision Refused 53 8.8% Total 67 11.1% 602 349 16 2.7% 58.0% 4 113 0.7% 18.8% 53 III.
Gender segregation in Entrepreneurship 8.8% Som ew hat influenced m y decision The Issue of Gender in Entrepreneurship Heavily influenced m y decision 67 11.1% 42 8.5% Male 51 495 10.3% 300 14 2.8% 60.6% 4 84 0.8% 17.0% 42 8.5% 51 10.3% 11 10.3% Fem ale 16 107 15.0% 49 2 1.9% 45.8% - 29 - 27.1% 11 10.3% 16 15.0% More than 62% (374 respondents) stated that in their line of business the gender of the entrepreneur is not an issue.
This was stated by 60% (299 respondents) of the male entrepreneurs and by 70% (75 respondents) of the female entrepreneurs.

Nevertheless, 35% (212 respondents) claimed that gender presents an issue in their line of business; 182 of these respondents were male and 30 were female.

This finding is illustrated in Table 3.8 below.

Don't know / Don't rem em ber 2 1.9% 4 0.8% 14 2.8% 4 0.7% 16 2.7% Refused - - III.
Gender segregation in Entrepreneurship TABLE 3.8 – Gender Being an Issue in The Line of Business TABLE 3.8 – Gender Being an Issue in The Line of Business The Issue of Gender in Entrepreneurship Counts Break % Respondents Total Male Fem ale More than 62% (374 respondents) stated that in their line of business the gender of the entrepreneur is not an issue.

This was stated by 60% (299 respondents) of the male entrepreneurs and by 70% (75 respondents) of the female entrepreneurs.
Nevertheless, 35% (212 respondents) claimed that gender Gender is not an presents an issue in their line of business; 182 of these respondents were male and 30 were female.

This issue finding is illustrated in Table 3.8 below.
Gender is an issue 299 60.4% 75 70.1% 374 62.1% 182 36.8% 30 28.0% 212 35.2% Total 495 107 602 Don't Know 16 2.7% 14 2.8% 2 1.9% TABLE 3.8 – Gender Being an Issue in The Line of Business Counts Break % Respondents Total Another interesting finding that emerged in the study was that according to 86% (157 respondents) of the 182 male respondents, who indicated that gender is an issue in their line of business, said being a male Gender dominance in business sectors in Malta and Gozo helped them in achieving more success.
Meanwhile, 77% (23 respondents) of the 30 female According to the Maltese (excluding Gozitan) entrepreneurs, the construction sector is the sector entrepreneurs also stated that gender is an issue in their line of business: these respondents indicated in which men are mostly involved in Malta.

In fact, this was stated by 55% (299 respondents) that being female helped them to achieve more success.

of the aggregate 545 Maltese respondents, irrespective of the gender of the respondent.
Another 27.5% (150 respondents) of the male and female Maltese respondents stated that male entrepreneurship is present in most / all sectors.
299 Gender Dominance in Business Sectors in Malta and Gozo 60.4% Gender is not an issue Gender is an issue 75 70.1% 374 62.1% 182 36.8% 30 28.0% 212 35.2% Fem ale Total Male 107 495 602 16 2.7% 14 2.8% Don't Know According to the Maltese (excluding Gozitan) entrepreneurs, the construction sector is the sector in which The same results emerged when the 57 male and female Gozitan entrepreneurs were asked to men are mostly involved in Malta.
In fact, this was stated by 55% (299 respondents) of the aggregate 545 specify the business sectors which are largely dominated by men.

In fact, 47% (27 respondents) Maltese respondents, irrespective of the gender of the respondent.
Another 27.5% (150 respondents) of mentioned the Construction sector as being male-dominated, followed by 35% (20 respondents) the male and female Maltese respondents stated that male entrepreneurship is present in most / all Another interesting finding that emerged in the study was that according to 86% (157 respondents) of the sectors.

who claimed that they believe that male entrepreneurship is present in most / all sectors in Gozo.
182 male respondents, who indicated that gender is an issue in their line of business, said being a male helped them in achieving more success.

Meanwhile, 77% (23 respondents) of the 30 female In Malta, it emerged that female entrepreneurship dominance is mostly present in the beauty and entrepreneurs also stated that gender is an issue in their line of business: these respondents indicated services industries.
Irrespective of their gender, this was observed by 45% (244 respondents) of that being female helped them to achieve more success.

the 545 Maltese respondents.

14% (75 respondents) of all the Maltese entrepreneur respondents observed that female entrepreneurship is present in all / most sectors in Malta.

Figure 3.7 depicts this finding.


Gender Dominance in Business Sectors in Malta and Gozo 2 1.9% 91 According to the Maltese (excluding Gozitan) entrepreneurs, the construction sector is the sector in which men are mostly involved in Malta.

In fact, this was stated by 55% (299 respondents) of the aggregate 545 Maltese respondents, irrespective of the gender of the respondent.
Another 27.5% (150 respondents) of the male and female Maltese respondents stated that male entrepreneurship is present in most / all sectors.

Unlocking the Female Potential - Research Report 89 91 The same results emerged when the 57 male and female Gozitan entrepreneurs were asked to specify the business sectors which are largely dominated by men.
In fact, 47% (27 respondents) mentioned the Construction sector as being male-dominated, followed by 35% (20 respondents) who claimed that they believe that male entrepreneurship is present in most / all sectors in Gozo.

In Malta, it emerged that female entrepreneurship dominance is mostly present in the beauty and services industries.

Irrespective of their gender, this was observed by 45% (244 respondents) of the 545 Maltese respondents.
14% (75 respondents) of all the Maltese entrepreneur respondents observed that female entrepreneurship is present in all / most sectors in Malta.

Figure 3.7 depicts this finding.
FIGURE 3.7 – Sectors Dominated by Female Entrepreneurship in Malta (in %s) FIGURE 3.7 – Sectors Dominated by Female Entrepreneurship in Malta (in %s) 50 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 e l a M e l a m e F Female entrepreneurship is present in most/ all sectors In the organization of business events In Construction: interior design In waste management In Retail Trade In the Financial Sector In catering Other In Information and Communication Technology Don't Know/ Don't Remember In the beauty and services industries Degree of Accessibility of Business Sections to Gender With regards to gender entrepreneurship dominance in Gozo, the respondents’ perceptions tally with those of the Maltese respondents.
In fact, 47% (27 respondents) of the 57 Gozitan entrepreneurs interviewed observed that the beauty and other services business sectors are largely led by female entrepreneurs.

This was followed by 42% (24 respondents) of the Gozitan respondents who observed that female entrepreneur domination is present in the retail trade in Gozo.

With regards to gender entrepreneurship dominance in Gozo, the respondents’ perceptions tally with those of the Maltese respondents.
In fact, 47% (27 respondents) of the 57 Gozitan entrepreneurs interviewed observed that the beauty and other services business sectors are largely led by female entrepreneurs.

This was followed by 42% (24 respondents) of the Gozitan respondents who observed that female entrepreneur domination is present in the retail trade in Gozo.

The majority (50.5% - 304 respondents) of the aggregate 602 respondents observed that there are lines of business which are not accessible to female entrepreneurs.
This perception was observed by half (246 respondents) of the male entrepreneurs and by a higher 54% (58 respondents) of the female entrepreneur respondents.

It emerges that the construction sector is the sector which is the least accessible to female degree of Accessibility of business sections to Gender entrepreneurs.
This perception was observed by a staggering 90% (274 respondents) of the male and Over half (50.5% - 304 respondents) of the aggregate 602 respondents observed that there are female 304 respondents.

The Real Estate and the Transport and Communications business sectors are lines of business which are not accessible to female entrepreneurs.

This perception was observed also perceived by some entrepreneur respondents as inaccessible to female entrepreneurs.
by half (246 respondents) of the male entrepreneurs and by a higher 54% (58 respondents) of the Male dominance in these business sectors was the most mentioned reason as to why these sectors are female entrepreneur respondents.

It emerges that the construction sector is the sector which is not accessible to women.

In fact, a high 83% (253 respondents) of the same male and female 304 the least accessible to female entrepreneurs.

This perception was observed by a staggering 90% entrepreneurs observed this.
Moreover, the fact that society in general gives an authoritative role to men (274 respondents) of the male and female 304 respondents.

The Real Estate and the Transport was perceived as a reason for this male entrepreneur dominance by 75% (228 respondents) of the and Communications business sectors are also perceived by some entrepreneur respondents as respondents.

An also high 73% (223 respondents) of male and female entrepreneur respondents inaccessible to female entrepreneurs.
92 Male dominance in these business sectors was the most mentioned reason as to why these sectors are not accessible to women.

In fact, a high 83% (253 respondents) of the same male and female 304 entrepreneurs observed this.

Moreover, the fact that society in general gives an authoritative role to men was perceived as a reason for this male entrepreneur dominance by 75% (228 respondents) of the respondents.
An also high 73% (223 respondents) of male and female entrepreneur respondents communicated that the caring and nurturing nature of women drives the latter’s interests towards other sectors.

Table 3.9 highlights these findings.

A finding from this study emerges that male entrepreneurs have more access to business sectors than female entrepreneurs.

Only a low 21% (128 respondents) of the 602 respondents pointed out that there are access limitations for men.
These respondents were both male and female interviewees.

This contrasts with 50.5% of the same respondents who stated that there are sectors which are inaccessible to women entrepreneurs.

90 National Commission for the Promotion of Equality communicated that the caring and nurturing nature of women drives the latter’s interests towards other sectors.

Table 3.9 below highlights these findings.
TABLE 3.9 – Reasons for Sectors Not Being Accessible to Female Entrepreneurs TABLE 3.9 – Reasons For Sectors Not Being Accessible to Female Entrepreneurs Counts Analysis % Respondents a) Male dominance in the sector b) Society itself gives men a leading role c) The 'businessman' stereotype is present d) Women lack aw areness of their skills e) The caring and nurturing nature of w omen drives them tow ards other fields Total Com pletely disagree Disagree Neither agree nor disagree Agree Com pletely Agree Don't Know Refused - - 24 7.9% 13 4.3% d) Women lack aw areness of their skills e) The caring and nurturing nature of w omen drives them tow ards other fields A finding from this study emerges that male entrepreneurs have more access to business sectors than female entrepreneurs.
Only a low 21% (128 respondents) of the 602 respondents pointed out that there are access limitations for men.

These respondents were both male and female interviewees.

This The beauty and hairdressing line of business was perceived by 49% (63 respondents) of the 128 contrasts with 50.5% of the same respondents who stated that there are sectors which are inaccessible to respondents as the sector most inaccessible to male entrepreneurs; this was largely perceived by women entrepreneurs.
the male entrepreneur respondents (53% - 55 respondents) as opposed to 33% (8 respondents) of the female entrepreneurs.

Childcare and fashion were also perceived as sectors being less accessible to male entrepreneurs.

communicated that the caring and nurturing nature of women drives the latter’s interests towards other The beauty and hairdressing line of business was perceived by 49% (63 respondents) of the 128 sectors.

Table 3.9 below highlights these findings.


respondents as the sector most inaccessible to male entrepreneurs; this was largely perceived by the male entrepreneur respondents (53% - 55 respondents) as opposed to 33% (8 respondents) of the female TABLE 3.9 – Reasons For Sectors Not Being Accessible to Female Entrepreneurs entrepreneurs.

Childcare and fashion were also perceived as sectors being less accessible to male Counts entrepreneurs.
Analysis % Respondents Refused Table 3.10 below illustrates the reasons for this inaccessibility to male entrepreneurs in these sectors.

It emerges that the primary perceived reason is that society in general, gives women a 1 Table 3.10 below illustrates the reasons for this inaccessibility to male entrepreneurs in these sectors.
It 0.3% leading role in the sectors; this perception was observed by a high 88% (113 respondents) of the emerges that the primary perceived reason is that society in general, gives women a leading role in the sectors; this perception was observed by a high 88% (113 respondents) of the male and female male and female respondents.

Female entrepreneur dominance in these business sectors was also respondents.
Female entrepreneur dominance in these business sectors was also perceived by a high 1 perceived by a high 83% (106 respondents) of the male and female respondents as one of the 0.3% 83% (106 respondents) of the male and female respondents as one of the main reasons for this main reasons for this inaccessibility to male entrepreneurs.

inaccessibility to male entrepreneurs.
b) Society itself gives men a leading role c) The 'businessman' stereotype is present a) Male dominance in the sector Neither agree nor disagree Com pletely disagree Com pletely Agree 42 13.8% 38 12.5% 105 34.5% 129 42.4% 63 20.7% 99 32.6% 59 19.4% 132 43.4% 121 39.8% Don't Know 6 2.0% 12 3.9% 22 7.2% 9 3.0% 1 0.3% 22 7.2% 6 2.0% 8 2.6% 30 9.9% 6 2.0% Disagree Agree Total 304 304 304 44 14.5% 105 34.5% 34 11.2% 68 22.4% 26 8.6% 3 1.0% 304 TABLE 3.10 – Reasons For Business Sectors Being Less Accessible To Male Entrepreneurs Counts Com pletely IV.
Challenges Faced by Entrepreneurs and support structures Needed Analysis % agree Respondents 304 Total 31 Neither agree 10.2% nor disagree 7 Com peltely 2.3% disagree 30 9.9% Disagree 159 52.3% Agree 64 21.1% Don't know Refused - - - - - - Female dominance in the sector Challenges and Problems Faced by Entrepreneurs A finding from this study emerges that male entrepreneurs have more access to business sectors than female entrepreneurs.
Only a low 21% (128 respondents) of the 602 respondents pointed out that there Society itself gives The biggest challenge encountered when they were about to set up their own business by the w omen a leading role are access limitations for men.

These respondents were both male and female interviewees.
This male and female entrepreneurs who participated in the study was to secure sufficient finance for The 'businessw oman' contrasts with 50.5% of the same respondents who stated that there are sectors which are inaccessible to stereotype is present their new venture.

This was indicated by more than 30% (183 respondents) of the aggregate 602 women entrepreneurs.

respondents.

This challenge was, in fact, faced by 161 (32.5%) male respondents and 22 (21%) female respondents.

IV.
IV.

Challenges Faced by Entrepreneurs and Support Structures Needed The beauty and hairdressing line of business was perceived by 49% (63 respondents) of the 128 respondents as the sector most inaccessible to male entrepreneurs; this was largely perceived by the Challenges and Problems Faced by Entrepreneurs male entrepreneur respondents (53% - 55 respondents) as opposed to 33% (8 respondents) of the female entrepreneurs.
Childcare and fashion were also perceived as sectors being less accessible to male Moreover, 14% (84 respondents) of the respondents recalled that making enquiries at the various The biggest challenge encountered when they were about to set up their own business by the male and entrepreneurs.

local Government departments was the main problem they had to face.

This was mentioned female entrepreneurs who participated in the study was to secure sufficient finance for their new venture.
by 14% (68 respondents) of the male respondents and by 15% (16 respondents) of the female Table 3.10 below illustrates the reasons for this inaccessibility to male entrepreneurs in these sectors.

It emerges that the primary perceived reason is that society in general, gives women a leading role in the interviewees.
Another 14% (82 respondents) of the respondents referred to the bureaucratic 93 sectors; this perception was observed by a high 88% (113 respondents) of the male and female processing of formalities as the biggest challenge they had faced when setting up their business; respondents.

Female entrepreneur dominance in these business sectors was also perceived by a high 83% (106 respondents) of the male and female respondents as one of the main reasons for this inaccessibility to male entrepreneurs.
11 8.6% - - TABLE 3.10 – Reasons for Business Sectors Being Less Accessible to Male Entrepreneurs TABLE 3.10 – Reasons For Business Sectors Being Less Accessible To Male Entrepreneurs Counts Analysis % Respondents Female dominance in the sector Society itself gives w omen a leading role The 'businessw oman' stereotype is present Total Com peltely disagree Disagree Neither agree nor disagree 128 128 128 2 1.6% 1 0.8% 4 3.1% 13 10.2% 4 3.1% 26 20.3% 6 4.7% 6 4.7% 14 10.9% Agree 67 52.3% 72 56.3% 48 37.5% Com pletely agree Don't know Refused 39 30.5% 41 32.0% 25 19.5% 1 0.8% 4 3.1% 11 8.6% - - - - - - IV.
Challenges Faced by Entrepreneurs and Support Structures Needed Unlocking the Female Potential - Research Report Challenges and Problems Faced by Entrepreneurs 91 The biggest challenge encountered when they were about to set up their own business by the male and female entrepreneurs who participated in the study was to secure sufficient finance for their new venture.

93 This was indicated by more than 30% (183 respondents) of the aggregate 602 respondents.
This challenge was, in fact, faced by 161 (32.5%) male respondents and 22 (21%) female respondents.

Moreover, 14% (84 respondents) of the respondents recalled that making enquiries at the various local Government departments was the main problem they had to face.

This was mentioned by 14% (68 respondents) of the male respondents and by 15% (16 respondents) of the female interviewees.
Another 14% (82 respondents) of the respondents referred to the bureaucratic processing of formalities as the biggest challenge they had faced when setting up their business; 13% (64 respondents) of these were male and 17% (18 respondents) were female entrepreneurs.

Table 3.11 highlights these findings in more TABLE 3.11 – Main Challenge/ Difficulty Faced When Setting Up detail.
Own Business TABLE 3.11 – Main Challenge/ Difficulty Faced When Setting Up Own Business Counts Break % Respondents Total Male Fem ale Total 602 495 107 Placing enquiries at the various governm ental departm ents Bureaucratic processing of form alities Securing finance Lack of know ledge in running the business Developing a business plan Lack of self- confidence The elem ent of com petitiveness Establishing business contacts Building trust in em ployees and their w ork capabilities The care of fam ily m em bers Other I did not face any particular salient challenges, difficulties, problem s Don't Know / Don't Rem em ber - - 12 11.2% 5 4.7% - - 1 0.9% 12 11.2% 13 12.1% 3 2.8% Fierce competition, the impact of the international economic outlook and the lack of cash flow emerged as the three main challenges that local male and female entrepreneurs face nowadays.
Competition was 13% (64 respondents) of these were male and 17% (18 respondents) were female entrepreneurs.

mentioned by 29% (173 respondents) of the 602 entrepreneurs, the international economic outlook was Table 3.11 highlights these findings in more detail.

observed by 25% (150 respondents), while lack of cash flow was indicated by 18% (111 respondents).
No differences in the difficulties faced by male and female entrepreneurs emerged as Table 3.12 below Fierce competition, the impact of the international economic outlook and the lack of cash flow illustrates.

emerged as the three main challenges that local male and female entrepreneurs face nowadays.
TABLE 3.12 – Challenges/ Difficulties Faced by Entrepreneurs Nowadays Competition was mentioned by 29% (173 respondents) of the 602 entrepreneurs, the international economic outlook was observed by 25% (150 respondents), while lack of cash flow was indicated by 18% (111 respondents).

No differences in the difficulties faced by male and female entrepreneurs emerged as Table 3.12 illustrates.
94 According to the 57 Gozitan entrepreneurs interviewed and as depicted in Table 3.13 below, the three salient difficulties faced by Gozitan entrepreneurs are the island’s double insularity which was mentioned by 30% (17 respondents) of the Gozitan respondents; 25% (14 respondents) highlighted the problem of Gozo’s limited immediate market, while 21% (12 respondents) referred to the double-handling of merchandise problem.
The first two challenges were observed by both male and female Gozitan entrepreneurs, while the double-handling of merchandise was only observed largely by male entrepreneur respondents.

This finding is illustrated in Table 3.13.
92 National Commission for the Promotion of Equality Counts Break % Respondents Total The im pact of the international econom ic outlook Com petition rem ains a challenge Total Male Fem ale 602 150 24.9% 173 28.7% 495 124 25.1% 145 29.3% 107 26 24.3% 28 26.2% TABLE 3.12 – Challenges/ Difficulties Faced by Entrepreneurs Nowadays 111 18.4% 93 18.8% 18 16.8% Lack of cash flow Counts Break % Keeping up w ith Respondents bureaucratic form alities Total The im pact of the Being innovative in international an over-saturated econom ic outlook line of business Com petition rem ains a challenge Other Lack of cash flow I am not facing any particular salient Keeping up w ith challenges, bureaucratic difficulties and form alities problem s Being innovative in an over-saturated Don't Know / Don't line of business Rem em ber Other Total 15 2.5% 602 150 15 24.9% 2.5% 173 74 28.7% 12.3% 111 18.4% 58 15 9.6% 2.5% 15 6 2.5% 1.0% 74 12.3% Male 8 1.6% 495 124 13 25.1% 2.6% 145 58 29.3% 11.7% 93 18.8% 49 8 9.9% 1.6% 13 5 2.6% 1.0% 58 11.7% Fem ale 7 6.5% 107 26 24.3% 2 1.9% 28 26.2% 16 15.0% 18 16.8% 7 6.5% 9 8.4% 2 1.9% 1 0.9% 16 15.0% According to the 57 Gozitan entrepreneurs interviewed and as depicted in Table 3.13 below, the three salient difficulties faced by Gozitan entrepreneurs are the island’s double insularity which was mentioned by 30% (17 respondents) of the Gozitan respondents; 25% (14 respondents) highlighted the problem of Gozo’s limited immediate market, while 21% (12 respondents) referred to the double-handling of merchandise problem.
The first two challenges were observed by both male and female Gozitan entrepreneurs, while the double-handling of merchandise was only observed largely by male entrepreneur respondents.
I am not facing any particular salient challenges, difficulties and problem s Don't Know / Don't Rem em ber 49 9.9% 5 1.0% 6 1.0% 1 0.9% 9 8.4% 58 9.6% According to the 57 Gozitan entrepreneurs interviewed and as depicted in Table 3.13 below, the three TABLE 3.13 – Additional Problems Faced by Gozitan Entrepreneurs TABLE 3.13 – Additional Problems Faced by Gozitan Entrepreneurs salient difficulties faced by Gozitan entrepreneurs are the island’s double insularity which was mentioned by 30% (17 respondents) of the Gozitan respondents; 25% (14 respondents) highlighted the problem of Gozo’s limited immediate market, while 21% (12 respondents) referred to the double-handling of merchandise problem.
The first two challenges were observed by both male and female Gozitan entrepreneurs, while the double-handling of merchandise was only observed largely by male entrepreneur respondents.
Counts Break % Respondents Fem ale Total Total Male 57 44 13 17 29.8% 14 31.8% 3 23.1% TABLE 3.13 – Additional Problems Faced by Gozitan Entrepreneurs The island's double insularity affects all businesses Counts Businesses face Break % double-handling of Respondents m erchandise Total Connectivity to the island is a problem The island's double insularity affects all businesses Gozitan Businesses face entrepreneurs do double-handling of not benefit of sam e m erchandise prom otional exposure Connectivity to the island is a problem The island's Gozitan im m ediate m arket is entrepreneurs do lim ited not benefit of sam e prom otional Other exposure The island's I think they face im m ediate m arket is sim ilar challenges lim ited and difficulties Other Don't Know / Don't Rem em ber I think they face sim ilar challenges and difficulties Total Male 25.0% 44 6 14 13.6% 31.8% 11 2 25.0% 4.5% 6 13.6% 9 20.5% 2 4.5% 1 2.3% 9 1 20.5% 2.3% 1 2.3% - - 1 2.3% Fem ale 1 7.7% 13 3 23.1% - - 1 7.7% 1 7.7% - - 1 7.7% 5 38.5% 2 15.4% 5 38.5% - - 2 15.4% 1 7.7% - - Unlocking the Female Potential - Research Report Don't Know / Don't Rem em ber 1 1.8% 93 - - 1 7.7% 95 95 services and support structures for Entrepreneurs Used in the Past A worrying 87% (522 respondents) of the entrepreneurs recalled that when they set up their own business they did not make use of any services, support structures or support schemes developed for entrepreneurs.
This was indicated by both male and female entrepreneur respondents.

The schemes/ support structures used by the 69 entrepreneur respondents when setting up own business, were mainly those offered by the Employment and Training Corporation (ETC).

This was observed by 46% (32 respondents) of these 69 respondents.

Another 25 respondents (36%) recalled that they had used services/ support structures offered by Malta Enterprise when they started their business.
ETC’s recruitment assistance services, Government’s solar panel subsidisation schemes and the Micro-Invest scheme were the three most used services/schemes by local entrepreneurs when they started their own business.

An encouraging 80% (55 respondents) of the respondents making use of these services/ support structures, indicated that they found these useful / extremely useful.

These entrepreneurs were predominantly male.


The very few entrepreneurs who claimed that they did not find these services/ support structures useful, observed that this is because the application and implementation process of these services/ support structures was too bureaucratic rendering the overall service/ support structures dissatisfactory.
The study shows that the main reason why both male and female entrepreneurs not having made use of services / support structures and schemes offered by Government was due to their lack of awareness and knowledge of the availability of such services/ support structures.

This reason was mentioned by 28% (147 respondents) of the 522 entrepreneurs.
Another finding is that 14% (74 respondents) of the male and female entrepreneurs claimed that when they applied for such services/ support schemes, it transpired that they were never eligible for any available services/ schemes.
Entrepreneurs’ Perceptions on the Effectiveness of services and support structures The 602 entrepreneurs participating in this study were presented with a number of possible measures that may improve the services and support structures currently being offered to male and female entrepreneurs in Malta.

These possible measures were identified by the entrepreneurs and stakeholders in the qualitative research phase of this study.
The Research Consultant wanted to further test these possible measures by exploring the perceptions of the 602 entrepreneurs on which new services/ support structures they perceive as effective and that would assist them significantly in their business.
As Table 3.14 illustrates, more than 80% (480 respondents) of all entrepreneur respondents perceived the following services / support structures as effective: the better marketing of existing services and support schemes; the follow-up by Malta Enterprise (or act on behalf of small entrepreneurs) to accelerate MEPA’s application process; the minimisation / complete elimination of bureaucracy by Government departments; the setting up of a one-stop ‘entrepreneur assistance’ shop within Malta Enterprise and easier access to micro-financing schemes offered to local entrepreneurs.
It is worthy of mention that 56% (337 respondents) of the respondents perceived the following services/ support structures would assist them in their business: KBIC regulations to be broadened to allow accessibility of premises to other lines of business; local and foreign entrepreneurs to benefit of the same treatment and the marketing of Gozo as a separate destination from Malta.
Other recommended service / support structure measures which may be introduced to assist local entrepreneurs comprised: the need for a reduction in fuel expenses and energy bills; the need 94 National Commission for the Promotion of Equality TABLE 3.14 – Entrepreneurs’ Perceptions on the Effectiveness of Services / Support Structures Total Com pletely disagree Disagree Neither agree nor disagree Agree Com pletely agree Don't Know Refused Counts Analysis % Respondents a) The minimization/ complete elimination of bureaucracy by Government Departments b) The setting up of a one- stop shop w ithin Malta Enterprise c) Better marketing of schemes d) Projecting new schemes in view of the take-up trend of previous schemes e) The setting up of Micro- credit scheme granting loans to SMEs and self-employed, funded by EU/ JEREMIE funding scheme, in collaboration w ith BOV f) Easier access to micro financing schemes g) KBIC regulations should be broadened to allow accessibility of premises to other line of businesses h) The setting up of an incubation-style set up, similar to KBIC w hich is more 'w omen-friendly' i.e.
at an easier-to reach location, less cold and unw elcoming i) Local and foreign entrepreneurs should benefit of the same treatment j) Follow -up by Malta Enterprise to accelerate MEPA's application process k) The need to address the mismatch arising from the 'skills gap analysis' l) The marketing of Gozo as a separate destination from Malta 602 602 602 602 602 602 602 602 602 602 602 602 9 1.5% 4 0.7% - - - - - - - - - - 6 1.0% 3 0.5% Services and Support Structures to Assist Aspiring Entrepreneurs to have lower interest rates and a reduction in tax, and the need for more financial assistance through funds.
Mixed opinions were expressed by the entrepreneur respondents when they were asked to indicate whether there are adequate services and support structures to assist men and women who are aspiring to set up their own business.

More than 43% (260 respondents) of the respondents gave a positive response, these were primarily male respondents.

On the other hand, 33% (199 respondents) stated that they do not believe that such services/ support structures exist.
This was primarily expressed by female respondents.

services and support structures to Assist Aspiring Entrepreneurs Mixed opinions were expressed by the entrepreneur respondents when they were asked to indicate The entrepreneur respondents were asked to indicate their views on their belief of whether adequate whether there are adequate services and support structures to assist men and women who are training is being made available for men and women who are aspiring to set up their own business.
The aspiring to set up their own business.

More than 43% (260 respondents) of the respondents findings shows that 55% (331 respondents) of the total respondents either agree or completely agree that gave a positive response, these were primarily male respondents.

On the other hand, 33% (199 such training is currently being made available.

Nevertheless, another 23% (140 respondents) expressed respondents) stated that they do not believe that such services/ support structures exist.
This was primarily expressed by female respondents.

97 The entrepreneur respondents were asked to indicate their views on their belief of whether adequate training is being made available for men and women who are aspiring to set up their own business.

The findings shows that 55% (331 respondents) of the total respondents either agree or completely agree that such training is currently being made available.
Nevertheless, another 23% (140 respondents) expressed their disagreement or complete disagreement to this.

No differences emerged between the perceptions and opinions of the male and female entrepreneurs on this research area.

Unlocking the Female Potential - Research Report 95 During the qualitative research phase of this study, a number of measures to assist aspiring entrepreneurs were proposed by the entrepreneurs and stakeholders interviewed.
The Research Consultant wanted to further explore these proposed measures at this quantitative research stage.
More than 91% (548 respondents) of the 602 interviewed entrepreneurs proposed the following measures to assist and encourage aspiring males and females to take up entrepreneurship: the setting up of a one-stop shop (one in Malta and one in Gozo) offering services to businesses comprising the processing of formalities and the filling up of required documentation; the provision of training programmes by Government entities focusing specifically on the development their disagreement or complete disagreement to this.
No differences emerged between the perceptions of innovative ideas, managerial skills, marketing and accounting.

and opinions of the male and female entrepreneurs on this research area.
Another interesting finding is that a staggering 90% (543 respondents) of the respondents During the qualitative research phase of this study, a number of measures to assist aspiring expressed their agreement with the scheduling of training programmes on family-friendly lines to entrepreneurs were proposed by the entrepreneurs and stakeholders interviewed.

The Research Consultant wanted to further explore these proposed measures at this quantitative research stage.
encourage the participation of aspiring entrepreneurs with caring responsibilities.
Also, over 87% (527 respondents) expressed their agreement with the setting up of more family-friendly support According to more than 91% (548 respondents) of the 602 interviewed entrepreneurs, proposed the structures to encourage the participation of aspiring entrepreneurs and that more emphasis is to following measures to assist and encourage aspiring males and females to take up entrepreneurship: the be given on ‘entrepreneurship studies’ both at secondary and post-secondary curricula.
Table 3.15 setting up of a one-stop shop (one in Malta and one in Gozo) offering services to businesses comprising below depicts these findings in more detail.

the processing of formalities and the filling up of required documentation; the provision of training programmes by Government entities focusing specifically on the development of innovative ideas, managerial skills, marketing and accounting.
The majority (50.5% - 304 respondents) of the aggregate 602 respondents observed that the needs of aspiring male and female entrepreneurs are largely the same.

However, another 36% (218 Also, an interesting finding is that a staggering 90% (543 respondents) of the respondents expressed their respondents) claimed that the needs of aspiring male and female entrepreneurs differ.
As may be agreement with the scheduling of training programmes on family-friendly lines to encourage the observed in the findings depicted in Table 3.16 below, this latter finding was largely expressed by participation of aspiring entrepreneurs with caring responsibilities.

Also, over 87% (527 respondents) female entrepreneurs and who currently have or had caring responsibilities.
expressed their agreement with the setting up of more family-friendly support structures to encourage the participation of aspiring entrepreneurs and that more emphasis is to be given on ‘entrepreneurship studies’ both at secondary and post-secondary curricula.

Table 3.15 below depicts these findings in more detail.
TABLE 3.15 – Entrepreneurs’ Perceptions on the Effectiveness of Services /Support Structures to TABLE 3.15 – Entrepreneurs’ Perceptions on the Effectiveness of Services / Support Structures to Assist Assist Aspiring Entrepreneurs Aspiring Entrepreneurs Counts Analysis % Respondents a) More emphasis should be given to entrepreneurship both in the secondary and post-secondary curricula b) The setting up of a one- stop shop offering services w hich include the processing of formalities and filling up of documentation required at the initiation of a new business c) The setting up of a similar one-stop shop in Gozo to eliminate the need of commuting to Malta d) The provision of training by Government entities in the inception of innovative ideas, in managerial skills, marketing and accounting e) The scheduling of training programmes on family- friendly lines to encourage the participation of potential female entrepreneurs f) The availibility of family friendly provisions to encourage the participation of potential entrepreneurs (like free childcare) g) The introduction of an internship scheme/ w ork placements Total Com pletely disagree Disagree Neither agree nor disagree Agree Com pletely agree Don't Know Refused - - - - - - - - - - - - 2 0.3% The majority (50.5% - 304 respondents) of the aggregate 602 respondents observed that the needs of aspiring male and female entrepreneurs are largely the same.
However, another 36% (218 respondents) 96 National Commission for the Promotion of Equality 98 The 218 respondents who perceive that male and female entrepreneurs have different needs, were then asked to substantiate their views by giving reasons.

It emerges that the main reason, which was expressed by the vast majority of these respondents, is that women usually have caring and family-management responsibilities apart from those related to work.
Thus, clearly, aspiring female entrepreneurs would need more support to be able to balance their career and family obligations.

On the other hand, the 304 respondents who expressed that the needs of aspiring male and female entrepreneurs are the same, observed that nowadays there is equality among sexes, hence there is no difference between sexes’ needs.

Other respondents argued that when persons have the same aspirations, the needs would be the same, irrespective of sex.
Table 3.17 illustrates these findings.

Once again, during the qualitative research phase of this study, a number of measures to assist female aspiring entrepreneurs were proposed by the entrepreneurs and stakeholders interviewed.

The Research Consultant wanted to further explore these same proposed measures at this quantitative research stage.

claimed that the needs of aspiring male and female entrepreneurs differ.
As may be observed in the findings depicted in Table 3.16 below, this latter finding was largely expressed by female entrepreneurs and who currently have or had caring responsibilities.

A staggering 96% (577 respondents) of all the 602 entrepreneurs interviewed agreed or completely agreed that, in order to assist aspiring female entrepreneurs, local bank institutions should offer the same support possibilities to both genders.
An also high 95% (570 respondents) observed that the provision of training and educational initiatives to boost self-confidence would The 218 respondents, who perceive that male and female entrepreneurs have different needs, were then undoubtedly assist such aspiring female entrepreneurs.

Moreover, 88% (527 respondents) stated asked to substantiate their views by giving reasons.
It emerges that the main reason, which was that, from a young age, women need to be exposed to the idea that setting up their own business expressed by the vast majority of these respondents, is that women usually have caring and family- is a viable and option for them and not just for male individuals.

Other survey respondents also female to work.


Thus, clearly, aspiring those related management responsibilities apart highlighted the need for more child care facilities and the setting up of venture funds for aspiring entrepreneurs would need more support to be able to balance their career and family obligations.

female entrepreneurs to provide start-up finance.

Table 3.18 highlights these findings in more detail.

claimed that the needs of aspiring male and female entrepreneurs differ.
As may be observed in the findings depicted in Table 3.16 below, this latter finding was largely expressed by female entrepreneurs and who currently have or had caring responsibilities.

On the other hand, the 304 respondents who expressed that the needs of aspiring male and female entrepreneurs are the same, observed that nowadays there is equality among sexes, hence there is no difference between sexes’ needs.
Other respondents argued that when persons have the same aspirations, the needs would be the same, irrespective of sex.

Table 3.17 illustrate these findings.

The 218 respondents, who perceive that male and female entrepreneurs have different needs, were then TABLE 3.16 – Aspiring Male and Female Entrepreneurs asked to substantiate their views by giving reasons.
It emerges that the main reason, which was Having Different Needs – by Gender expressed by the vast majority of these respondents, is that women usually have caring and family- TABLE 3.16 – Aspiring Male and Female Entrepreneurs Having Different Needs – by Gender management responsibilities apart female to work.

Thus, clearly, aspiring those related entrepreneurs would need more support to be able to balance their career and family obligations.
from from Total Male Fem ale Counts Break % Respondents On the other hand, the 304 respondents who expressed that the needs of aspiring male and female entrepreneurs are the same, observed that nowadays there is equality among sexes, hence there is no difference between sexes’ needs.

Other respondents argued that when persons have the same aspirations, the needs would be the same, irrespective of sex.

Table 3.17 illustrate these findings.
218 36.2% 161 32.5% 57 53.3% Total Yes 107 495 602 TABLE 3.16 – Aspiring Male and Female Entrepreneurs Having Different Needs – by Gender No 304 50.5% 264 53.3% 40 37.4% TABLE 3.17 – Potential Male and Female Entrepreneurs Have Different Needs – by Caring Responsibilities Yes 161 32.5% 57 53.3% 218 36.2% Counts Break % Respondents Don't Know Total 80 13.3% Male 70 Fem ale 14.1% 10 9.3% Total 602 495 107 Yes, past/current caring No responsibilities- Yes, but I am not the 264 53.3% m ain carer- 304 50.5% Don't know / Don't rem em ber- Refused- Total TABLE 3.17 – Potential Male and Female Entrepreneurs Have Different Needs – by Caring Responsibilities Fem ale Don't Know Male Male Male TABLE 3.17 – Potential Male and Female Entrepreneurs Have Different Needs – by Caring Responsibilities - 602 4 70 14.1% Fem ale 80 13.3% Yes, past/current caring 191 72 responsibilities- 37 Fem ale 51.4% 76 39.8% Male Yes, but I am not the 138 m ain carer- 39 28.3% Fem ale Male No, never had caring 3 160 responsibilities- 44 Fem ale 27.5% 3 Male 100.0% 30 Don't know / Don't rem em ber- 17 56.7% Male Fem ale No, never had caring 40 37.4% responsibilities- 10 9.3% Male Fem ale Fem ale Male Fem ale - - - - 160 - - 44 27.5% - 87 - 54.4% 29 18.1% 87 30 54.4% 17 56.7% 29 11 18.1% 36.7% 2 6.7% 4 11 36.7% 1 25.0% 2 6.7% 2 50.0% 1 25.0% - - - - - - - Refused- 1 Male 25.0% 2 2 50.0% 1 50.0% 1 1 25.0% 50.0% - - - Fem ale - - - 2 - - - 2 - 100.0% - - 2 1 50.0% 1 50.0% - - 2 - - 2 100.0% - - Counts Break % Respondents Total Yes No Counts Break % Respondents 218 36.2% Total Yes 304 50.5% 80 13.3% No Don't Know Total 602 218 36.2% 304 50.5% 80 13.3% Don't Know Once again, during the qualitative research phase of this study, a number of measures to assist female aspiring entrepreneurs were proposed by the entrepreneurs and stakeholders interviewed.
The Research Consultant wanted to further explore these same proposed measures at this quantitative research stage.

Once again, during the qualitative research phase of this study, a number of measures to assist female aspiring entrepreneurs were proposed by the entrepreneurs and stakeholders interviewed.

The Research Consultant wanted to further explore these same proposed measures at this quantitative research stage.
Unlocking the Female Potential - Research Report 97 A staggering 96% (577 respondents) of all the 602 entrepreneurs interviewed agreed or completely agree that, in order to assist aspiring female entrepreneurs, local bank institutions should offer the same support A staggering 96% (577 respondents) of all the 602 entrepreneurs interviewed agreed or completely agree that, in order to assist aspiring female entrepreneurs, local bank institutions should offer the same support possibilities to both genders.
An also high 95% (570 respondents) observed that the provision of training possibilities to both genders.

An also high 95% (570 respondents) observed that the provision of training and educational initiatives to boost self-confidence would undoubtedly assist such aspiring female and educational initiatives to boost self-confidence would undoubtedly assist such aspiring female entrepreneurs.
Moreover, 88% (527 respondents) stated that from a young age women need to be exposed to the idea that setting up their own business is a viable and option for them and not just for male entrepreneurs.

Moreover, 88% (527 respondents) stated that from a young age women need to be individuals.
Other survey respondents also highlighted the need for more child care facilities and the exposed to the idea that setting up their own business is a viable and option for them and not just for male setting up of venture funds for aspiring female entrepreneurs to provide start-up finance.

Table 3.18 individuals.

Other survey respondents also highlighted the need for more child care facilities and the highlights these findings in more detail.
setting up of venture funds for aspiring female entrepreneurs to provide start-up finance.

Table 3.18 TABLE 3.18 – Proposed Services/ Support Structures to Assist Aspiring Female Entrepreneurs highlights these findings in more detail.
TABLE 3.18 – Proposed Services/ Support Structures to Assist Aspiring Female Entrepreneurs 99 99 TABLE 3.18 – Proposed Services/ Support Structures to Assist Aspiring Female Entrepreneurs Counts Analysis % Respondents a) Bank Institutions should offer the same support possibilities to both genders b) The setting up of a venture fund specifically for w omen to provide start-up finance c) From a young age, w omen need to be exposed to the idea that setting up their ow n business is a viable option through career fairs, guidance teachers etc d) The provision of training and educational initiatives to boost self-confidence e) The scheduling of training programmes to encourage the participation of potential female entrepreneurs f) The availibility of family friendly provisions to encourage the participation of potential entrepreneurs g) The mentoring of potential entrepreneurs by established business w omen, eg the EU-funded AMIE/FE:MALE project Total Com pletely disagree Disagree Neither agree nor disagree Agree Com pletely agree Don't Know Refused 602 602 602 602 602 602 602 2 0.3% 35 5.8% 4 0.7% - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 4 0.7% 19 3.2% 39 6.5% 260 43.2% 204 33.9% 74 12.3% 2 0.3% 3.5 Activity II – The Situation of Vulnerable Workers in Malta 3.5 Activity II - The situation of Vulnerable works in Malta This Section will focus entirely on highlighting the salient research findings, which emerged from the This Section will focus entirely on highlighting the salient research findings, which emerged from qualitative and quantitative primary data which focuses on the ‘situation of vulnerable workers in Malta’.
the qualitative and quantitative primary data which focuses on the ‘situation of vulnerable workers in Malta’.

Section 3.5.1 will highlight on the salient qualitative research findings and Section 3.5.2 will then present the salient quantitative research findings addressing Activity II’s research objectives.
3.5.1 Qualitative Research – Salient Findings Section 3.5.1 will highlight on the salient qualitative research findings and Section 3.5.2 will then present the salient quantitative research findings addressing Activity II’s research objectives.
Similarly to the research methodology adopted for the ‘entrepreneurship’ research study, the ‘vulnerable workers’ study was approached by first uncovering the salient perceptions, views, opinions and attitudes 3.5.1 Qualitative Research – salient Findings of key stakeholders on the subject of vulnerable employment in Malta and Gozo.
Also, the salient Similar to the research methodology adopted for the ‘entrepreneurship’ research study, the perceptions, views and opinions of males and females, whose conditions of work could render these ‘vulnerable workers’ study was approached by first uncovering the salient perceptions, views, ‘vulnerable workers’, were also obtained at this preliminary qualitative research phase.
‘Semi-structured interview’ research instruments were hence produced to elicit the views of key stakeholders and potential opinions and attitudes of key stakeholders on the subject of vulnerable employment in Malta and vulnerable workers through Focus Groups.

The research findings identified at this qualitative research Gozo.
The salient perceptions, views and opinions of males and females, whose conditions of work phase elicited a number of salient issues and patterns, which were then, in turn, addressed in the could render these ‘vulnerable workers’, were also obtained at this preliminary qualitative research quantitative phase with a larger quantitative sample of ‘vulnerable worker’ respondents.

The salient phase.
The salient phase.

‘Semi-structured interview’ research instruments were hence produced to elicit the views research issues and research areas identified from this qualitative research are presented below.

of key stakeholders and potential vulnerable workers through Focus Groups.
The research findings The Tourist Industry was described as very seasonal and includes a whole mixture of employment identified at this qualitative research phase elicited a number of salient issues and patterns, statuses, namely employees on full-time basis be it on definite or indefinite contracts, part-timers, and a which were then, in turn, addressed in the quantitative phase with a larger quantitative sample of very high number of seasonal workers.
Low-skilled workers are the most affected by the employment ‘vulnerable worker’ respondents.

The salient research issues and research areas identified from this qualitative research are presented below.

100 The Tourist Industry was described as very seasonal and includes a whole mixture of employment statuses, namely employees on full-time basis be it on definite or indefinite contracts, part- timers, and a very high number of seasonal workers.
Low-skilled workers are the most affected by the employment situation: it has become more feasible for hotels to outsource cleaning services 98 National Commission for the Promotion of Equality from cleaning contracting companies.
A good number of respondents expressed some strong opinions on this in that this practice has, sadly, given rise to: a) a loss of loyalty on the engaged workers’ part; and b) the engagement of, at times, dissatisfied employees who are aware that their conditions of employment are not as good as their colleagues, employed on a full-time basis.
It transpired that foreigners engaged to work in the Tourist Industry are replacing Maltese employees as they are paid lower rates, in turn being highly discriminated against.

Cleaners are no longer offered full-time employment.

Nowadays they are engaged on part-time basis, possibly a basis of employment that is not of their choice.

When cleaners are directly engaged by a company, they are normally engaged on a self-employed basis.
Some respondents, based on their own personal experience, observed that some rogue cleaning contractors, offer their employees a choice of two options – either to have their employment covered by formal registration or to carry out the work informally.

In Gozo, cleaners engaged by establishments and those performing duties in farmhouses claimed that they are paid less than Maltese cleaners; work in the cleaning industry was mainly carried out on an informal basis.
Some stakeholders also observed that in the Cleaning Industry and in security services, some tenders were being awarded even by the Government without making financial provisions for the payment of a minimum wage to workers, let alone other work conditions as stipulated by Law.
Language Schools retain a number of teachers in employment, both nationals and expatriates, these being described as ‘core’ teachers, whose employment arrangements are highly determined by business trends, and the influx of students which changes substantially between seasons.

Apart from ‘core’ teachers, other teachers are engaged on part-time basis predominantly during the summer months.
It was pointed out that a problem is present with regards to full-time employees, the number of hours worked and the remuneration received.

Working on a self-employed basis is a tendency which is growing fast in all sectors in Malta and it is becoming the norm that the employer asks a prospective employee if he/she is VAT-registered even during the interviewing phase.
It was indicated that workers put forth their complaints to the competent authorities but they are wary in allowing Trade Unions to take up their case with the employer out of fear of losing their job.

It was sustained that in spite of it being 2011 and having a Constitution which provides the right of association in a trade union to all workers, an element of fear is very present amongst workers.
When asked to indicate what conditions are making jobs within these three industries vulnerable, there was a unanimous and undisputed view among all key stakeholders interviewed (senior government officials, employers, employers’ associations, trade unions, the workers themselves) that this situation was caused by the recent international recession and its bandwagon effects, particularly on the Tourism Sector and Language Schools; so much so that players in these two industries are either still struggling to survive, downsizing (with eventual redundancies) or even closing down their operations.
As a result, prices and mark-ups of these operators had to go down.

Their mark-ups were further squeezed as a result of a marked and sudden increase in costs (fixed and variable) caused by the sharp increase in water and electricity bills and other costs.

The highly price-sensitive and cut-throat competition (particularly when bidding for government cleaning tender projects) that exists in the local cleaning industry puts pressure on these operators to try to reduce costs, including also labour costs.
From the vulnerable worker’s perspective, respondents did acknowledge that their employers did face and are still facing tough challenges as a result of the international recession, however they still feel that there are some rogue employers out there who are capitalising from this economic downturn and are Unlocking the Female Potential - Research Report 99 taking advantage of vulnerable workers.
In the light of this discussion, notwithstanding these unfavourable market conditions and challenges faced by employers engaged in these three industries, there is a unanimous standpoint among all employers’ associations and trade unions alike that vulnerable employment should be curbed unreservedly.
Based on the research findings on what constitutes ‘vulnerable employment’ in Malta and on the realities of vulnerable workers engaged within these three industry sectors (such findings emerged from the preliminary qualitative research conducted), for the purpose of this survey, ‘vulnerable workers’ in Malta (and Gozo) are characterised as workers who are not given (at least) the basic working conditions as stipulated by Maltese law and those who are ‘forced’ by employers to take on a ‘self-employed’ status.
Hence, vulnerable workers in the Maltese context are characterised by individuals who are largely employed under any of the following conditions (among others): • Are employed informally, i.e.
without a formal registration • Are paid less than the official minimum wage/ hourly rate • Are not paid the hourly rate for overtime work, work performed on public holidays, etc • Are not paid for (or given) vacation leave, sick leave, government bonuses, cost-of-living increases, etc • Are employed ‘on contract’ of one year or less • Are asked to work irregular hours or are employed as casual workers and hence do not have job security • Whose employer does not pay his/her share of NI contributions • Do not pay their share of NI contributions • Are forced by their employers to take on a ‘self-employed’ status • Are foreigners who do not have a work permit or are employed informally.
NB.

For the purpose of this study, ‘family member’ employees (family members living in the same household) are not considered as vulnerable workers.

3.5.2 Quantitative Research – salient Findings This section highlights the salient findings which emerged from the quantitative research study with male and female workers, hailing from the Tourism industry, the Cleaning industry and Language Schools and whose existing conditions of employment render them ‘vulnerable workers’.
I. Respondent Profile Nationality, Age, Level of Education, socio-Economic status and Caring Responsibilities A total of 602 vulnerable worker respondents participated in this quantitative study, of whom 316 respondents are employed in the Tourism sector, 208 respondents are employed in the Cleaning industry and 78 respondents are employed with a Language School.

94% (564 respondents) are Maltese while the remaining 6% (35 respondents) are foreigners.
A total of 462 respondents (77%) hail from Malta, while the remaining 140 respondents (23%) are Gozitan.

The majority of these respondents employed in the three sectors are aged between 15 - 29 years, with the exception of the female interviewees engaged in the Cleaning industry, where the majority of these are aged over 40 years.
More than half of the total respondents hold a secondary level of education, except for those respondents currently employed in the Language Schools sector, where a higher level of education was recorded.

With regards to the marital status of the survey respondents, almost 60% indicated that they are not married, whilst 33% are.

Tables 3.19, 3.20 and 3.21 below depict a more detailed account of the demographic profile of these vulnerable worker respondents.
100 National Commission for the Promotion of Equality TABLE 3.19 – Age Group Profile of Respondents Counts Counts Break % Break % Respondents Respondents Counts Break % Total Respondents Total 15 -19 yrs 15 -19 yrs Total 15 -19 yrs 20 - 29 yrs 20 - 29 yrs 30 - 39 yrs 20 - 29 yrs 30 - 39 yrs 40 - 49 yrs 30 - 39 yrs 40 - 49 yrs 50+ yrs 40 - 49 yrs 50+ yrs Refused 50+ yrs Refused Total Total Total - 78 - - 13.0% - Tourist Industry- Tourist Industry- Cleaning Industry- Cleaning Industry- Male Fem ale Fem ale Male Tourist Industry- 168 168 Male 35 35 20.8% 20.8% 168 148 148 Fem ale 38 38 25.7% 25.7% 148 65 35 65 38.7% 20.8% 38.7% 28 65 28 16.7% 38.7% 16.7% 24 28 24 14.3% 16.7% 14.3% 16 24 16 9.5% 14.3% 9.5% - 16 - - 9.5% - 57 38 57 38.5% 25.7% 38.5% 28 57 28 18.9% 38.5% 18.9% 13 28 13 8.8% 18.9% 8.8% 12 13 12 8.1% 8.8% 8.1% - 12 - - 8.1% - Male Fem ale Male Cleaning Industry- Fem ale 72 72 Male 11 11 15.3% 15.3% 72 28 11 28 38.9% 15.3% 38.9% 5 28 5 6.9% 38.9% 6.9% 17 5 17 23.6% 6.9% 23.6% 11 17 11 15.3% 23.6% 15.3% - 11 - - 15.3% - 136 136 Fem ale 17 17 12.5% 12.5% 136 24 17 24 17.6% 12.5% 17.6% 24 24 24 17.6% 17.6% 17.6% 36 24 36 26.5% 17.6% 26.5% 35 36 35 25.7% 26.5% 25.7% - 35 - - 25.7% - Language Schools Language Schools Industry- Industry- Male Fem ale Language Schools Male Industry- 41 41 Fem ale 7 7 17.1% 17.1% 41 37 Male 4 4 10.8% 10.8% 37 Fem ale 37 24 4 24 64.9% 10.8% 64.9% 7 24 7 18.9% 64.9% 18.9% 1 7 1 2.7% 18.9% 2.7% 1 1 1 2.7% 2.7% 2.7% - 1 - - 2.7% - 23 7 23 56.1% 17.1% 56.1% 4 9.8% 23 4 56.1% 9.8% 4 9.8% 4 4 9.8% 9.8% 3 7.3% 4 3 9.8% 7.3% - - 3 - 7.3% - - - Counts Break % Respondents Total Counts Break % Respondents Total Prim ary - TABLE 3.20 – Education Level Profile of Respondents - TABLE 3.20 – Education Level Profile of Respondents - - Tourist Industry- Refused TABLE 3.20 – Education Level Profile of Respondents Counts Break % Respondents - - Language
 Schools Industry- Cleaning Industry- Total - - - - - - Language Schools Fem ale Industry- Male Fem ale Total 602 Cleaning Industry- Male Tourist Industry- Fem ale TABLE 3.20 – Education Level Profile of Respondents 148 168 Male Fem ale Tourist Industry- 8 6 168 148 5.4% 3.6% Fem ale Male 8 6 74 88 5.4% 3.6% 148 168 50.0% 52.4% 8 6 74 88 46 40 5.4% 3.6% 50.0% 52.4% 31.1% 23.8% 136 Fem ale Cleaning Industry- 22 136 16.2% Fem ale 22 98 16.2% 136 72.1% 22 98 10 16.2% 72.1% 7.4% 37 Fem ale Language Schools Industry- - - 41 37 - - Fem ale Male - - 4 4 - - 41 37 9.8% 10.8% - 4 13 - 10.8% 35.1% 72 Male 4 72 5.6% Male 4 58 5.6% 72 80.6% 4 58 6 5.6% 80.6% 8.3% 40 Total 602 6.6% 40 326 602 6.6% 54.2% 40 326 133 6.6% 54.2% 22.1% 18 43.9% - 4 - 9.8% Male Male 41 Prim ary Secondary Post-Secondary Prim ary Total Secondary Secondary Post-Secondary Tertiary Post-Secondary Post-Graduate Tertiary Tertiary No form al education Post-Graduate but know s how to read and w rite No form al education Post-Graduate but know s how to Refused read and w rite No form al education but know s how to Refused read and w rite Refused Counts Break % Respondents 326 133 82 54.2% 22.1% 13.6% 133 16 82 22.1% 2.7% 13.6% 82 16 5 13.6% 2.7% 0.8% 16 5 - 2.7% 0.8% - 88 40 29 52.4% 23.8% 17.3% 40 4 29 23.8% 2.4% 17.3% 29 4 1 17.3% 2.4% 0.6% 4 1 - 2.4% 0.6% - 74 46 17 50.0% 31.1% 11.5% 46 2 17 31.1% 1.4% 11.5% 17 2 1 11.5% 1.4% 0.7% 2 1 - 1.4% 0.7% - 58 6 3 80.6% 8.3% 4.2% 6 - 3 8.3% - 4.2% 3 - 1 4.2% - 1.4% - 1 - - 1.4% - 98 10 3 72.1% 7.4% 2.2% 10 1 3 7.4% 0.7% 2.2% 3 1 2 2.2% 0.7% 1.5% 1 2 - 0.7% 1.5% - 4 13 16 10.8% 35.1% 43.2% 14 34.1% 4 18 9.8% 43.9% 13 4 16 35.1% 10.8% 43.2% 18 5 14 43.9% 12.2% 34.1% 16 4 - 43.2% 10.8% - 4 - - 10.8% - - 14 5 - 34.1% 12.2% - 5 - - 12.2% - - - - 1 - - - - - 0.7% TABLE 3.21 – Marital Status Profile of Respondents - - - Language Schools - - - Industry- - - - TABLE 3.21 – Marital Status Profile of Respondents Fem ale 5 - 0.8% - - Total - 1 - 1.4% - - - 2 - 1.5% - - - 1 - 0.6% - - -
 Cleaning Industry- Tourist Industry- Fem ale Fem ale Male Male Male 72 41 168 136 Total Male Total Single Married Total Single Widow /Widow er Tourist Industry- Cleaning Industry- 51 42 Fem ale Male Cleaning Industry- 58.3% 37.5% Annulled/Divorced/S- eparated Single Married Language Schools 37 Industry- 29 31 Language Schools Fem ale 78.4% 75.6% Industry- 148 TABLE 3.21 – Marital Status Profile of Respondents 100 107 Male Fem ale Tourist Industry- 67.6% 63.7% TABLE 3.21 – Marital Status Profile of Respondents Counts 602 Break % Total 360 Counts Respondents 59.8% Total Break % 602 Respondents Fem ale 23.6% 100 148 67.6% 9 100 6.1% 35 67.6% 2 23.6% 1.4% 35 9 23.6% 1 6.1% 0.7% 9 2 6.1% 1 1.4% 0.7% 2 1 41% (246 respondents) of the total survey respondents hail from households of the C1C2 socio-economic 1.4% 0.7% status.
The majority of the survey respondents employed in the Cleaning industry hail from households, 1 1 0.7% 103 0.7% 1 41% (246 respondents) of the total survey respondents hail from households of the C1C2 socio-economic 0.7% status.

The majority of the survey respondents employed in the Cleaning industry hail from households, 41% (246 respondents) of the total survey respondents hail from households of the C1C2 socio-economic status.
The majority of the survey respondents employed in the Cleaning industry hail from households, 103 103 101 41 9 Fem ale 22.0% 31 41 75.6% 31 9 75.6% - 22.0% - 9 1 22.0% - 2.4% - 1 - 2.4% - - - - - - - - - - - 37 7 Male 18.9% 29 37 78.4% - 29 - 7 78.4% 1 18.9% 2.7% 7 - 18.9% - - - - 1 - 2.7% 1 - 2.7% - - - - - - - 136 69 Fem ale 50.7% 51 136 37.5% 10 51 7.4% 69 37.5% 4 50.7% 2.9% 69 10 50.7% 2 7.4% 1.5% 10 4 7.4% - 2.9% - 4 2 2.9% 1.5% 2 - 1.5% - - - 72 27 Male 37.5% 42 72 58.3% 3 42 4.2% 27 58.3% - 37.5% - 27 3 37.5% - 4.2% - 3 - 4.2% - - - - - - - - - - - - - 168 51 Male Married Annulled/Divorced/S- eparated Annulled/Divorced/S- eparated Refused Unlocking the Female Potential - Research Report Widow /Widow er Co-habiting Co-habiting Refused Widow /Widow er Co-habiting 1 2.4% Refused - - - - 41% (246 respondents) of the total survey respondents hail from households of the C1C2 socio- economic status.
The majority of the survey respondents employed in the Cleaning industry hail from households, which fall within the DE socio-economic category, while there is a higher tendency of survey respondents, who are currently employed in the Language Schools sector, who fall within the AB socio-economic category.

The socio-economic status of the survey respondents is determined on the occupation of their respective household’s main income earner.
Over half (51%) the whole survey cohort are either ‘husband/partner’ or ‘father’ within their respective household, whilst 16% are either wife/partner’ or ‘mother’.

Some 17% are ‘sons/ daughters’ while the remaining 14% either live alone or are other relatives living in the household.

Table 3.22 gives more details on the ‘role in household’ profile of the survey respondents.
More than 29% (176 respondents) of the vulnerable employees, primarily those employed in the Tourism and Cleaning industries, indicated that they have caring responsibilities, with the high majority of these indicating that they have child-caring (as opposed to dependent-adult-caring) responsibilities.

Most of these respondents have between 1 – 2 children to take care of, who are largely aged 13 and over.

A relatively few male survey respondents indicated that they currently have caring responsibilities.
Employer, Employment designation and Employment status 44% (139 respondents) of the 316 respondents engaged in the Tourism sector are employed in bars and restaurants, while 31% (97 respondents) indicated that they are employed in the hotel sector.

Almost all of these respondents are employed in the private sector, with only a few being employed in the public sector (public authorities).
which fall within the DE socio-economic category, while there is a higher tendency of survey respondents, who are currently employed in the Language Schools sector, who fall within the AB socio-economic category.

The socio-economic status of the survey respondents is determined on the occupation of their respective household’s main income earner.
More than 34% (108 respondents) of these same 316 survey respondents indicated that they currently hold a restaurant / bar service designation, followed by 11% (35 respondents) who indicated that they are employed as kitchen helpers and 9% (29 respondents) stated that they form part of the food preparation personnel.

7% are housekeeping personnel.


Only 7% of these Over half (51%) the whole survey cohort are either ‘husband/partner’ or ‘father’ within their respective vulnerable workers hold a supervisory position or higher.

Table 3.23 below depicts more details on household, whilst 16% are either wife/partner’ or ‘mother’.

Some 17% are ‘sons/daughters’ while the the ‘position/ grade’ profile of vulnerable workers in the Tourism industry.

remaining 14% either live alone or are other relatives living in the household.
Table 3.22 gives more details on the ‘role in household’ profile of the survey respondents.
TABLE 3.22 – ‘Role in Household’ Profile of Respondents TABLE 3.22 – ‘Role in Household’ Profile of Respondents Counts Break % Respondents Total Husband/partner Wife/partner Father Mother Son/daughter Other Refused Total 602 116 19.3% 37 6.1% 192 31.9% 59 9.8% 104 17.3% 88 14.6% 6 1.0% Tourist Industry- Cleaning Industry- Language Schools Industry- Male Fem ale Male Fem ale Male Fem ale - - 37 4 10.8% - - 16 43.2% - - 7 18.9% 10 27.0% - - 41 6 14.6% - - 20 48.8% 6 14.6% 5 12.2% 4 9.8% - - More than 29% (176 respondents) of the vulnerable employees, primarily those employed in the Tourism and Cleaning industries, indicated that they have caring responsibilities, with the high majority of these 102 indicating that they have child-caring (as opposed to dependent-adult-caring) responsibilities.
Most of these respondents have between 1 – 2 children to take care of, who are largely aged 13+years.

A relatively few male survey respondents indicated that they currently have caring responsibilities.

National Commission for the Promotion of Equality Employer, Employment Designation and Employment Status 44% (139 respondents) of the 316 respondents engaged in the Tourism sector are employed in bars and restaurants, while 31% (97 respondents) indicated that they are employed in the hotel sector.
Almost all of these respondents are employed in the private sector, with only few being employed in the public sector (public authorities).

More than 34% (108 respondents) of these same 316 survey respondents indicated that they currently hold a restaurant / bar service designation, followed by 11% (35 respondents) who indicated that they are employed as kitchen helpers and 9% (29 respondents) stated that they form part of the food preparation personnel.

7% are housekeeping personnel.


Only 7% of these vulnerable workers hold a supervisory position or higher.

Table 3.23 below depicts more details on the ‘position/ grade’ profile of vulnerable workers in the Tourism industry.
TABLE 3.23 – ‘Position/ Grade’ Profile of Vulnerable Workers in The Tourism Industry 104 TABLE 3.23 – ‘Position/ Grade’ Profile of Vulnerable Workers in The Tourism Industry Counts Break % Respondents Total Managerial Middle- Managem ent/ Adm inistrative Supervisory Clerical Food Preparation staff Kitchen Helper Restaurant/ Bar Service Front Office Operation Housekeeping staff Maintenance: carpenter, electrician, m echanic Security Health Club staff: beautician, gym instructor Other Refused Total Male Fem ale - - 3 2.0% 5 3.4% 7 4.7% 10 6.8% 14 9.5% 50 33.8% 14 9.5% 20 13.5% - - - - 4 2.7% 32 19.0% 20 13.5% - - 1 0.7% More than half (51% - 106 respondents) of the 208 Cleaning industry employees are directly employed by the company (i.e.
where they work) and 48% (99 respondents) are employed with a cleaning contracting More than half (51% - 106 respondents) of the 208 Cleaning industry employees are directly company.

Of the latter 99 respondents, 53.5% (53 respondents) indicated that their cleaning-duty employed by the company (i.e.

where they work) and 48% (99 respondents) are employed with placements are within the public sector (i.e.

Government departments, public authorities, public hospitals, a cleaning contracting company.
Of the latter 99 respondents, 53.5% (53 respondents) indicated etc.)

while the remaining 37% (37 respondents) mentioned that their cleaning-duty placements are largely that their cleaning-duty placements are within the public sector (i.e.

Government departments, within the private sector (i.e.

private companies, businesses, etc.).

A high 91% (189 respondents) of the public authorities, public hospitals, etc.)
while the remaining 37% (37 respondents) mentioned 208 respondents engaged in the Cleaning Industry hold a general ‘cleaner’ designation.

Only 1% of these that their cleaning-duty placements are largely within the private sector (i.e.

private companies, vulnerable workers hold a supervisory position or higher.

Table 3.24 below depicts more details on the businesses, etc.).
A high 91% (189 respondents) of the 208 respondents engaged in the Cleaning ‘position/ grade’ profile of vulnerable workers in the Cleaning industry.

Industry hold a general ‘cleaner’ designation.

Only 1% of these vulnerable workers hold a supervisory position or higher.

Table 3.24 below depicts more details on the ‘position/ grade’ profile of vulnerable workers in the Cleaning industry.
TABLE 3.24 – ‘Position/ Grade’ Profile of Vulnerable Workers in The Tourism Industry With regards to the 78 vulnerable workers employed in the Language Schools industry, a high 60% (47 respondents) of the respondents indicated that they are engaged as ‘language teachers’, and almost 22% (17 respondents) of the remaining respondents are engaged as ‘group leaders/ Unlocking the Female Potential - Research Report 103 105 TABLE 3.24 – ‘Position/ Grade’ Profile of Vulnerable Workers in The Tourism Industry Counts Break % Respondents Total Male Fem ale Total 208 72 136 Managerial Middle- Managem ent/ Adm inistrative Supervisory Clerical General cleaning duties Maintenance Driver Other Refused - - 1 0.5% 1 0.5% 2 1.0% 189 90.9% 8 3.8% - - 6 2.9% 1 0.5% - - - - - - - - 62 86.1% 8 11.1% - - - - 1 0.7% 1 0.7% 2 1.5% 127 93.4% - - - - 2 2.8% 4 2.9% - - 1 0.7% With regards to the 78 vulnerable workers employed engaged in the Language Schools industry, a high 60% (47 respondents) of the respondents indicated that they are engaged as ‘language teachers’, and almost 22% (17 respondents) of the remaining respondents are engaged as ‘group leaders/ animators’ within the same industry.
Only 10% of these vulnerable workers hold a supervisory position or higher.

Table 3.25 below depicts more details on the ‘position / grade’ profile of vulnerable workers in the Language Schools industry.

animators’ within the same industry.

Only 10% of these vulnerable workers hold a supervisory position or higher.

Table 3.25 below depicts more details on the ‘position / grade’ profile of vulnerable workers in the Language Schools industry.
TABLE 3.25 – ‘Position/ Grade’ Profile of Vulnerable Workers in The Language Schools Industry Male Total Total Fem ale The majority (51.5% - 310 respondents) of the aggregate 602 survey respondents, irrespective of the sector they are engaged in, indicated that they are employed by ‘formal registration’.

Following, 30% (179 respondents) of the total respondent cohort indicated that they are not formally registered with their employer.
These ‘irregularly employed’ survey respondents hailed largely from the Tourism and Cleaning industries.

Furthermore, the engagement of employees on a ‘definite contract basis’ is more present in the Language Schools industry, where more than 24% (19 respondents) of the 78 employees hailing from this industry are engaged on a definite - - contract.

Table 3.26 below highlights these findings in more detail.
1 2.4% Counts Break % Respondents Of the 74 respondents who indicated that they are employed on a definite contract basis, 72% (53 respondents) mentioned that they are employed either on a 1 – 3 month or 4 – 6 month definite contract.

Moreover, a worrying finding emerged in that the majority of these survey respondents observed that they are not aware that a definite contract should automatically become ‘indefinite’ in nature, if it is extended to more than four years.
47 60.3% Language School Teacher Middle- Managem ent/ Adm inistrative 17 45.9% 5 13.5% 30 73.2% Supervisory Managerial 1 2.4% 2 5.4% 2 2.6% 3 8.1% 4 5.1% 6 7.7% Clerical 41 78 37 - - - - - - Group Leader/ Anim ateur Almost 43% (258 respondents) of the total survey respondents indicated that they are employed on a full-time basis.
Another 28% (167 respondents) mentioned that they are engaged on a part- time continuous basis and whose part-time employment is their ‘primary job’, while more than 16% - - (98 respondents) indicated that they are seasonal workers.

As Figure 3.8 below illustrates, full-time employment is mainly present in the Tourism and Cleaning industries while seasonal employment - - is primarily present in the Language Schools industry.

Part-time employment is present in all three sectors.
General cleaning duties 8 21.6% 17 21.8% 9 22.0% Maintenance Driver - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Other Refused 2 2.6% 2 5.4% - - 104 - - - - National Commission for the Promotion of Equality - - 106 Counts Break % Respondents Total Male Fem ale Total 208 72 136 Managerial Middle- Managem ent/ Adm inistrative Supervisory Clerical 0.5% 0.5% 1.0% 189 90.9% - - 1 1 2 8 - - 6 1 - - - - - - - - 8 - - 2 - - 0.7% 0.7% 1.5% 127 - - 1 1 2 - - - - 4 1 General cleaning duties 62 86.1% 93.4% Maintenance 3.8% 11.1% Driver Other 2.9% 2.8% 2.9% Refused 0.5% 0.7% With regards to the 78 vulnerable workers employed engaged in the Language Schools industry, a high 60% (47 respondents) of the respondents indicated that they are engaged as ‘language teachers’, and almost 22% (17 respondents) of the remaining respondents are engaged as ‘group leaders/ animators’ within the same industry.
Only 10% of these vulnerable workers hold a supervisory position or higher.

Table 3.25 below depicts more details on the ‘position / grade’ profile of vulnerable workers in the Language Schools industry.
TABLE 3.25 – ‘Position/ Grade’ Profile of Vulnerable Workers in The Language Schools Industry TABLE 3.25 – ‘Position/ Grade’ Profile of Vulnerable Workers in The Language Schools Industry Counts Break % Respondents Total Managerial Middle- Managem ent/ Adm inistrative Supervisory Total Male Fem ale 78 2 2.6% 6 7.7% - - 37 2 5.4% 41 - - 5 13.5% 1 2.4% - - - - Clerical Language School Teacher 4 5.1% 47 60.3% 3 8.1% 1 2.4% 17 45.9% 30 73.2% Group Leader/ Anim ateur 17 21.8% 8 21.6% 9 22.0% The majority (51.5% - 310 respondents) of the aggregate 602 survey respondents, irrespective of the sector they are engaged in, indicated that they are employed by ‘formal registration’.
Following, 30% (179 respondents) of the total respondent cohort indicated that they are not formally registered with their employer.

These ‘irregularly employed’ survey respondents hailed largely from the Tourism and Cleaning industries.

Furthermore, the engagement of employees on a ‘definite contract basis’ is more present in the Language Schools industry, where more than 24% (19 respondents) of the 78 employees hailing from this industry are engaged on a definite contract basis.

this condition.
this condition.

Table 3.26 below highlights these findings in more detail.

General cleaning duties Maintenance Driver - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Other 2 2.6% 2 5.4% - - Of the 74 respondents who indicated that they are employed on a definite contract basis, 72% (53 respondents) mentioned that they are employed either on a 1 – 3 month or 4 – 6 month definite contract.
Moreover, a worrying finding emerged in that the majority of these survey respondents observed that they are not aware that a definite contract should automatically become ‘indefinite’ in nature, if it is extended to more than four years.
Refused - - - - - - TABLE 3.26 – Employment Status of Respondents TABLE 3.26 – Employment Status of Respondents Counts Break % Respondents Total Tourism Industry Cleaning Industry Language Schools Total 602 316 208 78 106 'Em ployee' status by regular registration (bil-ktieb tax-xoghol) 'Em ployee' status by regular registration and w ith Contract/Agreem ent Self-em ployed: by ow n choice Self-em ployed: im posed by em ployer No form al em ploym ent status (bla ktieb tax-xoghol) - - Refused - - - - - - Almost 43% (258 respondents) of the total survey respondents indicated that they are employed on a full- time basis.
Another 28% (167 respondents) mentioned that they are engaged on a part-time continuous More than 37% (224 respondents) of the respondents communicated that they have been basis and whose part-time employment is their ‘primary job’, while more than 16% (98 respondents) employed in their current employment basis for between 1 – 3 three years.

Another 29% (172 indicated that they are seasonal workers.
As Figure 3.8 below illustrates, full-time employment is mainly present in the Tourism and Cleaning industries while seasonal employment is primarily present in the respondents) indicated that they have been employed under these conditions with the same Language Schools industry.

Part-time employment is present in all three sectors.

employer for less than one year.

This finding prevails in all three industries.
FIGURE 3.8 – Employment Type of Respondents (in %s) Unlocking the Female Potential - Research Report 105 107 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 FIGURE 3.8 – Employment Type of Respondents (in %s) 60 50 40 30 20 10 Full time basis n g n n a e l C g n n a e l C i I Part time on continuous basis Full time basis Seasonal Worker Part time on continuous basis Casual Worker Seasonal Worker Flexible hours Casual Worker Reduced hours Flexible hours Refused Reduced hours Refused More than 37% (224 respondents) of the respondents communicated that they have been employed in More than 37% (224 respondents) of the respondents communicated that they have been employed in their current employment basis between 1 – 3 three years.
Another 29% (172 respondents) indicated that their current employment basis between 1 – 3 three years.

Another 29% (172 respondents) indicated that they have been employed under these conditions with the same employer for less than one year.

This they have been employed under these conditions with the same employer for less than one year.

This finding prevails in all three industries.

finding prevails in all three industries.

II.


working Arrangements of Vulnerable workers Working Arrangements – Number of Hours Working Arrangements – Number of Hours II.

Working Arrangements of Vulnerable Workers II.

Working Arrangements of Vulnerable Workers working Arrangements – Number of Hours 62% (372 respondents) of the total respondents indicated that the number of hours worked per week fluctuates according to the market demand, seasonality, etc.
This was primarily observed by employees engaged in the Tourism and Language Schools industries, which are industries largely dependent on seasonality trends.

Another 36% (217 respondents) mentioned that they 62% (372 respondents) of the total respondents indicated that the number of hours worked per week work a stipulated number of hours per week.
This was mainly indicated by the Cleaning industry 62% (372 respondents) of the total respondents indicated that the number of hours worked per week fluctuates according to the market demand, seasonality, etc.

This was primarily observed by employees employees.

Figure 3.9 highlights these findings.

fluctuates according to the market demand, seasonality, etc.
This was primarily observed by employees engaged in the Tourism and Language Schools industries, which are industries largely dependent on seasonality trends.

Another 36% (217 respondents) mentioned that they work a stipulated number of engaged in the Tourism and Language Schools industries, which are industries largely dependent on Since the Tourism and Language Schools industries’ work is largely dependent on seasonal trends, hours per week.

This was mainly indicated by the Cleaning industry employees.
Figure 3.9 highlights seasonality trends.

Another 36% (217 respondents) mentioned that they work a stipulated number of the employee survey respondents engaged in these two sectors were asked to indicate the number these findings.

hours per week.

This was mainly indicated by the Cleaning industry employees.

Figure 3.9 highlights FIGURE 3.9 – Working Arrangements – Number of Hours per week (in %s) these findings.
80 FIGURE 3.9 – Working Arrangements – Number of Hours per week (in %s) FIGURE 3.9 – Working Arrangements – Number of Hours per week (in %s) 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 work a stipulated total number of hours per week The number of hours I work per week fluctuates according to demand, seasonality, etc Other Don't Know/ Don't Remember I work a stipulated total number of hours per week The number of hours I work per week fluctuates according to demand, seasonality, etc Other Don't Know/ Don't Remember 106 National Commission for the Promotion of Equality 108 108 of hours they work per week during the summer and winter months.
A rather high 56% (220 respondents) of these survey respondents indicated that during the summer months they work forty hours or more in a week.

This was stated by 60% (191 respondents) of those employee respondents engaged in the Tourism sector and by 37% (29 respondents) of those employed in the Language School industry.

Another 25% (99 respondents) claimed that they work between 21 - 30 hours in a week during summer, and these employee respondents hailed from the Language Schools industry.
The number of hours worked during the summer months contrasts widely with the hours worked during winter, where 23% (90 respondents) of these same 220 respondents indicated that they work 40 hours or more per week.

Among these employees, 27% (86 respondents) and 5% (4 respondents) are employed in the Tourism and Language Schools sectors respectively.

This finding illustrates the high level of seasonality that exists in these two sectors which makes employment in both sectors more prone to vulnerability.
As to the number of hours worked by employees in the Cleaning sector, these are largely constant throughout the year, since this industry does not seem to be dependent on seasonal trends.

Almost 48% (99 respondents) of the 208 respondents representing this sector stated that they work forty hours or more per week 12 months a year.

31% (65 respondents) of the respondents indicated that they work between 21 and 30 hours a week.
working Arrangements – Remuneration A number of worrying findings on the remuneration arrangements being given to the vulnerable workers emerge in from the study.

With regards to the remuneration agreed with employers, a high 69% (416 respondents) of the 602 survey respondents across all three industry sectors indicated that their remuneration is calculated on an hourly rate.
This is mostly evident in the Tourism industry where 72.5% (229 respondents) of the employees indicated that they have this remuneration arrangement.

Some 14.6% (88 respondents) of the total survey cohort indicated that their existing wage/ hourly rate is below the minimum wage stipulated by law.

This finding emerged across all three industries.


This was indicated by 12% (38 respondents) in Tourism, 18.8% (39 respondents) hailing from the Cleaning Industry and 14.1% (11 respondents) from the Language School Industry.

37% (224 respondents) of the survey respondents stated that work performed during weekends and public holidays is still paid at the normal hourly rate.
This remuneration hourly rate was mentioned by more than 39% (82 respondents) of those employed in the Cleaning sector and by almost 39% (122 respondents) of those engaged in the Tourism industry.

On the other hand, this is less evident in the Language Schools industry.

33% (196 respondents) of the total survey respondents claimed that they are paid at the ‘normal hourly rate’ for any extra hours worked.
This finding emerged largely in the Language Schools sector where 35% (27 respondents) of the employees engaged in this sector indicated this remuneration arrangement.

Table 3.27 below depict these findings in more detail.

A finding emerged in the study whereby differences emerged in the remuneration arrangements offered to male and female employees in these three sectors.

In fact, the remuneration calculated on an hourly basis is more offered to females than males.
This finding is evident in all the three sectors, but especially in the Language School industry.
Work performed on weekends and on public holidays that is remunerated at the normal hourly rate is experienced more by males in the Unlocking the Female Potential - Research Report 107 TABLE 3.27 – Working Arrangements – Remuneration Counts Break % Respondents Total Tourism Industry Cleaning Industry Language Schools Total 602 316 208 78 Paym ent as a pre- established w eekly w age 141 23.4% Paym ent at an hourly rate 416 69.1% The paym ent of overtim e for extra hours Extra hours are com pensated by tim e-in-lieu Extra hours w orked are paid at the norm al rate Work during w eekends/ public holidays is paid at the norm al rate Work during w eekends is paid at a special rate I am paid a w age/ hourly rate w hich is under the m inim um w age I am paid on com m ission basis and/ or tips only Apart from m y w age/ hourly rate, I am also paid tips Not all cleaners are paid at the sam e flat- rate Paym ent is not given on tim e Other Don't Know / Don't Rem em ber Refused - - - - - - 9 11.5% 2 1.0% 40 19.2% 25 12.0% 11 5.3% 1 0.5% 4 1.9% - - - - - - - - - - - - A finding emerged in the study whereby differences emerged in the remuneration arrangements offered to male and female employees in these three sectors.
In fact, the remuneration calculated on an hourly basis is more offered to females than males.

This finding is evident in all the three sectors, but especially Tourism industry, and more by females in the Cleaning industry.

With regards to the remuneration in the Language School industry.
Work performed on weekends and on public holidays that is of extra hours being calculated at the normal hourly rate, this is more evident among males remunerated at the normal hourly rate; is experienced more by males in the Tourism industry, and more employed in language schools, females employed in the Cleaning industry and males engaged in by females in the Cleaning industry.

With regards to the remuneration of extra hours being calculated at the Tourism industry.
It is interesting to also point out that remuneration calculated as a pre- the normal hourly rate, this is more evident among males employed in language schools, females employed in the Cleaning industry and males engaged in the Tourism industry.

It is interesting to also determined weekly wage is mostly offered to male employees in the three sectors, particularly point out that remuneration calculated as a pre-determined weekly wage is mostly offered to male in the Language School industry.
Although there is a marginal difference between the total male employees in the three sectors, particularly in the Language School industry.
Although there is a marginal (14.1% - 39 respondents) and female (15.1% - 49) respondents who are currently being paid difference between the total male (14.1% - 39 respondents) and female (15.1% - 49) respondents, who below the minimum wage stipulated by law, more males being paid below the minimum wage are 110 employed with Language Schools, while more females receiving a pay below the minimum wage, hail from the Cleaning industry.
108 National Commission for the Promotion of Equality Table 3.28 below highlights these differences in the remuneration arrangements offered to males and females in the three sectors.

working Arrangements – National Insurance (NI) Contributions More than 40% (242 respondents) of the aggregate 602 respondents noted that their national insurance (NI) contributions are paid jointly by their employer and them.
This was indicated by 53% (41 respondents) of the workers employed in the Language Schools industry, by 41% (86 respondents) of those workers engaged in the Cleaning industry and by 36% (115 respondents) of those employed in the Tourism sector.

A difference was registered between the male and female respondents employed in the three industries.
While this NI-joint-payment was observed by 62% (23 respondents) of the male respondents in the Language Schools sector, this was mentioned by a lower 44% (18 respondents) of the female worker respondents hailing from the same sector.

Moreover, in the Cleaning industry this NI-joint-payment was mentioned by 46% (33 respondents) of the male respondents but by a lower 39% (53 respondents) of the female respondents.
This difference in the NI-joint- contribution among the sexes does not exist in the Tourism sector.
TABLE 3.28 Working Arrangements – Remuneration – Males Counts Break % Respondents Cleaning Industry Tourism Industry Language Schools Total Working Arrangements – Remuneration – Females Counts Break % Respondents Language Schools Cleaning Industry Tourism Industry Total Total 277 168 72 37 Total 325 148 136 41 Paym ent as a pre- established w eekly w age 80 28.9% Paym ent at an hourly rate 178 64.3% Paym ent as a pre- established w eekly w age 61 18.8% Paym ent at an hourly rate - - 2 0.7% 8 4.8% 1 0.6% - - - - - - - - - - 13 18.1% 7 9.7% 5 6.9% - - 2 2.8% 5 13.5% - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 49 15.1% 17 11.5% 28 20.6% 7 2.2% 29 8.9% 28 8.6% 20 6.2% 9 2.8% 1 0.3% 2 0.6% 3 2.0% - - 27 18.2% 2 1.5% 1 0.7% 2 1.4% 3 2.0% - - - - 27 19.9% 18 13.2% 6 4.4% 1 0.7% 2 1.5% 4 9.8% 4 9.8% - - - - - - - - - - - - The paym ent of overtim e for extra hours Extra hours are com pensated by tim e-in-lieu Extra hours w orked are paid at the norm al rate Work during w eekends/ public holidays is paid at the norm al rate Work during w eekends is paid at a special rate I am paid a w age/ hourly rate w hich is under the m inim um w age I am paid on com m ission basis and/ or tips only Apart from m y w age/ hourly rate, I am also paid tips Not all cleaners are paid at the sam e flat- rate Paym ent is not given on tim e Other Don't Know / Don't Rem em ber Refused The paym ent of overtim e for extra hours Extra hours are com pensated by tim e-in-lieu Extra hours w orked are paid at the norm al rate Work during w eekends/
 public holidays is paid at the norm al rate Work during w eekends is paid at a special rate I am paid a w age/ hourly rate w hich is under the m inim um w age I am paid on com m ission basis and/ or tips only Apart from m y w age/ hourly rate, I am also paid tips Not all cleaners are paid at the sam e flat- rate Paym ent is not given on tim e Other Don't Know / Don't Rem em ber Refused Working Arrangements – National Insurance (NI) Contributions Unlocking the Female Potential - Research Report More than 40% (242 respondents) of the aggregate 602 respondents noted that their national insurance (NI) contributions are paid jointly by their employer and them.
This was indicated by 53% (41 109 respondents) of the workers employed in the Language Schools industry, by 41% (86 respondents) of those workers engaged in the Cleaning industry and by 36% (115 respondents) of those employed in the Tourism sector.

112 37% (224 respondents) of all survey respondents claimed that neither they nor their employer paid weekly NI contributions.
Among these respondents, there were a high 39% (82 respondents) of those employed in the Cleaning industry, an also high 38% (120 respondents) of those employed in the Tourism sector and 28% (22 respondents) of those employed in the Language Schools sector.

Some 4.8% (29 respondents) of the total respondent cohort observed that they pay their NI contributions, whilst their employer does not.

These respondents (14 in total) hailed largely from the Tourism industry.
A difference was registered between the male and female respondents employed in the three industries.

While this NI-joint-payment was observed by 62% (23 respondents) of the male respondents in the Language Schools sector, this was mentioned by a lower 44% (18 respondents) of the female worker respondents hailing from the same sector.
Moreover, in the Cleaning industry this NI-joint-payment was mentioned by 46% (33 respondents) of the male respondents but by a lower 39% (53 respondents) of the female respondents.

This difference in the NI-joint-contribution among the sexes does not exist in the Tourism sector.

There is a tendency in the Cleaning and Language School industries, where females are less likely to pay their NI contributions, together with their employers, than males employed in the same two sectors.
Tables 3.29, 3.30 and 3.31 below depict these findings by industry and by gender.

working Arrangements – Other Entitlements The whole 602-count survey cohort was asked to indicate the other employment entitlements they 37% (224 respondents) of all survey respondents claimed that neither they nor their employer paid receive from their employers, apart from their wage pay.

The survey respondents could indicate a weekly NI contributions.
Among these respondents, there were a high 39% (82 respondents) of those multiple response to this question.

The following findings emerge: employed in the Cleaning industry, an also high 38% (120 respondents) of those employed in the Tourism Only 45% (271 respondents) of the total respondents stated that they are entitled to sick leave sector and 28% (22 respondents) of those employed in the Language Schools sector.

with their current employer.


This was indicated by half (104 respondents) of those employed in the Cleaning industry, by 43% (136 respondents) of those working in the Tourism sector and Some 4.8% (29 respondents) of the total respondent cohort observed that they pay their NI contributions, by 40% (31 respondents) of those engaged in the Language Schools industry.

Comparing these whilst their employer does not.

These respondents (14 in total) hailed largely from the Tourism industry.
sick-leave entitlements by sex, a marked difference lies in the Tourism Sector, where 51% (37 respondents) of the male respondents stated that they receive sick leave entitlements as opposed There is a tendency in the Cleaning and Language School industries, where females are less likely to pay to 38.5% (57 respondents) of the female respondents.

their NI contributions, together with their employers, than males employed in the same two sectors.
Tables 3.30, 3.31 and 3.32 below depict these findings by industry and by gender.
TABLE 3.29 – Working Arrangements – NI Contributions TABLE 3.30 – Working Arrangements – NI Contributions Counts Break % Respondents Total Tourism Industry Cleaning Industry Language Schools Total 602 316 208 78 Both m y em ployer and I don't pay any NI contributions I pay m y w eekly NI contributions but m y em ployer does not pay his/ her share My em ployer and I both pay our w eekly NI contributions My em ployer pays both his/ her share and m y share of our w eekly NI contributions Other Don't Know / Don't Rem em ber Refused - - TABLE 3.31 – Working Arrangements – TABLE 3.32 – Working Arrangements – NI Contributions – Males NI Contributions - Females National Commission for the Promotion of Equality 110 113 TABLE 3.30 – Working Arrangements NI Contributions – Males 41 15 36.6% Counts Break % Respondents Total Tourism Industry Cleaning Industry Language Schools Counts Break % Respondents Total Tourism Cleaning Language Industry Industry Schools Total 277 168 72 37 Total 325 148 136 Both m y em ployer and I don't pay any NI contributions I pay m y w eekly NI contributions but m y em ployer does not pay his/ her share My em ployer and I both pay our w eekly NI contributions My em ployer pays both his/ her share and m y share of our w eekly NI contributions Other Don't Know / Don't Rem em ber Refused - - 9 5.4% 13 7.7% - - 1 1.4% 6 8.3% - - 2 5.4% 2 5.4% 1 2.7% - - Both m y em ployer and I don't pay any NI contributions I pay m y w eekly NI contributions but m y em ployer does not pay his/ her share My em ployer and I both pay our w eekly NI contributions My em ployer pays both his/ her share and m y share of our w eekly NI contributions Other Don't Know /
 Don't Rem em ber Refused - - 9.8% 2.4% Working Arrangements – Other Entitlements TABLE 3.31 – Working Arrangement NI Contributions - Females The whole 602-count survey cohort was asked to indicate the other employment entitlements they receive from their employers, apart from their wage pay.
The survey respondents could indicate a multiple response to this question.

The following findings emerge: Counts Break % Respondents Total Tourism Industry Cleaning Industry Language Schools 41 136 148 325 Total 59 43.4% 58 39.2% 15 36.6% 132 40.6% Only 45% (271 respondents) of the total respondents stated that they are entitled to sick leave with their current employer.
This was indicated by half (104 respondents) of those employed in the Cleaning industry, by 43% (136 respondents) of those working in the Tourism sector and by 40% (31 respondents) Both m y em ployer and I don't pay any NI of those engaged in the Language Schools industry.
Comparing these sick-leave entitlements by sex, a contributions marked difference lies in the Tourism Sector, where 51% (37 respondents) of the male respondents I pay m y w eekly NI stated that they receive sick leave entitlements as opposed to 38.5% (57 respondents) of the female 7 contributions but m y respondents indicated same.

4.7% em ployer does not pay his/ her share Only some 19% (117 respondents) of the total respondents indicated that they are paid the government My em ployer and I bonuses.
25.5% (53 respondents), 18% (57 respondents) and 9% (7 respondents) hailing from the both pay our w eekly Cleaning, Tourism and Language School industries respectively, indicated that they are paid the NI contributions Government bonuses.
Comparing the payment of government bonuses by gender, a marked difference My em ployer pays exists: 23.5% (65 respondents) of the male respondents against 16% (52 respondents) of the female both his/ her share respondents indicated that they receive these bonuses; the main findings difference by gender lies, once and m y share of our w eekly NI again, in the Tourism Sector.
contributions 127 39.1% 18 43.9% 56 37.8% 53 39.0% 21 6.5% 1 2.4% 14 9.5% 6 4.4% 16 4.9% 3 7.3% 6 4.4% Other Only some 40% (242 respondents) of the total respondents indicated that they are allowed to take break time.

This was indicated by 51% (40 respondents) of those working in the Language Schools, by 39% (124 respondents) of those engaged in the Tourism sector and by 37.5% (78 respondents) of those Don't Know / Don't Rem em ber employed in the Cleaning sector.
There were no differences found by gender on this research area.
14 10.3% 4 9.8% 25 7.7% 9 2.8% 1 2.4% 3 2.0% 2 1.5% 10 6.8% Refused 4 1.2% 3 2.0% 1 0.7% - - Source: NSO 29 Sept 2011 Labour Force Survey: Q2/2011 114 Counts Break % Respondents Both m y em ployer and I don't pay any NI contributions I pay m y w eekly NI contributions but m y em ployer does not pay his/ her share My em ployer and I both pay our w eekly NI contributions My em ployer pays both his/ her share and m y share of our w eekly NI contributions Other Don't Know / Don't Rem em ber Refused Total Tourism Industry Cleaning Industry Language Schools Total - - 9 5.4% 13 7.7% - - 1 1.4% 6 8.3% - - 2 5.4% 2 5.4% 1 2.7% - - Working Arrangements – Other Entitlements Unlocking the Female Potential - Research Report 111 The whole 602-count survey cohort was asked to indicate the other employment entitlements they receive from their employers, apart from their wage pay.
The survey respondents could indicate a multiple response to this question.

The following findings emerge: Only 45% (271 respondents) of the total respondents stated that they are entitled to sick leave with their current employer.

This was indicated by half (104 respondents) of those employed in the Cleaning industry, by 43% (136 respondents) of those working in the Tourism sector and by 40% (31 respondents) of those engaged in the Language Schools industry.
Comparing these sick-leave entitlements by sex, a marked difference lies in the Tourism Sector, where 51% (37 respondents) of the male respondents stated that they receive sick leave entitlements as opposed to 38.5% (57 respondents) of the female respondents indicated same.

Only some 19% (117 respondents) of the total respondents indicated that they are paid the government bonuses.
25.5% (53 respondents), 18% (57 respondents) and 9% (7 respondents) hailing from the Cleaning, Tourism and Language School industries respectively, indicated that they are paid the Government bonuses.

Comparing the payment of government bonuses by gender, a marked difference exists: 23.5% (65 respondents) of the male respondents against 16% (52 respondents) of the female respondents indicated that they receive these bonuses; the main findings difference by gender lies, once again, in the Tourism Sector.
Only some 40% (242 respondents) of the total respondents indicated that they are allowed to take break time.

This was indicated by 51% (40 respondents) of those working in the Language Schools, by 39% (124 respondents) of those engaged in the Tourism sector and by 37.5% (78 respondents) of those employed in the Cleaning sector.

There were no differences found by gender on this research area.

114 Only some 19% (117 respondents) of the total respondents indicated that they are paid the government bonuses.
25.5% (53 respondents), 18% (57 respondents) and 9% (7 respondents) hailing from the Cleaning, Tourism and Language School industries respectively, indicated that they are paid the Government bonuses.

Comparing the payment of government bonuses by gender, a marked difference exists: 23.5% (65 respondents) of the male respondents against 16% (52 respondents) of the female respondents indicated that they receive these bonuses; the main difference by gender lies, once again, in the Tourism Sector.
Only some 40% (242 respondents) of the total respondents indicated that they are allowed to take break time.

This was indicated by 51% (40 respondents) of those working in the Language Schools, by 39% (124 respondents) of those engaged in the Tourism sector and by 37.5% (78 respondents) of those employed in the Cleaning sector.

There were no differences found by gender on this research area.
These findings clearly show that male workers engaged in these three sectors have more entitlements than the female employees.

Major differences between males and females are mainly in the entitlement of Government bonus and the payment of cost-of-living increase where these are given more to male employees than female employees.

These findings clearly show that male workers engaged in these three sectors have more entitlements than the female employees.
Major differences between males and females are mainly in the entitlement of Government bonus and the payment of cost-of-living increase where these are given more to male employees than female employees.

Figure 3.10 and Tables 3.32 and 3.33 illustrate more detailed findings on the various worker entitlements (apart from their wage), by total cohort and by gender.
Figure 3.10 and Tables 3.33 and 3.34 below illustrate more detailed findings on the various worker entitlements (apart from their wage), by total cohort and by gender.
FIGURE 3.10 – Working Arrangements – Other Entitlements (in %s) – AGGREGATE FIGURE 3.10 – Working Arrangements – Other Entitlements (in %s) – AGGREGATE 60 50 40 30 20 10 Sick-leave entitlement Lunch hour/ break-time is allowed Vacation leave taken during the lean months Other Payment of cost-of-living increase Don't Know/ Don't Remember Payment of Government Bonus Refused TABLE 3.33 – Working Arrangements – Other Entitlements – MALES Counts Break % Respondents Total Sick-leave entitlem ent Vacation leave taken during the lean m onths Paym ent of cost-of- living increase Paym ent of Governm ent Bonus Lunch hour/ break- tim e is allow ed Other Don't Know / Don't Rem em ber Refused Total 277 131 47.3% 79 28.5% 51 18.4% 65 23.5% 109 39.4% 35 12.6% 4 1.4% - - Tourism Industry Cleaning Industry Language Schools National Commission for the Promotion of Equality 27.8% 2 5.4% 1 0.6% - - 3 4.2% - - - - - - 115 These findings clearly show that male workers engaged in these three sectors have more entitlements than the female employees.
Major differences between males and females are mainly in the entitlement of Government bonus and the payment of cost-of-living increase where these are given more to male employees than female employees.

Figure 3.10 and Tables 3.33 and 3.34 below illustrate more detailed findings on the various worker entitlements (apart from their wage), by total cohort and by gender.
FIGURE 3.10 – Working Arrangements – Other Entitlements (in %s) – AGGREGATE 60 50 40 30 20 10 Sick-leave entitlement Lunch hour/ break-time is allowed Vacation leave taken during the lean months Other Payment of cost-of-living increase Don't Know/ Don't Remember Payment of Government Bonus Refused TABLE 3.32 – Working Arrangements – Other Entitlements – Males TABLE 3.33 – Working Arrangements – Other Entitlements – MALES Counts Break % Respondents Total Sick-leave entitlem ent Vacation leave taken during the lean m onths Paym ent of cost-of- living increase Paym ent of Governm ent Bonus Lunch hour/ break- tim e is allow ed Other Don't Know / Don't Rem em ber Refused Total 277 131 47.3% 79 28.5% 51 18.4% 65 23.5% 109 39.4% 35 12.6% 4 1.4% - - Tourism Industry Cleaning Industry Language Schools 168 79 47.0% 46 27.4% 33 19.6% 42 25.0% 62 36.9% 13 7.7% 1 0.6% - - 72 37 51.4% 24 33.3% 17 23.6% 19 26.4% 30 41.7% 20 27.8% 3 4.2% - - 37 15 40.5% 9 24.3% 1 2.7% 4 10.8% 17 45.9% 2 5.4% - - - - TABLE 3.33 – Working Arrangements – Other Entitlements – Females TABLE 3.34 – Working Arrangements – Other Entitlements – FEMALES 115 Counts Break % Respondents Total Sick-leave entitlem ent Vacation leave taken during the lean m onths Paym ent of cost-of- living increase Paym ent of Governm ent Bonus Lunch hour/ break- tim e is allow ed Other Don't Know / Don't Rem em ber Refused Total 325 140 43.1% 90 27.7% 31 9.5% 52 16.0% 133 40.9% 61 18.8% 9 2.8% 1 0.3% Tourism Industry Cleaning Industry Language Schools 148 57 38.5% 41 27.7% 11 7.4% 15 10.1% 62 41.9% 13 8.8% 2 1.4% - - - - III.
Other Working Conditions of Vulnerable Employees III.

Other working Conditions of Vulnerable Employees Training A significant 55% (329 respondents) communicated that they did not receive any form of training when Training they got employed by their current employer.
This is mostly the case with respondents employed in the A significant 55% (329 respondents) communicated that they did not receive any form of training Tourism and Cleaning industries where 54% (171 respondents) and 65% (135 respondents) of these when they got employed by their current employer.

This is mostly the case with respondents workers respectively, indicated that no training was received.
On the other hand, this was stated by only a low 29.5% (23 respondents) of those engaged in the Language Schools sector.

Figure 3.11 below employed in the Tourism and Cleaning industries where 54% (171 respondents) and 65% (135 illustrates this finding in more detail.

respondents) of these workers respectively, indicated that no training was received.

On the other hand, this was stated by only a low 29.5% (23 respondents) of those engaged in the Language Schools sector.
Figure 3.11 below illustrates this finding in more detail.
FIGURE 3.11 – Training Received on Engagement (in %s) 80 70 60 50 Unlocking the Female Potential - Research Report 113 40 30 20 10 Yes No Don't Know/ Don't Remember Non-applicable 116 TABLE 3.34 – Working Arrangements – Other Entitlements – FEMALES Counts Break % Respondents Total Sick-leave entitlem ent Vacation leave taken during the lean m onths Paym ent of cost-of- living increase Paym ent of Governm ent Bonus Lunch hour/ break- tim e is allow ed Other Don't Know / Don't Rem em ber Refused Total 325 140 43.1% 90 27.7% 31 9.5% 52 16.0% 133 40.9% 61 18.8% 2.8% 9 1 0.3% Tourism Industry Cleaning Industry Language Schools 38.5% 49.3% 39.0% 148 57 41 27.7% 11 7.4% 15 62 41.9% 13 8.8% 2 - - - - III.
Other Working Conditions of Vulnerable Employees Training A significant 55% (329 respondents) communicated that they did not receive any form of training when they got employed by their current employer.

This is mostly the case with respondents employed in the Tourism and Cleaning industries where 54% (171 respondents) and 65% (135 respondents) of these workers respectively, indicated that no training was received.
On the other hand, this was stated by only a low 29.5% (23 respondents) of those engaged in the Language Schools sector.

Figure 3.11 below illustrates this finding in more detail.
FIGURE 3.11 – Training Received on Engagement (in %s) FIGURE 3.11 – Training Received on Engagement (in %s) 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 Yes No Don't Know/ Don't Remember Non-applicable Of the 246 (41%) respondents who indicated that they were given training on engagement with their current employer, more than 53% (131 respondents) indicated that they were not paid for this training.
As Figure 3.12 below shows, among these respondents there were 66% (40 respondents) of those employed in the Cleaning industry, 56% (31 respondents) of those employed with Language Schools and 46% (60 respondents) of those employed in the Tourism sector.
116 An also high 76% (300 respondents) of the 394 respondents hailing from the Tourism and Language Schools industries and who had indicated that no training was given to them when they started working with their existing employer, pointed out that training was provided at no stage Of the 246 (41%) respondents who indicated that they were given training on engagement with their of their employment.
This was mentioned by 79% (251 respondents) of those engaged in the current employer, more than 53% (131 respondents) indicated that they were not paid for this training.

As Tourism sector and by 63% (49 respondents) of those engaged in the Language Schools sector.
Figure 3.12 below shows, among these respondents there were 66% (40 respondents) of those employed in the Cleaning industry, 56% (31 respondents) of those employed with Language Schools and 46% (60 respondents) of those employed in the Tourism sector.
FIGURE 3.12 – Whether Employees Were Paid Wage During Induction Training (in %s) FIGURE 3.12 – Whether Employees Were Paid Wage During Induction Training (in %s) 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 Yes No Don't Know/ Don't Remember An also high 76% (300 respondents) of the 394 respondents hailing from the Tourism and Language Schools industries and who had indicated that no training was given to them when they started working 114 with their existing employer, pointed out that training was never provided at no stage of their employment.
This was mentioned by 79% (251 respondents) of those engaged in the Tourism sector and by 63% (49 respondents) of those engaged in the Language Schools sector.

National Commission for the Promotion of Equality The Provision of a Uniform and Safety Equipment All respondents employed in the Tourism and Cleaning industries were then asked to specify whether their employer provided them with a company uniform.
It emerges that 37% (116 respondents) of those employed in the Tourism sector and 40% (84 respondents) of those engaged in the Cleaning industry were provided with a uniform and this was paid for by the company.

Yet another worrying finding which emerges from the study is that more than 28% (89 respondents) and 26% (54 respondents) of the Tourism and Cleaning employees respectively claimed that they were asked to pay for the uniform themselves.
More detailed findings on this research finding is highlighted in Table 3.35 below.

TABLE 3.35 – The Provision of a Uniform 117 The Provision of a Uniform and safety Equipment All respondents employed in the Tourism and Cleaning industries were then asked to specify whether their employer provided them with a company uniform.
It emerges that 37% (116 respondents) of those employed in the Tourism sector and 40% (84 respondents) of those engaged in the Cleaning industry were provided with a uniform and this was paid for by the company.

Yet another worrying finding which emerges from the study is that more than 28% (89 respondents) and 26% (54 respondents) of the Tourism and Cleaning employees respectively claimed that they were asked to pay for the uniform themselves.
More detailed findings on this research finding is highlighted in Table 3.34.

A rather high 46% (243 respondents) of the 524 Tourism and Cleaning industries employees pointed out that they were not provided with the necessary safety equipment at their workplace.

As Table 3.35 below shows, this was indicated by 48% (153 respondents) of those engaged in the Tourism sector and by 43% (90 respondents) of those engaged in the Cleaning industry.
TABLE 3.34 – The Provision of a Uniform Counts Break % Counts Respondents Break % Respondents Total Total It w as paid for by the com pany It w as paid for by the com pany It w as partly paid by It w as partly paid by the com pany and the com pany and partly by m e partly by m e I had to pay for it m yself I had to pay for it m yself I don't need/ w ear a uniform at m y place of w ork I don't need/ w ear a uniform at m y place of w ork Don't Know / Don't Rem em ber Don't Know / Don't Rem em ber Total Total 524 524 200 200 38.2% 38.2% 53 53 10.1% 10.1% 143 143 27.3% 27.3% 122 122 23.3% 23.3% 6 1.1% 6 1.1% Tourism Industry Tourism Industry 316 316 116 116 36.7% 36.7% Cleaning Industry Cleaning Industry A rather high 46% (243 respondents) of the 524 Tourism and Cleaning industries employees pointed out that they were not provided with the necessary safety equipment at their workplace.
As Table 3.36 below A rather high 46% (243 respondents) of the 524 Tourism and Cleaning industries employees pointed out shows, this was indicated by 48% (153 respondents) of those engaged in the Tourism sector and by 43% that they were not provided with the necessary safety equipment at their workplace.

As Table 3.36 below (90 respondents) of those engaged in the Cleaning industry.
shows, this was indicated by 48% (153 respondents) of those engaged in the Tourism sector and by 43% (90 respondents) of those engaged in the Cleaning industry.
TABLE 3.35 – The Provision of Safety Equipment TABLE 3.36 – The Provision of Safety Equipment Total TABLE 3.36 – The Provision of Safety Equipment Tourism Industry Cleaning Industry Counts Break % Respondents Counts Break % Respondents Total Yes Total No Yes Non-applicable No 524 Total 131 25.0% 524 243 46.4% 131 25.0% 150 28.6% 243 46.4% Tourism 316 Industry 51 16.1% 316 153 48.4% 51 16.1% 112 35.4% 153 48.4% Cleaning 208 Industry 80 38.5% 208 90 43.3% 80 38.5% 38 18.3% 90 43.3% 112 35.4% 38 18.3% Management’s Relations with Employees Non-applicable Unlocking the Female Potential - Research Report 150 115 28.6% 47% of all the survey cohort indicated that their employers neither treat them well nor do they mistreat them; while 36% feel that they are treated well or very well by their employees.
16% feel treated badly or very badly by their employers.

Figure 3.47 below illustrates this finding.

Management’s Relations with Employees 47% of all the survey cohort indicated that their employers neither treat them well nor do they mistreat Similar findings emerged across all three sectors and across both sexes, except with some minor them; while 36% feel that they are treated well or very well by their employees.

16% feel treated badly or differences in the Language school cohort.
Figure 3.13 and Tables 3.37 and 3.38 below highlight these very badly by their employers.

Figure 3.47 below illustrates this finding.

findings.

Similar findings emerged across all three sectors and across both sexes, except with some minor differences in the Language school cohort.

Figure 3.13 and Tables 3.37 and 3.38 below highlight these FIGURE 3.13 – Management Relations with Employees (in %s) findings.
FIGURE 3.13 – Management Relations with Employees (in %s) 118 118 Management’s Relations with Employees 47% of all the survey cohort indicated that their employers neither treat them well nor do they mistreat them; while 36% feel that they are treated well or very well by their employees.

16% feel treated badly or very badly by their employers.

Figure 3.13 below illustrates this finding.


Similar findings emerged across all three sectors and across both sexes, except with some minor differences in the Language school cohort.

Figure 3.13 and Tables 3.36 and 3.37 below highlight these findings.

Other working Conditions A total of 68 respondents (21.5%) of the 316 respondents engaged in the Tourism industry stated These findings clearly show that male workers engaged in these three sectors have more entitlements than the female employees.
Major differences between males and females are mainly in the entitlement that the establishment they are currently engaged with had closed down for a period of time for of Government bonus and the payment of cost-of-living increase where these are given more to male refurbishing.

72% (49 respondents) of these 68 respondents did not work extra hours during the employees than female employees.
Figure 3.10 and Tables 3.33 and 3.34 below illustrate more detailed findings on the various worker entitlements (apart from their wage), by total cohort and by gender.
FIGURE 3.13 – Management Relations with Employees (in %s) FIGURE 3.10 – Working Arrangements – Other Entitlements (in %s) – AGGREGATE 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 50 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 Sick-leave entitlement Lunch hour/ break-time is allowed Treated very badly Vacation leave taken during the lean months Other Treated badly Payment of cost-of-living increase Don't Know/ Don't Remember Treated neither good nor bad Payment of Government Bonus Refused Treated well Treated very well TABLE 3.33 – Working Arrangements – Other Entitlements – MALES Don't Know/ Refused Counts Break % Respondents Language TABLE 3.37 – Management’s Relations TABLE 3.38 – Management’s Relations Schools With Employees - Males with Employees - Females TABLE 3.36 – Management Relations with Employees - Males 37 Cleaning Industry Tourism Industry Total Total 168 277 72 Sick-leave entitlem ent Counts Break % Vacation leave taken Respondents during the lean m onths Total Paym ent of cost-of- living increase Treated very badly Paym ent of Governm ent Bonus Treated badly Lunch hour/ break- tim e is allow ed Treated fairly Other Don't Know / Don't Rem em ber Treated w ell Refused Treated very w ell 131 47.3% Total 79 28.5% 79 47.0% Tourism Industry 46 27.4% 37 51.4% Cleaning Industry 24 33.3% 15 40.5% Language Schools - - 38 13.7% 78 13 7.7% 46.4% 1 0.6% 42 25.0% - - 24 14.3% 34 20 27.8% 47.2% 3 4.2% 13 18.1% - - 7 9.7% 11 2 5.4% 29.7% - 16 - 43.2% - - 7 18.9% Don't Know / Refused 4 1.4% 1 0.6% 3 4.2% - - Counts Break % Respondents Total - - Treated very badly Treated badly Treated fairly Treated w ell Treated very w ell Don't Know / Refused 115 Total 325 8
 2.5% 46 14.2% 160 49.2% 91 28.0% 15 4.6% 5 1.5% Tourism Industry Cleaning Industry Language Schools 148 2 1.4% 21 14.2% 73 49.3% 38 25.7% 11 7.4% 3 2.0% 136 6 4.4% 22 16.2% 69 50.7% 37 27.2% 1 1 0.7% 7.3% 0.7% 2.4% 41 - - 3 18 16 3 1 7.3% 43.9% 39.0% Other Working Conditions National Commission for the Promotion of Equality A total of 68 respondents (21.5%) of the 316 respondents engaged in the Tourism industry stated that the establishment they are currently engaged with had closed down for a period of time for refurbishing.
72% (49 respondents) of these 68 respondents did not work extra hours during the previous months before the 116 establishment’s winter closure, 78% (53 respondents) stated that during this closure period, the normal wage was not received and 53% (36 respondents) indicated that the measures taken were agreed upon between the employer and employee.

59% (311 respondents) of the respondents employed in the Tourism and Cleaning sector claimed that at their workplace foreigners are engaged as well.
This was mentioned by 61% (192 respondents) of those employed in the Tourism sector and by 57% (119 respondents) of those engaged in the Cleaning sector.
39.5% (123 respondents) of these 311 respondents stated that these foreigners are engaged with the 119 50 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 Treated very badly Treated badly Treated neither good nor bad Treated well Treated very well Don't Know/ Refused TABLE 3.37 – Management’s Relations TABLE 3.38 – Management’s Relations With Employees - Males with Employees - Females TABLE 3.37 – Management Relation With Employees - Females Counts Break % Respondents Total Treated very badly Treated badly Treated fairly Treated w ell Treated very w ell Don't Know / Refused Total 277 5 1.8% 36 13.0% 123 44.4% 71 25.6% 38 13.7% 4 1.4% Tourism Industry Cleaning Industry Language Schools 168 3 1.8% 20 11.9% 78 46.4% 42 25.0% 24 14.3% 1 0.6% 72 2 2.8% 13 18.1% 34 47.2% 13 18.1% 7 9.7% 3 4.2% 37 - - 3 8.1% 11 29.7% 16 43.2% 7 18.9% - - Counts Break % Respondents Total Treated very badly Treated badly Treated fairly Treated w ell Treated very w ell Don't Know / Refused Total 325 8 2.5% 46 14.2% 160 49.2% 91 28.0% 15 4.6% 5 1.5% Tourism Industry Cleaning Language Industry Schools - - 3 18 16 3 1 Other Working Conditions previous months before the establishment’s winter closure, 78% (53 respondents) stated that during this closure period, the normal wage was not received and 53% (36 respondents) indicated that the measures taken were agreed upon between the employer and employee.
A total of 68 respondents (21.5%) of the 316 respondents engaged in the Tourism industry stated that the establishment they are currently engaged with had closed down for a period of time for refurbishing.
72% (49 respondents) of these 68 respondents did not work extra hours during the previous months before the establishment’s winter closure, 78% (53 respondents) stated that during this closure period, the normal wage was not received and 53% (36 respondents) indicated that the measures taken were agreed upon between the employer and employee.

59% (311 respondents) of the respondents employed in the Tourism and Cleaning sector claimed that at their workplace foreigners are engaged as well.
This was mentioned by 61% (192 respondents) of those employed in the Tourism sector and by 57% (119 respondents) of those engaged in the Cleaning sector.

39.5% (123 respondents) of these 311 respondents stated that these foreigners are engaged with the 119 59% (311 respondents) of the respondents employed in the Tourism and Cleaning sector claimed that at their workplace foreigners are engaged as well.
This was mentioned by 61% (192 respondents) of those employed in the Tourism sector and by 57% (119 respondents) of those engaged in the Cleaning sector.

39.5% (123 respondents) of these 311 respondents stated that these foreigners are engaged with the company on equal payment rates as those of the Maltese.

This was primarily stated by employees in the Cleaning industry.
Another 35% (108 respondents) stated that these foreigners are offered lower payment rates than their Maltese employee counterparts; this was indicated mainly by the employees hailing from the Tourism sector.

Moreover, another 26% (80 respondents) did not know whether these foreigners are paid lower or equal wages than their Maltese counterparts.

Table 3.38 highlights this finding.


This question was not asked to Language School workers as pay differentials in this Sector did not feature in the qualitative research phase of the study.

As Figure 3.14 below shows, a high and worrying 49% (296 respondents) of the aggregate 602 survey respondents observed that ‘informal work’ (i.e.

irregularly employed individuals) is present at their workplace.
This was mentioned by a high 54% (170 respondents), 48% (99 respondents) and 35% (27 respondents) of those engaged in the Tourism, Cleaning and Language Schools industries respectively.

Furthermore, 29% (173 respondents) observed that they do not know whether informal work is present while 22% (133 respondents) replied in the negative.

Formal Trade Union representation is only present at the workplace of a mere 14% (86 respondents) of all the 602 survey respondents.
Another 55% (322 respondents) pointed out that the employees at the workplace are not formally represented by a Trade Union, while a rather high 31% (184 respondents) claimed that they do not know whether such representation exists.

Representation by Trade Unions is mostly present in the Cleaning industry followed by the Tourism and Language Schools industries as Table 3.39 shows.

Unlocking the Female Potential - Research Report 117 company on equal payment rates as those of the Maltese.
This was primarily stated by employees in the Cleaning industry.

Another 35% (108 respondents) stated that these foreigners are offered lower payment rates than their Maltese employee counterparts; this was indicated mainly by the employees hailing from the Tourism sector.

Moreover, another 26% (80 respondents) did not know whether these foreigners are paid lower or equal wages than their Maltese counterparts.

Table 3.39 highlights this finding.


This question was not asked to Language School workers as pay differentials in this Sector did not feature in the qualitative research phase of the study.

company on equal payment rates as those of the Maltese.

This was primarily stated by employees in the Cleaning industry.
Another 35% (108 respondents) stated that these foreigners are offered lower payment rates than their Maltese employee counterparts; this was indicated mainly by the employees TABLE 3.39 – Payment Rates Offered To Foreign Employees hailing from the Tourism sector.

Moreover, another 26% (80 respondents) did not know whether these foreigners are paid lower or equal wages than their Maltese counterparts.

Table 3.39 highlights this finding.


This question was not asked to Language School workers as pay differentials in this Sector did not feature in the qualitative research phase of the study.
Counts Break % Respondents Cleaning Industry Tourism Industry Total Total 119 311 192 TABLE 3.38 – Payment Rates Offered To Foreign Employees Yes, low er rates TABLE 3.39 – Payment Rates Offered To Foreign Employees 50 42.0% 58 30.2% 108 34.7% Counts Break % No, equal rates Respondents Total Don't Know Yes, low er rates Non-applicable No, equal rates 123 Total 39.5% 80 311 25.7% 108 34.7% - - 123 39.5% Tourism 78 Industry 40.6% Cleaning 45 Industry 37.8% 56 192 29.2% 58 30.2% - - 78 40.6% 24 119 20.2% 50 42.0% - - 45 37.8% Don't Know 56 29.2% Non-applicable As Figure 3.14 below shows, a high and worrying 49% (296 respondents) of the aggregate 602 survey 80 25.7% respondents observed that ‘informal work’ (i.e.
irregularly employed individuals) is present at their - workplace.

This was mentioned by a high 54% (170 respondents), 48% (99 respondents) and 35% (27 - respondents) of those engaged in the Tourism, Cleaning and Language Schools industries respectively.

Furthermore, 29% (173 respondents) observed that they do not know whether informal work is present As Figure 3.14 below shows, a high and worrying 49% (296 respondents) of the aggregate 602 survey while 22% (133 respondents) replied in the negative.
respondents observed that ‘informal work’ (i.e.

irregularly employed individuals) is present at their workplace.

This was mentioned by a high 54% (170 respondents), 48% (99 respondents) and 35% (27 FIGURE 3.14 – Informal Employment at the Place of Work (in %s) respondents) of those engaged in the Tourism, Cleaning and Language Schools industries respectively.
Furthermore, 29% (173 respondents) observed that they do not know whether informal work is present while 22% (133 respondents) replied in the negative.
FIGURE 3.14 – Informal Employment at the Place of Work (in %s) 24 20.2% - - - - 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 FIGURE 3.14 – Informal Employment at the Place of Work (in %s Yes e l C y r t s u d n I No Don't Know Yes No mostly present in the Cleaning industry followed by the Tourism and Language Schools industries as Table 3.40 below shows.
Formal Trade Union representation is only present at the workplace of a mere 14% (86 respondents) of all TABLE 3.40 – Representation of Trade Unions the 602 survey respondents.
Another 55% (322 respondents) pointed out that the employees at the workplace are not formally represented by a Trade Union, while a rather high 31% (184 respondents) Formal Trade Union representation is only present at the workplace of a mere 14% (86 respondents) of all claimed that they do not know whether such representation exists.

Representation by Trade Unions is the 602 survey respondents.
Another 55% (322 respondents) pointed out that the employees at the workplace are not formally represented by a Trade Union, while a rather high 31% (184 respondents) claimed that they do not know whether such representation exists.
Representation by Trade Unions is TABLE 3.39 – Representation of Trade Unions Counts Break % Respondents Language Schools Cleaning Industry Tourism Industry Total Total Don't Know 208 602 316 78 Yes 86 14.3% 35 11.1% 43 20.7% 8 10.3% 120 No Don't Know 332 55.1% 184 30.6% 194 61.4% 87 27.5% 98 47.1% 67 32.2% 40 51.3% 30 38.5% 120 Difficulties Faced by Employees in the Three Industries Apart from giving details on their financial working conditions of vulnerable workers in the three sectors, difficulties Faced by Employees in the Three Industries the survey respondents were asked to indicate the three salient difficulties they are currently encountering Apart from giving details on their financial working conditions of vulnerable workers in the three at their workplace.
Table 3.41 depicts the ‘first mentioned’ salient findings highlighted by the 602 survey respondents.

sectors, the survey respondents were asked to indicate the three salient difficulties they are currently encountering at their workplace.

Table 3.40 depicts the ‘first mentioned’ salient findings These findings show that some 33% (199 respondents) claimed that they have job insecurity, 17% (101 highlighted by the 602 survey respondents.
respondents) stated that they receive a lower pay and 15% (88 respondents) are not able to make long term projections due to their job insecurity conditions.

Job insecurity is present in employees from all sectors, especially in those engaged in the Language Schools sector.

The difficulty of having a lower pay was mainly indicated by employees from the Cleaning industry while the inability to make long-term 118 projection was mentioned mainly by those engaged in the Tourism industry.
These difficulties are common for both male and female employees.
National Commission for the Promotion of Equality TABLE 3.41 – Salient Difficulties Faced by Vulnerable Workers Counts Break % Respondents Total Job insecurity Inability to m ake long-term projections Financial strain Difficulty in acquiring a Bank loan Low er pay Less prom otion opportunities Poor treatm ent Higher risk of em ploym ent rights abuse Uncertainty Psychological stress Other Don't Know / Don't Rem em ber Total 602 199 33.1% 88 14.6% 49 8.1% 17 2.8% 101 16.8% 29 4.8% 20 3.3% 10 1.7% 18 3.0% 22 3.7% 20 3.3% 29 4.8% Tourism Cleaning Language Industry Industry Schools - - 1 3 6 5 3 2.9% 3.8% 1.0% 7.7% 1.0% 6.4% 4.3% 3.8% 1.6% 1.9% 1.3% IV.
Recommendations for Improvement of Working Conditions 121 mostly present in the Cleaning industry followed by the Tourism and Language Schools industries as Table 3.40 below shows.
TABLE 3.40 – Representation of Trade Unions Counts Break % Respondents Total Yes No Don't Know Total 602 86 14.3% 332 55.1% 184 30.6% Tourism Industry Cleaning Language Industry Schools 316 35 11.1% 194 61.4% 87 27.5% 208 43 98 67 20.7% 10.3% 47.1% 51.3% 78 8 40 30 32.2% 38.5% Difficulties Faced by Employees in the Three Industries Apart from giving details on their financial working conditions of vulnerable workers in the three sectors, the survey respondents were asked to indicate the three salient difficulties they are currently encountering at their workplace.
Table 3.41 depicts the ‘first mentioned’ salient findings highlighted by the 602 survey respondents.

These findings show that some 33% (199 respondents) claimed that they have job insecurity, 17% (101 respondents) stated that they receive a lower pay and 15% (88 respondents) are not able to make long term projections due to their job insecurity conditions.

Job insecurity is present in employees from all sectors, especially in those engaged in the Language Schools sector.
The difficulty of having a lower pay was mainly indicated by employees from the Cleaning industry while the inability to make long-term projection was mentioned mainly by those engaged in the Tourism industry.

These difficulties are common for both male and female employees.
TABLE 3.41 – Salient Difficulties Faced by Vulnerable Workers TABLE 3.40 – Salient Difficulties Faced by Vulnerable Workers Counts Break % Respondents Total Job insecurity Inability to m ake long-term projections Financial strain Difficulty in acquiring a Bank loan Low er pay Less prom otion opportunities Poor treatm ent Higher risk of em ploym ent rights abuse Uncertainty Psychological stress Other Don't Know / Don't Rem em ber Total 602 199 33.1% 88 14.6% 49 8.1% 17 2.8% 101 16.8% 29 4.8% 20 3.3% 10 1.7% 18 3.0% 22 3.7% 20 3.3% 29 4.8% Tourism Industry Cleaning Industry Language Schools - - 1 1.3% 3 3.8% 6 7.7% 5 6.4% 3 3.8% IV.
Recommendations for Improvement of Working Conditions These findings show that some 33% (199 respondents) claimed that they have job insecurity, 17% (101 respondents) stated that they receive a lower pay and 15% (88 respondents) are not able to make long term projections due to their job insecurity conditions.

Job insecurity is present in employees from all sectors, especially in those engaged in the Language Schools sector.
The difficulty of having a lower pay was mainly indicated by employees from the Cleaning industry while the inability to make long-term projection was mentioned mainly by those engaged in the Tourism industry.

These difficulties are common for both male and female employees.

121 IV.
121 IV.

Recommendations for Improvement of working Conditions During the preliminary qualitative research study on vulnerable employment, a number of measures to improve the working conditions of vulnerable workers in Malta were proposed by the key stakeholders and respondents.

The Research Consultant wanted to test these proposed measures from a more quantitative perspective.
To this end, all the 602 survey respondents were asked to voice their opinion on a number of proposed measures aimed at improving the employment conditions of vulnerable workers engaged in the Tourism, Cleaning and Language School industry sectors.

A staggering 94% (564 respondents) indicated that there should be more awareness made by Authorities on workers’ rights as stipulated by law.
This was followed by 86% (516 respondents) who stated that there should be more monitoring by ETC to verify that incentive schemes are being properly utilised by local employers.

Another Unlocking the Female Potential - Research Report 119 85% (514 respondents) indicated that they agree / completely agree with the enforcement of the right of association in a Trade Union to eliminate the element of fear present among vulnerable employees.
The findings show that there were no differences in opinion on these proposed measures by the employee respondents hailing from the three industry sectors or from the male and female employees.

Table 3.41 depicts more details on the recommendations of how employment conditions may be improved in these three industries.

3.6 Conclusion Clearly, a number of interesting findings and conclusions emerge from these two studies.
These are presented in Chapter 2 of this Report, together with some policy considerations addressing the situation of both entrepreneurs and vulnerable workers in Malta.
TABLE 3.41 – Recommended Measures to Improve the Employment Conditions of Vulnerable Workers Employed in the three Industries Total Com pletely disagree Disagree Neither agree nor disagree Don't Know Refused Counts Analysis % Respondents a) More aw areness of w orkers' rights as stipulated by Law b) Enforcement of the right of association in a Trade Union to eliminate the element of fear present among employees in these Industries c) More enforcement by local Authorities, not only by ETC d) More monitoring by ETC to verify that Incentive Schemes are being properly utilized by employers e) Self-employment should be assessed from a social responsibility point of view f) The tender evaluation exercise has to assure that the provision of service w ill guarantee the payment of minimum w age and other adequate w orking conditions g) Call for skills gap analysis - the supply of employees has to match the demand of the market h) More control on the eng- agement of foreign w orke- rs (vis-a-vis: formal w ork permits, formal employment registration, meeting minim- um w age/ overtime/ NI co... i) Women w orking on informal basis, particularly in the cleaning sector, should be made aw are of long-term benefits j) The setting up of temping agency by ETC w hereby skilled w orkers can be made available to organisations to cover for w omen on maternity leave or other types of leave Agree 249 41.4% Com pletely agree - - 1 0.2% 1 0.2% 1 0.2% 1 0.2% 3 0.5% - - Conclusion Clearly, a number of interesting findings and conclusions emerge from these two studies.
These are presented in Chapter 2 of this Report, together with some policy considerations addressing the situation of 120 both entrepreneurs and vulnerable workers in Malta.

National Commission for the Promotion of Equality 123 4.

THE RELEVANCE OF ECONOMIC INdEPENdENCE TO THE MALTEsE FEMALE 4.1 Research Objectives 4.1.1 Overriding Research Objective The overriding research objective of this Project aimed at researching the relevance of economic independence to the Maltese female.
This was researched by way of three distinct Activities.

ACTIVITY I: to analyse the glass ceiling and glass cliff effect and how this affects females in the labour market.

ACTIVITY II: to assess the relevance of ‘economic independence’ to the Maltese female.

ACTIVITY III: to analyse the effect of social security benefits on women in their decision to take up employment or not.
4.1.2 Project specific Objectives Activity I The specific research objectives of Activity I comprised the following: To explore and identify: • The main factors hindering Maltese and Gozitan women from occupying managerial positions in employment.

• Whether current education practice reflects or has an influence on both ‘glass ceiling’ and ‘glass cliff’.

• Whether the ‘glass ceiling’ and ‘glass cliff’ affect women entering or continuing their participation in the labour market after having children.
• The sectors mostly represented by either males or females and seek to understand the main reasons underlying such results.

• Obtain detailed statistics about gender segregation in employment.

Activity II The specific research objectives of Activity II comprised the following: To explore and identify: • A definition of the term ‘economic independence’ in the Maltese context.

• Other relevant values and perceptions related to the topic, as held by the research respondents.
• Whether economic independence is truly linked to greater well-being in women or if economic affluence is a more important issue.

• Other values related to labour market participation which participants deem important.

• Whether the economic independence actually results in social independence and female empowerment.
Unlocking the Female Potential - Research Report 121 Activity III The specific research objectives of Activity III comprised the following: To explore and identify: • A better understanding of unemployed males and females in Malta and Gozo (perceptions on employment and social security benefits).

• The relationship between social security beneficiaries and their educational and social background.
• Social security benefits in relation to individual salaries, including whether such benefits hinder or promote the uptake of labour market employment.

• Whether governmental incentives are, in fact, seen as incentives to participate in the labour market.
4.2 The Relevance of Economic Independence to the Maltese Female - A Review of Recent Literature Introduction – women and work One of the most important social developments over the past decades in most advanced countries has been the rise in the number of women in paid jobs.

Indeed the growth of female participation in the labour market within the EU has been described as ‘the most sustained and widespread’ (Rubery, Smith & Fagan, 1999).
The EU committed itself to include equal opportunities as the fourth pillar of employment policy in 1997, setting goals at the Lisbon Summit 2000 to raise the employment rate of women from 51 to 60 per cent by the year 2010.

This was a rather ambitious goal for Malta considering that it had the lowest rate of female employment within the EU, currently at 40.6% (NSO LFS Q2/2011), which is well below the average employment rate of the EU member countries that stands at 64.5% (Eurostat 2011 Q2).
The Maltese labour market is particularly characterised with low female participation rates in full time work, and with very high rates of female inactivity.

The economically active women are mostly in the lower age cohorts, unmarried, hold jobs confined to a handful of industries such as in the services sector, for example, the retail and hospitality industry or hold jobs considered as an extension of their domestic role like teaching and nursing (NSO, 2011; Baldacchino, 1998).
Statistics also reveal a high female participation rate in part-time work, especially amongst married women suggesting that women in Malta may find that their attachment to the labour market can only take place through this kind of work to help them combine domestic responsibilities and waged work.
Besides, factors such as the gendered welfare regime, strong patriarchal social structures, a strong family tradition and a devoutly Catholic faith may still present a hostile working environment for Maltese women (Camilleri-Cassar, 2009; Spiteri, 2007).

Such working arrangements imply financial dependency and hinder female advancement towards higher paying professions.
This Literature Review is being carried out to identify and summarise research relevant to the ‘Project Objectives’ namely to assess the relevance of ‘economic independence’ to the Maltese female, to analyse the effect of social security benefits on women in their decision to take up employment or not, and to analyse the glass ceiling and glass cliff effect and how this affects females in the labour market.
This review aims to provide background information and current perspectives and will set the local scene.

It is to be noted that this is not an exhaustive review but attempts to identify key issues related to the terms of reference.

122 National Commission for the Promotion of Equality Female Economic Independence Achieving economic independence for women has been one of the main objectives for gender equality worldwide.
One way of overcoming economic dependence is to have a job, so a steady and reliable source of income gained from employment ensures enough economic security in the provision of a sufficient wage, with benefits and opportunities for career advancement.

As women’s education levels have risen over the years, thus enhancing their human capital, the incentive for women to work for pay also increases.
However, in spite of the entrance of women into the labour markets, marking a new era in their financial status, the economic position of women is still disappointing which reflects their subordinate status in society (Rubery, Smith & Fagan, 1999).

In the meantime, while some women may have been improving their economic position, other women are suffering financial hardship due to the ‘feminisation of poverty’ especially amongst female-headed families (Pearce, 1978).
It is not surprising to observe that marriage and motherhood reduce the possibilities of women’s participation in the labour market since it is still socially expected of women to bear the primary responsibility of childcare and childrearing.
Women decrease their labour market participation upon the birth of a child as evident in the participation graph, where a distinctive single left- handed peak reflects a number of women becoming inactive between the childbearing and childcaring ages of a mother, namely between 20 and 45 years, and associated with the ‘women returneer’ pattern (Crompton, 1997; Spiteri, 2007).
Therefore homemaking, childcaring and childrearing may lead to economic dependence of a mother on her partner or on the state (Blau and Ferber, 1992).

defining Economic Independence for women When married women reduce their investment in human capital and their labour market participation, their opportunity costs of foregoing wages is affected.

(Becker, 1981; Hakim 1997, 2000).

Various economists have presented different theories to explain women’s economic position.
Some economists such as Oppenheimer (1997) define women’s ‘economic independence’ in relation to their partners in marriage.

Since this research will not focus on women as one single group but on all women, that is, not only on married women, ‘female economic independence’ shall be defined as ‘when a woman can earn her living independently’.
According to a wide survey conducted in 2008 across 12 countries (Synovate, 2009), only 6 out of 10 women (58%) considered themselves to be financially independent with French women reporting the highest levels of independence (80%) while Bulgarian women reporting the least levels of economic independence (37%).
This survey asked what the term ‘financially independent’ meant to women and confirms that the perception of assessing one’s economic independence may depend on a number of cultural and social factors.

For example, the French may consider that being economically independent means ‘not being dependent on one’s partner for money’ which reflects their equality status and the fact that French women have been in charge of their finances for a long time.
On the other hand Bulgarian women may equate economical independence with ‘being able to afford things without worrying about the cost’ which reflects the political background of the socialist period where both partners were breadwinners but now experiencing a decline in their living standards.

In the meantime Mexican and Malaysian women equated ‘financial independence’ with ‘living without debts’.
According to Braverman (in Synovate 2009), “A woman meets a man, falls in love, moves in, gets married, has kids (not necessarily in that order) and it all falls apart.

It’s not until this moment that she realises just how dependent she is on her partner’s money.

Some women have checks Unlocking the Female Potential - Research Report 123 in place to guard against this happening to them; some don’t.

Some are financially savvy, and some are simply not interested.
And even if a relationship break up is not a catalyst, women live longer than men and typically have less money upon retirement.” Such a statement is quite appropriate to the local scenario due to the increase in marriage breakdowns, in single mother households and in births outside marriage (NSO 2009), and how this phenomenon is impacting on Maltese women, some of whom are waking up one fine morning to the stark reality of their vulnerability and to their sudden economic dependence.
With such a high percentage of female inactivity in Malta at 65.2% (NSO LFS Q2/2011) undoubtedly one expects to find a large number of women being dependent on their husbands` wage on unemployment/social benefits whether they are married, widowed or single.

According to the Household Budgetary Survey 2000, Maltese males earned 73.5% of the total disposable income in their household (NSO, 2003).
This same HBS revealed that out of 128,000 heads of household, 81% were males with ‘head of household’ defined as the contributor of the biggest share of the household income (NSO, 2003).

This corresponds with another research conducted among randomly selected women in Malta which revealed that only 14.1% of female respondents claimed they were chief wage-earners in their family household (Abela, 2002).
The male breadwinner model which has strongly dominated Maltese society for a long time has been observed moving slowing towards a male breadwinner/female part-time homemaker model due to changes in fertility patterns, better female educational attainments, improved working conditions and the financial needs of the family (Rizzo, 2006, Spiteri, 2007).
However this model still draws strongly on culturally prescribed sex typing of family roles were the father is the ‘breadwinner’ and the mother is primarily committed towards the caring role and domestic activities.

The ideology celebrating marriage and the strict division of work between spouses is prevalent in patriarchal societies and in those countries with strong cultural and psychological affinity with religion (Scott, 1999; Mostafa, 2003; Spiteri, 2007).
In the study on dual worker families in Malta, Rizzo (2006, p. 34) argues that even within the dual worker family in Malta ‘the male breadwinner model is still a cultural artefact’ with husbands satisfied with fulfilling their family obligations as the main financial provider of the family and the wives with some ambivalent attitudes in trying to strike an effective balance between work and family.
Although part-time work may still contribute to the Maltese family’s improved standard of living, it may tend to give less financial gains and opportunities than full time work limiting the level of autonomy and financial independency in terms of spending patterns.

Value of women’s work and financial dependence A key problem underpinning the issue of economic independence for women is the lack of value in financial terms and in social status ascribed to the work that women do, whether paid or not.
One of the first studies to throw light on gender segregation at work was a collection of feminist anthropological papers edited by Rosaldo and Lamphere in 1974 that focused on the separation of women and men into different spheres of social life.

Hakim (1979) explains segregation as horizontal and vertical.

Vertically, women are usually concentrated in certain occupations performing limited number of activities.
These are usually found in the industrial and service sectors, especially in the ‘caring’ services.

Meanwhile women are usually horizontally segregated in the lowest grades in the hierarchical ladder in the less secure and less paid jobs.

Table 4.1 below shows that the first three categories where women are clustered ‘vertically’ are in ‘Service Workers and Shop and Sales workers’, ‘Technicians and Associate Professionals’, and ‘Clerks’.
124 National Commission for the Promotion of Equality males while female technicians and associate professionals earn Lm1275.09 (equivalent to Euro 2970.16) less than males per annum.

The reasons for the pay gap are complex.

Overall women are more likely to be found working in casual, low paid, part-time work with the minimum employment conditions and over represented in casual work such as in hospitality, retail and other service.
Value of women’s work and financial dependence A key problem underpinning the issue of economic independence for women is the lack of value in financial terms and in social status ascribed to the work that women do, whether paid or not.

One of the first studies to throw light on gender segregation at work was a collection of feminist anthropological papers edited by Rosaldo and Lamphere in 1974 that focused on the separation of women and men into different spheres of social life.
Hakim (1979) explains segregation as horizontal and vertical.

Vertically, women are usually concentrated in certain occupations performing limited number of activities.

These are usually found in the industrial and service sector, especially in the ‘caring’ services.

Meanwhile women are usually horizontally segregated in the lowest grades in the hierarchical ladder in the less secure and less paid jobs.
Table 4.1 below shows that the first three categories where women are clustered ‘vertically’ are in ‘Service Workers and Shop and Sales workers’, ‘Technicians and Associate Professionals’, and ‘Clerks’.
TABLE 4.1 - Main occupation of total employed persons: October-December 2010 TABLE 4.1 - Main occupation of total employed persons: October-December 2010 Source: NSO 29 Sept 2011 Labour Force Survey: Q2/2011 Source: NSO 29 Sept 2011 Labour Force Survey: Q2/2011 Horizontally, the lack of women as ‘Legislators, senior officials and managers’ is apparent in Table 1 above, with only 6.7% of all employed women working in this category.
Compared with men, this translates into 27% of women working in the higher grades and 73% of men.

Horizontally, the lack of women as ‘Legislators, senior officials and managers’ is apparent in Table In spite of equal pay legislation in all EU countries, the occupational segregation of men and women 4.1 below, with only 6.3% of all employed women working in this category.
Compared with men, makes it very easy to apply different wages to ‘women’s work’ and to ‘men’s work’, which gives rise to this translates into 27% of women working in the higher grades and 73% of men.

the pay gap, which is the difference in pay for women and men, be it in cash or even allowances and ‘perks’.

The gap between men’s and women’s pay does not only stem from the concentration of women in certain jobs with lower levels of responsibility.
Steinberg (1995:59) attempted to identify job evaluation systems.

She found out that throughout the 19th and 20th centuries ‘men’s wages reflected In spite of equal pay legislation in all EU countries, the occupational segregation of men and women makes it very easy to apply different wages to ‘women’s work’ and to ‘men’s work’, which gives rise to the pay gap, which is the difference in pay for women and men, be it in cash or even allowances and ‘perks’.
The gap between men’s and women’s pay does not only stem from the concentration of women in certain jobs with lower levels of responsibility.

Steinberg (1995:59) attempted to identify job evaluation systems.

She found out that throughout the 19th and 20th centuries ‘men’s wages reflected not only what they were worth but also their status as breadwinners for a family.

By contrast, women’s wages were viewed merely as a supplement to the wages of other family members’.
This is very much applicable to the situation in Malta where men are still considered as the main breadwinners and whatever the women’s occupation may be her main role is still expected to be that of a wife and mother (Tabone 1994, Abela 1994, Spiteri 2007).

128 From the data issued by NSO (Table 4.2 below), it emerges that on average, women earn less than men.
For example in 2010 females working as legislators, senior officials and managers earned 15% less annually than their male counterparts, while female clerks earned 13% less per year than males.

Service workers and shop and sales workers earned 18% less than males per annum and female professionals earned 14% less.

The largest difference is between male and female workers in the ‘Elementary Occupations’ where females earned 29% less than their male counterparts.
Unlocking the Female Potential - Research Report 125 not only what they were worth but also their status as breadwinners for a family.

By contrast, women’s wages were viewed merely as a supplement to the wages of other family members’.

This is very much applicable to the situation in Malta where men are still considered as the main breadwinners and whatever the women’s occupation may be her main role is still expected to be that of a wife and mother (Tabone 1994, Abela 1994, Spiteri 2007).
From the data issued by NSO (Table 4.2 below), it emerges that on average, women earn less than men.

For example in 2010 females working as legislators senior officials and managers earn 15% less annually than their male counterparts, while female clerks earn 13% less per year than males.
Service Education is the ‘main lever’ by which women are entering the high-level paid jobs but it is workers and shop and sales workers earn 18% less than males per annum and female professionals amongst the less skilled and educated female workers that inequality can be manifested (Rubery, earn 14% less.

The largest difference is between male and female workers in the ‘Elementary Smith & Fagan, 1999:22).

Occupations’ where females earn 29% less than their male counterparts.
Education is the ‘main lever’ by which women are entering the high-level paid jobs but it is amongst the less skilled and educated female workers that inequality can be manifested (Rubery, Smith & Fagan, 1999:22).
Table 4.2 - Average gross annual salary for employees by main occupation: October-December 2010 Table 4.2 - Average gross annual salary for employees by main occupation: October-December 2010 Source: NSO 29 Sept 2011 Labour Force Survey: Q2/2011 Source: NSO 29 Sept 2011 Labour Force Survey: Q2/2011 Women uses different strategies when compared to men to participate in the labour market to be able to balance their paid and unpaid roles.Taking up lower paid and lower status jobs with low career prospects may be one strategy to enable them remain in the labour market rather than withdrawing Women use different strategies when compared to men to participate in the labour market to be completely.
Working part time and not being able to work overtime will alsol affect the take-home pay able to balance their paid and unpaid roles.

Taking up lower paid and lower status jobs with low apart from the nominal wage related to the job.

career prospects may be one strategy to enable them to remain in the labour market rather than The structuring of systems of pay determination may also reflect how women and men get their pay.

In withdrawing completely.


Working part time and not being able to work overtime will alsol affect a research study on the situation of women employees in the banking sector in Malta, Mercieca (1999) the take-home pay apart from the nominal wage related to the job.

argues that biased value is given to women’s and men’s work.
Within the non-clerical grades, a charwomaen (only females were engaged for this position) is paid less than a labourer or messenger (only males were engaged for this post) on the contention they the latter had to lift coin bags and cash tills.

Charwomen were, in the meantime, lifting buckets of water to clean and shopping bags with supplies for the staff.

Furthermore, a messenger had 26 incremental salary scales while a charwomen only 19.
The structuring of systems of pay determination may also reflect how women and men get their pay.

In a research study on the situation of women employees in the banking sector in Malta, Mercieca (1999) argues that biased value is given to women’s and men’s work.

Within the non- clerical grades, a charwoman (only females were engaged for this position) is paid less than a labourer or messenger (only males were engaged for this post) on the contention that the latter had to lift coin bags and cash tills.
Charwomen were, in the meantime, lifting buckets of water to clean and shopping bags with supplies for the staff.

Furthermore, a messenger had 26 incremental salary scales while a charwoman only 19.
129 Effects of social security benefits on decision to take up employment Full economic independence for women has yet to be attained in any country but in various countries some rates of progress towards equality have been noted these last 10 years due to changes in state policies that can influence the integration of women into the labour market (Rubery, Smith & Fagan, 1999).
Esping-Anderson (1990) developed a typology showing different welfare state regimes and how they influence employment patterns in the labour market.

He 126 National Commission for the Promotion of Equality classified welfare states into three types of regimes according to their de-commodification – the social-democratic, the conservative-corporatist and the liberal regimes.

Eventually a fourth regime, the Mediterranean model was introduced with specific socio-cultural similarities to the local context.
Lewis (1992) classified versions of breadwinner models as strong male breadwinner, modified male breadwinner and weak male breadwinner models.

Examples of countries typifying the strong breadwinner model are Ireland and Germany where wives are defined as dependent upon their spouse and are discouraged to work after marriage or motherhood.
The weak breadwinner model is found in the Scandinavian countries where each citizen irrespective of gender is considered as fit for work and considers taxation and social benefits on an individual basis.

The modified male breadwinner is one such as in France with a family based taxation system but high support for childcare.
Pfau-Effinger (1998, 1999) developed an alternative typology of breadwinner models which includes the concept of culture to explain cross-national differences found in the employment patterns of specific countries in relation to women’s position in work, motherhood and family.
Mosesdottir (1995) developed another comparative analytical framework for the typology of regimes: the Liberal (as in USA), the Ecclesiastic (as in Germany) and Egalitarian (as in Sweden), arguing that the factors operating in these contrasting types are the market, the religious organisations and socialist parties respectively having direct impact on gender relations.
While reforms in legislation and policies may have diminished the resilience of the male breadwinner model in a number of countries, in others, such as in Malta, the construction of gender roles and the ‘dual spheres’ ideology that defends the traditional family are still very much ingrained in the Maltese social fabric that the ‘provider role’ identity amongst men may prove too hard to weaken (Abela, 1991).
Spiteri (2007) included the interrelating aspects of religion and traditional family values to explain Maltese women’s experience of work and concluded that Malta should be located within a different typology of welfare regimes.

This would reflect a compromise between the Mediterranean, Liberal and Corporatist-Conservatist welfare concepts as devised in the Esping-Anderson (1990, 1999) typology of welfare regimes.
This was due to Malta’s social welfare system that has retained all the features that sustain the divided roles of a ‘providing’ husband and a ‘caring’ wife typical of Southern European countries with a comprehensive social welfare similar to the Anglo-Saxon model but then again, with policies that encourage motherhood similar to countries in the Corporatist-Conservatist regime.
Compared with other countries, Malta compares well in respect to the quality of life holding the 34th position (UNPD 2007, p. 234).

Social welfare in Malta is considered well-developed and has a good social safety net.

However, a number of shortcomings in the system still discriminate against women.
For example, since it is mainly men who are active in the labour market, men are the main contributors to the National Insurance Contributory Scheme paying regular specific contributions towards their pension.

Inactive women, who are performing unpaid work at home are excluded and can only benefit from the Non-Contributory scheme that is administered on financial means testing.
Women who have been providers of informal welfare can make claims to the welfare state through their relationship as members of an employee’s household and not regarded as ‘full citizens’, unlike men (Patemen, 1989).

Unemployment benefits in Malta are considered as quite generous and therefore may act as a disincentive for married women to move from unemployed or inactive, towards employment.
Another disincentive for a woman is the taxation system which may affect a husband’s household tax rate once she goes into employment.
Since social assistance and housing support mainly benefit low-income households, who are generally women with children, it becomes a main Unlocking the Female Potential - Research Report 127 disincentive to seek employment which leaves this category of women in a benefit trap where the difference between the minimum wage and the benefits are negligible (Camilleri-Cassar, 2009).
However a number of policies have been improved or implemented as incentives for Maltese women to return to the labour market or to retain their jobs, for example the choice of paying only 10% of the income earned in National Insurance especially if she earns less than the minimum wage, and parental leave, career breaks and reduced hours for employees within the public and private sector.
Another incentive is the introduction of tax credits for women returning to work and a one-year exemption from income tax when returning to work after an absence of 5 years, for every child under 16 years.
In a report on ‘Fiscal system and female employment’ in Malta, Camilleri-Cassar (2009, p. 3) explores the structures of the taxation system of Malta and argues that the ‘traditional gender arrangement is inescapably rooted in Malta’s welfare regime, and that fiscal policies tend to encourage the association of women with home and their dependency within marriage, such that Malta’s equality policies hang in the male breadwinner system, and obstacles hindering women’s advancement are obscured and remain’.
As long as the family is expected by the welfare state to be the major ‘service provider’ for care especially for children and the elderly rather than the state itself, the culturally constructed ideology of the ‘motherhood mandate’ will continue to perpetuate.

The Glass Ceiling and Glass Cliff effect If the statistics given for the female gainfully occupied in Malta are poor, those given for women holding high-level and managerial jobs are even more discouraging.
Despite legislative and social support towards gender equality, and despite the fact that women are achieving higher levels of education, only a very small number of women succeed in reaching the higher decision- making grades in their career, with the larger number of women employees clustered at the lower levels in employment which are usually the low-paid segregated feminised jobs.

This situation is prevalent in most countries but particularly more distinct in Malta.
Numerous researchers have found that, irrespective of the sector being studied, women are concentrated in certain occupational groupings and underrepresented in higher management grades.

The term ‘glass ceiling’ was first used in a special report in the Wall Street Journal in 1986 on the status of corporate women (Hymowitz & Schellhardt, 1986).
This term was coined to describe the existence of vertical sex segregation in organisation, and describes a transparent artificial career barrier, based on attitudinal or organisational prejudice that keeps women from rising above a certain level in organisations and from reaching their full potential (Morrison, White & Van Velsor, 1987).

This term is now used widely referring to the various structural, attitudinal and behavioural barriers.
This concept of having a ‘transparent’ barrier obstructing women or other minority groups from being promoted as far as they should is now used in a wide range of diversity issues such as ‘glass walls’, ‘sticky floors’, ‘glass escalators’, and ‘glass cliff’, the latter being the more recent term included in the political vocabulary.

Auster (1993) contends that a combination of gender biases occurs all the time and in all forms, both in covert and overt ways.
Oakley (2000) claims that all societies have a ‘glass ceiling’ and female chief executives are still very rare.

Vast literature has attempted to find explanations for this pervasive low representation of women at executive levels.
128 National Commission for the Promotion of Equality Research based on the influence of organisational structure, cultural factors, and sex and gender differences (Kanter, 1977; Riger & Galligan, 1980; Fawcett and Pringle, 2000; Cooper Jackson, 2001) suggests that the main barriers that affect women’s career advancement are both the organisational structures as well as the beliefs and attitudes held by the organisation including the perception that women are not being viewed as leaders.
Supporting theories to explain the glass ceiling are the biological and sociological theories that argue that women are socialised into socially constructed roles due to the development of personality traits and attitudes that are considered to conflict with the attributes of a manager.
For example women tend to be seen to have low confidence and low self esteem to apply for a managerial role or else they tend to be seen as reluctant to apply for senior posts due to lower aspirations and expectations coming from their attachment to their domestic role.

Oakley (2000) argues that the impact of gender-based behavioural dynamics should be observed.
She contends that even if research has found that there are actually more similarities and very few differences between female and male leaders, stereotypes create a cultural prejudice and persist in portraying women as less effective and men better suited to be leaders.

This situation presents a vicious circle since having so few women at the helm, very few female role models can help others to emulate for that position.
Others contend that a lack of women leaders affect their network building and their mentoring relationship (Fagenson & Jackson, 1993).

Other research identified other difficulties that hinder women’s advancement which include work and family conflict, insufficient career planning and subordinating a career in favour of the family (Becker, 1981; Gerson, 1985; Hakim, 2000).

Various commissions were set up to investigate the glass ceiling.
Amongst others, the Federal Glass Ceiling Commission (U.S.A.) confirmed that in 1992 women were particularly disadvantaged to reach senior positions (Cooper Jackson, 2001).

The European Commission established the ‘European Network of women in Decision-making Politics and the Economy as a platform to exchange ideas, experiences and good practice (European Commission, 2010).
The Commission also set up a database with data on women and men in decision-making as a follow-up to the Beijing Platform for Action which is freely accessible online.

In the UK the Equality and Human Rights Commission also confirmed the disadvantaged position of women to men due to their under-representation at senior levels but concentrated in administrative work (Metcalf & Rolfe, 2009).
A recent report issued by the European Commission (2010) brings to light this lack of women in economic decision making positions in Europe and confirms a prior EC report that puts Malta at the highest level of the Glass Ceiling index.
It is reported that Malta has less than one woman in every 20 board members, is the only country in the EU without any women MEPs, was one of the countries whose share of women in parliaments fell rather than increased, has never had any female ministers in the area of finance/economy as well as having an extreme gender imbalance as judges in the supreme courts.
This also confirms Mercieca’s study (1999) on the situation of women employees in the banking sector in Malta as well as Camilleri-Cassar’s report (2007) on women and politics in Malta.
A joint report (2007) issued by the National Statistics Office and the National Council of Women on the obstacles to the participation of women in decision-making positions also confirms that Maltese women find difficulties in reconciling long hours of work and family responsibilities but also reveals an interesting feature: to Maltese women job satisfaction seems to be more important than it does to men.
As mentioned, the term ‘glass cliff’ has been recently introduced with research looking into what happens when women and other minorities take on leadership roles associated with a greater risk of failure and criticism, thus ‘falling off’.

Ryan & Haslam (2005) identified this in a study on the Unlocking the Female Potential - Research Report 129 performance of women directors.

They claim that the ‘glass cliff is a robust phenomena that is not isolated to a particular context or participant group.
Importantly too, the fact that the studies allow us to hold constant key factors that might otherwise contribute to gender inequalities in the workplace (e.g.

ability and past experience), increases our confidence that gender has a causal role to play in the appointment of women to class cliff positions.’ The researchers contend that this research continues and is still under investigation.
In our local context, where the number of women succeeding in smashing the glass ceiling is already quite low, due to the low participation, high inactivity and overrepresentation in women in ‘sticky floors’ as discussed, the research on the existence of the glass cliff is still in its early stages.
Conclusion The purpose of the ‘Roadmap for Equality between women and men (2006-2010)’ was to drive the gender equality agenda forward, identifying priority areas including the equal economic independence for women and men and the promotion of women in decision-making.

The EC report pointed at the ‘outdated perceptions of the different roles of men and women in life and in work’; (2010, p.7) and stresses on the importance on a ‘shift in attitude and culture necessary to support change’.
Meanwhile, Spiteri (2007) contends that ‘although values and attitudes may have shifted in other countries, it is incorrect to assume that Malta will also go through similar changes and at the same pace’ and recommends caution not to overlook certain aspects that pertain to an insular island where the cultural expectations of full time motherhood are deeply rooted in Malta’s historical and religious background influencing women’s choices for employment.
The European Commission has adopted a gender equality strategy as a follow up to the Roadmap for Equality which failed to reach specific targets by 2010.

Key aims of the Europe 2020 Strategy include achieving an employment rate of 75% by 2015 for women and men and increasing the numbers of women in scientific research (EC 2010).

The review of the literature has presented various approaches to the situation of Maltese women in relation to their participation in paid labour and their economic independence.
To conclude, there can be grounds for a cautious optimism due to the changing economical and social contexts which could lead to a change in culture, attitudes and behaviours that will eventually enhance equality between women and men in Malta.
4.3 Research Methodology 4.3.1 Research Methodology In order to achieve the research objectives as set out in Section 4.1 above, the research methodology adopted comprised the following: • A thorough review of recent international and local literature and official international and national surveys conducted by recognised statistics bodies, i.e.

Eurostat - European Union, National Statistics Office - Malta, Employment & Training Corporation - Malta, etc.
• A robust qualitative research exercise involving a three-tier research study.

The objective of this thorough qualitative research phase was to obtain an ‘in-depth’ understanding of the relevance of economic independence to the Maltese (and Gozitan) female.

More specifically, this qualitative research phase focused on exploring whether the glass ceiling and glass cliff effect exists in Malta and, if yes, how this affects females in the labour market.
Also, the research aimed at assessing the relevance of ‘economic independence’ to the Maltese female and analysed the effect of social security benefits on women and men in their decision to take up employment or not.

130 National Commission for the Promotion of Equality • This qualitative stage also served as a platform which provided the context for the quantitative studies and insights on the salient issues and research areas that needed to be included in the subsequent quantitative stage.
The three tiers comprised: - Tier One: one-to-one personal interviews with 25 key stakeholders (Senior government officials; representatives from women associations, private sector employers and employer association officials, trade union and employees’ representatives; other relevant stakeholders).

Each personal interview took between 60-90 minutes.
The perceptions, attitudes and views of Key Stakeholders were examined on the following research areas: • the ‘glass ceiling’ – the factors hindering women from occupying top positions • the ‘glass cliff’ - the phenomenon of promoting women to positions at higher risk of failure • the meaning and relevance of the term ‘economic independence’ in the context of Malta • the impact of unemployment benefits on the decision to work.
- Tier Two: A total of 15 one-to-one personal interviews were conducted: seven of these with employed females (4 with Maltese Respondents and 3 with Gozitan Respondents), five with unemployed females (3 with Maltese Respondents and 2 with Gozitan Respondents), and 3 with unemployed males (2 with Maltese Respondents and 1 with a Gozitan Respondent).

Work designation of the employed Respondents varied from blue-collar workers, to secretarial/clerical or equivalent, to graduate managers.
- Tier Three: A total of six focus group sessions were held, which were organised accordingly: • 3 FGs with Maltese employed and unemployed females • 2 FGs with Gozitan employed and unemployed females • 1 FG with Maltese unemployed males.

The choice of participants for the FG sessions was based on pre-established FG respondent profiles in order to attain a balanced attendance: of various age groups, marital status and with or without caring responsibilities.
Gainfully employed FG respondents worked on full- time or part-time basis, or had the facility of working reduced hours, flexi-time or work from home; hailing from the public and private sectors and having a work designation varying from blue-collar to managerial.

Respondents for the FG with unemployed males comprised respondents who are currently registering with ETC or actively seeking employment, whose age varied between 18 - 60 years, single or married, with or without caring responsibilities.
Working towards the attainment of varied participation was imperative in the organisation of the focus group sessions in question as this in turn always leads to a discussion bearing dynamic proportions which results in a mixture of colourful and contrasting perspectives and opinions.
The opinions and views of Maltese and Gozitan employed/unemployed females and unemployed males were gauged during the personal interviews and focus group sessions, on the following research areas: • the woman’s role: Career development vs Caring responsibilities • the impact on women of caring responsibilities when pursuing a career • their own experience at the workplace • their perceptions and attitudes towards women in Managerial positions or in Business • their perceptions and attitudes towards “Economic Independence” • their experience, perceptions and attitudes towards “Social Security Benefits”.
Unlocking the Female Potential - Research Report 131 • A robust quantitative research exercise was then conducted.

This quantitative research study comprised three distinct quantitative research studies, namely: - Tier One: A quantitative research study with 600 females currently in paid employment, hailing from Malta and Gozo was conducted to analyse the extent of the glass ceiling and glass cliff effects on these women at their workplaces.
This 600-count frame ensures statistically significant findings at a confidence level of 95% at a confidence interval of +/-4.

The research approach adopted was by way of a 30-minute face-to-face interview.

The 600-count sample frame was divided in three categories, based on their existing job designation, namely, whether they currently hold an ‘elementary position’, a ‘service worker’ position or a middle-management/ management position.
Only one female per household was allowed to participate in this study.

- Tier Two: Yet another quantitative research study was conducted with at least 600 (607 actually conducted) female individuals who were selected on their existing employment status, i.e.

females who currently occupy an “elementary/ service worker” position; females who currently hold a “managerial position” and females who are either inactive or unemployed.
The same 95% statistically significant confidence levels at a +/-4 confidence interval were attained for this research study as well.

The research approach adopted was by way of a 30-minute face-to-face interview.

A good representation of respondents hailing from all ages between 15 – 59 years and from Malta’s six geographical regions (including Gozo) was attained.

Only one female per household was allowed to participate in this study.
- Tier Three: The third quantitative research study was conducted with at least 500 (535 interviews were actually conducted) with unemployed individuals.

This 535-count frame ensures statistically significant findings at a confidence level of 95% at a confidence interval of +/-4.23.

Of these respondents, 365 (68%) were male while 170 (32%) were female.

The majority of the male respondents aged between 35 - 64 years while the age of the females varied largely between 15 - 34 years.
The research approach adopted was by way of a 30-minute face-to-face interview.

The personal interviews were conducted in all of Malta’s six regions (including Gozo) and were conducted in the vicinity of the Employment and Training Corporation’s (ETC) and the Department of Social Services’ (DSS) job registration centres.
4.3.2 shortcomings of the Research study Throughout the whole course of the research study, no significant obstacles were encountered, however it may be observed that when the ‘unemployed’ survey respondents of the third research study (Tier Three) were asked to indicate the amount they are receiving in social security benefits, the findings are self-reported responses and the respondents were not asked to verify this by way of hard document evidence.
This is, of course, normal practice when conducting quantitative research studies on such ‘personal’ and ‘sensitive’ issues.

However, the Research Consultant assured that this will in no way affect the findings obtained, given the high statistical significance of the sample frame safeguarding against any margin of error.
Moreover, all the survey respondents were interviewed in person in the vicinity of ETC and DSS job registration centres, hence ensuring that the whole cohort is formally registering for work (but of course, not necessarily all receiving social security benefits).
4.4 Qualitative research -The salient Findings The role of the robust qualitative study conducted for this Project was to uncover salient views, perceptions and issues relating to the relevance of economic independence to the Maltese female, the concepts of ‘glass ceiling’ and ‘glass cliff’ and how the effect of these are affecting females in the Maltese labour market and to also explore the effect of social security benefits on Maltese women and men in their decision to take up employment or not.
The semi-structured interview / focus group moderator discussion guide research instruments produced for this qualitative research phase were designed to elicit the views of key stakeholders, employed women and unemployed 132 National Commission for the Promotion of Equality men and women and gain insights on the research objectives from a variety of perspectives – personal, institutional, governmental, sociological, and psychological.
Clearly, the research findings identified at this qualitative research phase elicited a number of salient issues and patterns, which were then, in turn, addressed in the quantitative phase with a larger sample of employed women and from unemployed men and women respondents.

These issues and research areas are presented below.

Mixed feelings were expressed by Respondents regarding their perceptions and attitudes towards the women’s role and career development vs caring responsibilities.
It results that some Respondents perceived that children should always be given priority over work and career and that it is essential for a mother to remain home with the children until they reach the age of three, during which time a strong bond is established between the child and the mother.

On the other hand, it was argued that the earnings by the women lessened the burden of the male breadwinner, which saves the husband/ father from the need to perform a second job.
Also it was claimed that a mother of young children should go out to work to attain personal well-being, self- esteem, to socialise, and not miss out on career opportunities.

It was perceived by some Maltese and all Gozitan Respondents that having children does influence a woman’s decision on whether to pursue a career in high level employment or otherwise.

The main challenge was balancing family and work in a manner which does not result in low performance in either or in both.
It was pointed out that without good support from the family it would not be possible for a woman to be able to cope with the responsibilities which having children and being in employment entail.

The majority of Maltese Respondents communicated that they returned to employment after one or two years of having children, working on part-time basis or reduced hours to accommodate their child-caring responsibilities.
Relatives and friends were mainly relied on to take care of the children while they were at work; few found their husband’s support or whose husband became a house-husband.

Child-caring responsibilities did not lead to the mother’s declining training opportunities, however mothers did lose job opportunities/ promotions due to these responsibilities.
Irrespective of whether the female is in employment or otherwise, it was generally perceived that household chores remain a woman’s responsibility; however the element of sharing tasks was reported as present in some households.

The work aspects considered by a female with child-minding responsibilities when applying for a job change, largely with regards to the availability of flexible hours, work life balance measures and less stress on the job.
Before, these were replaced by other priorities namely job security, job challenges and job satisfaction.

Gender discrimination was experienced at the workplace through ‘inappropriate’ questions posed during interviews, unfair treatment, the denial of job promotions and sexual harassment.

It was expressed that in spite of the advancement of women in education, the number of males occupying managerial positions remains higher in comparison.
The existence of psychological and cultural barriers could not be excluded as factors which hinder Maltese women from occupying managerial positions at the workplace.

Also women are always seen as actual or prospective mothers, and thus having ‘split priorities’.

Furthermore, some respondents observed that male networking systems at workplaces seem to exclude women with the result that women lacked recommendations when it came to head hunting or finding the right appointee for a high level position.
It was perceived ‘unlikely’ to find companies in Malta where women are promoted in ‘line management’ positions or senior managerial positions if they didn’t have the necessary skills.

Unlocking the Female Potential - Research Report 133 Although the meaning of ‘economic independence’ differs according to marital status, due to diverse objectives, being ‘economically independent’ affects positively a woman’s well-being, dignity and empowerment.
It was perceived that a high level of education is conducive in helping a woman become ‘economically independent’.

Economic independence enables a woman to make her own decisions and have a freer hand in improving the standard of living for herself, her husband/ partner and their children.
It was also expressed that women tend to regard the attainment of ‘economic independence’ in the short-term and fail to understand its validity on long-term, namely the availing of a pension scheme and financial security in the case of marriage breakdown, injury/ death of spouse.
Unemployment social security benefits influence both males and females’ decision on whether to actively look for a job or not – the reason for this being the minor financial difference that exists between the unemployment social security benefit and the minimum wage.

The existing difference was too small to act as an incentive for the woman to find employment.

Some Respondents indicated that it is unfair that eligibility of unemployment benefits depends on the valuable possessions one might have.
On the other hand, the low minimum wage was perceived as insufficient to sustain a family and have a good quality of life, and it acted as an incentive for many unemployed people to carry out informal work while on benefits.

4.5 Quantitative Research – salient Findings This section highlights the salient findings which emerged from three quantitative research studies.
As indicated in Section 4.1 above, this Project comprised three distinct Activities, with each Activity having specific research objectives.

Section 4.5.1 below illustrates the quantitative research findings for Activity I.

Activity I comprised a quantitative research study conducted with Maltese and Gozitan women in paid employment, hailing from operative, middle-management and senior management positions.

Section 4.5.2 encompasses the research findings of Activity II.
This Activity also comprised a quantitative research study with three cohorts of Maltese and Gozitan women; one cohort is in paid employment; one cohort is currently unemployed and the third cohort consisted of inactive females.

Section 4.5.3 presents the research findings of Activity III.

Activity III consisted of another quantitative research study, but this time the survey respondent cohort consisted of unemployed men and women hailing from Malta and Gozo.
Although some of the respondent profile sub-cohorts of the three Activities overlap, it must be noted that the survey respondents participating in the three studies are ALL different, i.e.

an individual could not participate in more than one survey.

The quantitative research findings of each of these three Activities now follow.
4.5.1 ACTIVITY I - Analysing the Glass Ceiling and Glass Cliff and how this affects Females in the Labour Market The following findings emerge from the quantitative research study with employed females occupying different job positions at their workplace.

134 National Commission for the Promotion of Equality I. Respondent Profile designation, Age, Marital status, Level of Education and socio-Economic status A total of 600 employed females were interviewed for this research study.
101 (17%) of these respondents occupy an ‘elementary position’ which encompasses the following job designations: elementary position, plant and machine operator or assembler.

254 (42%) of the survey respondents occupy a ‘service worker’ position, which encompasses the following designations: service worker, shop and sales worker, clerk, craft & related trades worker, skilled agricultural and fishery worker.
While, 245 (41%) respondents hold a middle management/ management position, which covers the following designations: technician, associate professional, professional, legislator, senior official and manager.

54% of (322 respondents) respondents are aged between 15 - 34 years and 46% of (278 respondents) respondents are aged between 35 - 64 years.

More than 46% of (278 respondents) of the total survey respondent cohort are married, while 41% (248 respondents) of the respondents are single.
The survey respondents of the younger age group are largely single, while the older age group are largely married.

The majority of the survey respondents occupying an elementary occupation hold a secondary level of education, those holding a service worker position either possess a secondary or post- secondary level of education, while the majority of the females in higher positions either possess a tertiary or post-graduate level of education.
Teaching, Management/ Commerce/ Marketing/ Accounts, Sciences and Languages are the major studies in which females in paid employment choose to further their education at tertiary education.

The households of 38.5% (231 respondents) of the respondents fall within the AB socio- economic classification, another 35.5% (213 respondents) fall in the C1C2 category and 19% (112 respondents) fall in the DE category.
The DE category is mostly characterised by survey respondents who occupy an elementary position, while the households of the survey respondents holding a managerial position fall primarily in the AB category.

business sector Employed in, Employment basis and salary As Table 4.3 below shows, the survey respondents occupying an elementary occupation are mainly engaged in the ‘Hospitality and Tourism’ and ‘Retail and Wholesale’ sectors.
Meanwhile, those occupying a service worker position are primarily involved in the ‘Retail and Wholesale’ sector and in the ‘Education’ sector.

Moreover, the ‘Education’, ‘Health and Social Care’ and ‘Financial and Business Activities’ are the sectors in which females in middle management/ management positions are largely engaged in.

Of the 600 interviewed females, 69.5% (417 respondents) are employed in the private sector and 30.5% (183 respondents) are employed within the public sector.
It is worthy of mention that the female survey respondents hailing from the public sector hold a high designation and very few of them hold an elementary occupation.

Almost 48% (287 respondents) of the survey respondents indicated that they are employed on a full-time basis and work normal office hours.

This was followed by 19% (114 respondents) of the respondents, who stated that they are employed on a part-time basis.
A finding emerged that only few females who hold a middle management/ management position, are employed on a part-time basis.
Unlocking the Female Potential - Research Report 135 TABLE 4.3 – Business Sector Engaged in Counts Break % Respondents Total Manufacturing Financial: Banks, Financial Interm ediation, Insurance, Business Services Retail and Wholesale Construction and Real Estate Hospitality and Tourism Transport and Com m unications: Transport, Telecom m s, ICT com panies Public Adm inistration Education Health and Social Care Refused Total 600 36 6.0% 70 11.7% 118 19.7% 4 0.7% 85 14.2% 32 5.3% 43 7.2% 110 18.3% 92 15.3% 10 1.7% Elem entary Occupation- Service Worker- Middle Managem ent/ Managem ent- 15 - 34 yrs 35 - 64 yrs 15 - 34 yrs 35 - 64 yrs 15 - 34 yrs 35 - 64 yrs 50 15 30.0% - - 11 22.0% - - 15 30.0% 1 2.0% 1 2.0% 1 2.0% 5 10.0% 1 2.0% 51 4 7.8% - - 10 19.6% - - - - 11 8.3% 9 6.8% 7 5.3% 33 25.0% 30 22.7% - - 113 6 5.3% 19 16.8% 8 7.1% 1 0.9% 15 13.3% 5 4.4% 10 8.8% 29 25.7% 20 17.7% - - Of the 600 interviewed females, 69.5% (417 respondents) are employed in the private sector and 30.5% (183 respondents) are employed within the public sector.
It is worthy of mention that the female survey The majority of the employees holding an elementary position and a service worker position earn respondents hailing from the public sector hold a high designation and very few of them hold an a gross salary of less than s10,000 annually, while those occupying managerial positions earn elementary occupation.

between s15,000 and s20,000 (gross) per annum.


Almost 48% (287 respondents) of the survey respondents indicated that they are employed on a full-time basis and work normal office hours.

This was followed by 19% (114 respondents) of the respondents, Promotions at the Current workplace and Past Employment who stated that they are employed on a part-time basis.
A finding emerged that only few females who A rather worrying 65% (392 respondents) of the respondents claimed that they never applied for hold a middle management/ management position, are employed on a part-time basis.

or showed interest in a job promotion with their current employer or with past employers.

The main reason behind this is the lack of interest from the respondents’ part to do so.
In fact, this The majority of the employees holding an elementary position and a service worker position earn a gross salary less than €10,000 annually, while those occupying managerial positions earn between €15,000 and was the reason mentioned by a high 40% (157 respondents) of these 392 survey interviewees, in €20,000 (gross) per annum.

particular respondents holding an elementary position.

Table 4.4 below shows this finding in more detail.


Promotions at the Current Workplace and Past Employment A rather worrying 65% (392 respondents) of the respondents claimed that they never applied for or An also high 68.5% (411 respondents) of the survey respondents claimed that since they have showed interest in a job promotion with their current employer or with past employers.

The main reason been employed with their current employer, they never received a promotion.
This was indicated behind this is the lack of interest from the respondents’ part to do so.

In fact, this was the reason by almost all respondents who occupy an elementary position and by the majority of the mentioned by a high 40% (157 respondents) of these 392 survey interviewees, in particular respondents respondents who occupy a service worker or managerial position, aged between 15 - 34 years.

holding an elementary position.

Table 4.4 below shows this finding in more detail.


TABLE 4.4 – Reasons For Not Applying For a Job Promotion 34.5% (207 respondents) of the total survey cohort stated that they have been employed with the current employer for over seven years.

This was primarily stated by those who hold a managerial position and are between 35 - 64 years of age.

Following, 24% (144 respondents) pointed out that they have been employed by their current employer from one to three years.
In this case, this was mainly mentioned by the younger age group of respondents irrespective of the job position they hold.
139 136 National Commission for the Promotion of Equality TABLE 4.4 – Reasons For Not Applying For a Job Promotion Counts Break % Respondents Total Did not have the necessary qualifications Did not have the necessary skills Did not have the experience required for the job The prom otion required m ore com m itm ent, responsibility and longer hours w hich could not be taken up by Respondent Refrained due to caring responsibilities Was not interested Other Don't know / Don't rem em ber Refused Total 392 36 9.2% 7 1.8% 33 8.4% 26 6.6% 18 4.6% 157 40.1% 118 30.1% 18 4.6% 5 1.3% Elem entary Occupation- Service Worker- Middle Managem ent/ Managem ent- 15 - 34 yrs 35 - 64 yrs 15 - 34 yrs 35 - 64 yrs 15 - 34 yrs 35 - 64 yrs 37 6 16.2% 1 2.7% 1 2.7% 44 8 18.2% 2 4.5% - - 103 8 7.8% - - 14 13.6% 78 5 6.4% 2 2.6% 2 2.6% 75 3 4.0% 2 2.7% 15 20.0% 55 6 10.9% - - 1 1.8% 3 8.1% 3 6.8% 5 4.9% 10 12.8% 3 4.0% 2 3.6% 1 2.7% 20 54.1% 5 13.5% 2 5.4% - - 1 2.3% 21 47.7% 13 29.5% 1 2.3% 1 2.3% 4 3.9% 39 37.9% 35 34.0% 3 2.9% - - 7 9.0% 29 37.2% 24 30.8% 5 6.4% 1 1.3% - - 28 37.3% 22 29.3% 3 4.0% 1 1.3% 5 9.1% 20 36.4% 19 34.5% 4 7.3% 2 3.6% An also high 68.5% (411 respondents) of the survey respondents claimed that since they have been employed with their current employer, they never received a promotion.
This was indicated by almost all respondents who occupy an elementary position and by the majority of the respondents who occupy a service worker or managerial position, aged between 15 - 34 years.

62% (370 respondents) of the total survey respondents indicated that they held another job before the current one.

This was stated by all survey respondents irrespective of their occupation 34.5% (207 respondents) of the total survey cohort stated that they have been employed with the current type.
From Table 4.5 below, one observes that when those respondents, who currently hold an employer for over seven years.

This was primarily stated by those who hold a managerial position and elementary occupation, changed jobs, they maintained the same level of employment.

With are between 35 - 64 years of age.


Following, 24% (144 respondents) pointed out that they have been regards to the service workers interviewed, the majority of these also maintained the same level of employed by their current employer from one to three years.

In this case, this was mainly mentioned by the younger age group of respondents irrespective of the job position they hold.

employment when they switched jobs.


On the other hand, a good number of those who currently hold a managerial position, held a lower grade of employment before switching to their current employment.

62% (370 respondents) of the total survey respondents indicated that they held another job before the current one.

This was stated by all survey respondents irrespective of their occupation type.
From Table 4.5 below, one observes that when those respondents, who currently hold an elementary occupation, changed jobs, they maintained the same level of employment.

With regards to the service workers interviewed, the majority of these also maintained the same level of employment when they switched jobs.

On the other hand, a good number of those who currently hold a managerial position, held a lower grade of employment before switching to their current employment.
TABLE 4.5 – Previous Designation Held by The Survey Respondents Counts Break % Respondents Elem entary Occupation- Service Worker- Middle Managem ent/ Managem ent- Total TABLE 4.5 – Previous Designation Held by The Survey Respondents 15 - 34 yrs 35 - 64 yrs 15 - 34 yrs 35 - 64 yrs 15 - 34 yrs Total Elem entary Occupation Plant and Machine Operator/ Assem bler Craft & related Trades Worker Skilled Agricultural & Fishery Worker Service Worker/ Shop & Sales Worker Clerk Technician/ Associate Professional Professional Legislator/ Senior Official/ Manager Refused 370 55 14.9% 33 8.9% 6 1.6% 1 0.3% 130 35.1% 73 19.7% 8 2.2% 46 12.4% 16 4.3% 2 0.5% 31 12 38.7% 10 32.3% - - - - 9 29.0% - - - - - - - - - - 32 17 53.1% 4 12.5% 2 6.3% - - 7 21.9% 1 3.1% - - 1 3.1% - - - - 87 6 6.9% 6 6.9% 1 1.1% - - 47 54.0% 21 24.1% 1 1.1% 4 4.6% 1 1.1% - - 79 11 13.9% 7 8.9% 2 2.5% - - 29 36.7% 22 27.8% 3 3.8% 2 2.5% 2 2.5% 1 1.3% 82 9 11.0% 2 2.4% - - 1 1.2% 27 32.9% 13 15.9% 3 3.7% 23 28.0% 3 3.7% 1 1.2% 140 35 - 64 yrs 59 - - 4 6.8% 1 1.7% - - 11 18.6% 16 27.1% 1 1.7% 16 27.1% 10 16.9% - - II.
The Presence of Glass Ceiling and Glass Cliff Effects Unlocking the Female Potential - Research Report 137 The Glass Ceiling Effect A high 71% (427 respondents) of the aggregate 600 survey respondents observed that they have never heard of instances where a working woman without caring responsibilities (and with the necessary qualifications, skills and ability) was not chosen for a managerial position or was not given a promotion.
Respondents indicating this hail from different age groups, occupying different levels of designations and possessing different levels of education.

Figures 4.1 and 4.2 depict these findings in detail.
FIGURE 4.1 – Respondents’ Perceptions on the Presence of the Glass Ceiling Effect on Working Women Without Caring Responsibilities – By Age & Occupation 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 s r y 4 3 - 5 1 s r y 4 6 - 5 3 s r y 4 6 - 5 3 s r y 4 3 - 5 1 s r y 4 6 - 5 3 Elementary Occupation- Service Worker- Middle Management/ Management- s r y 4 3 - 5 1 Yes No Don't know/ Don't remember Refused 141 Counts Break % Respondents Total Elem entary Occupation Plant and Machine Operator/ Assem bler Craft & related Trades Worker Skilled Agricultural & Fishery Worker Service Worker/ Shop & Sales Worker Clerk Technician/ Associate Professional Professional Elem entary Occupation- Service Worker- Middle Managem ent/ Managem ent- 15 - 34 yrs 35 - 64 yrs 15 - 34 yrs 35 - 64 yrs 15 - 34 yrs 35 - 64 yrs 13.9% 11.0% 12.5% 6.9% 8.9% 2.4% 6.8% 6.3% 1.1% 2.5% 1.7% Total 370 55 14.9% 33 8.9% 6 1.6% 1 0.3% 130 35.1% 73 19.7% 8 2.2% 31 12 38.7% 10 32.3% - - - - 9 29.0% - - - - 32 17 53.1% 4 2 - - 7 21.9% 1 3.1% - - 87 6 6.9% 6 1 - - 47 54.0% 21 24.1% 1 1.1% 79 11 7 2 - - 29 36.7% 22 27.8% 3 3.8% 2 2.5% 82 9 2 - - 1 1.2% 27 32.9% 13 15.9% 3 3.7% 23 28.0% 59 - - 4 1 - - 11 18.6% 16 27.1% 1 1.7% 16 27.1% II.
The Presence of Glass Ceiling and Glass Cliff Effects 46 12.4% - - 1 3.1% 4 4.6% - - - - Refused 2 0.5% The Glass Ceiling Effect Legislator/ Senior 16 Official/ Manager 4.3% A high 71% (427 respondents) of the aggregate 600 survey respondents observed that they have - - never heard of instances where a working woman without caring responsibilities (and with the necessary qualifications, skills and ability) was not chosen for a managerial position or was not given a promotion.
Respondents indicating this hail from different age groups, occupying different levels of designations and possessing different levels of education.

Figures 4.1 and 4.2 depict The Glass Ceiling Effect these findings in detail.

II.
II.

The Presence of Glass Ceiling and Glass Cliff Effects 1 1.3% 1 1.2% 10 16.9% 2 2.5% 1 1.1% 3 3.7% - - - - - - A high 71% (427 respondents) of the aggregate 600 survey respondents observed that they have never heard of instances where a working woman without caring responsibilities (and with the necessary qualifications, skills and ability) was not chosen for a managerial position or was not given a promotion.
Respondents indicating this hail from different age groups, occupying different levels of designations and possessing different levels of education.

Figures 4.1 and 4.2 depict these findings in detail.
FIGURE 4.1 – Respondents’ Perceptions on the Presence of the Glass Ceiling Effect on Working FIGURE 4.1 – Respondents’ Perceptions on the Presence of the Glass Ceiling Effect on Women Without Caring Responsibilities – By Age & Occupation Working Women Without Caring Responsibilities – By Age & Occupation 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 s r y 4 3 - 5 1 s r y 4 6 - 5 3 s r y 4 3 - 5 1 s r y 4 6 - 5 3 s r y 4 3 - 5 1 s r y 4 6 - 5 3 Elementary Occupation- Service Worker- Middle Management/ Management- Yes No Don't know/ Don't remember Refused 141 FIGURE 4.2 – Respondents’ Perceptions on the Presence of the Glass Ceiling Effect on Working FIGURE 4.2 – Respondents’ Perceptions on the Presence of the Glass Ceiling Effect on Women Without Caring Responsibilities – By Level of Education Working Women Without Caring Responsibilities – By Level of Education 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 - t s o P y r a i t e T e t a u d a r g - t s o P d e s u f e R Yes No Don't know/ Don't remember Refused Mixed feelings were expressed by the survey respondents when these were asked to indicate how much the glass ceiling affects Maltese working women without caring responsibilities.
In fact, 35% (209 138 respondents) of the respondent stated that the glass ceiling effect is not present, however 29% (173 respondents) of the respondents replied in the positive, while another 20% (118 respondents) indicated that they do not know and 16.5% (99 respondents) mentioned that this moderately affects working women National Commission for the Promotion of Equality without caring responsibilities.
It is worthy of mention that those who hold a managerial position and those who possess a post-graduate level of education tend to agree more than the other respondents that the situation where a working woman without caring responsibilities is not promoted exists among the Maltese female working population.

Tables 4.6 and 4.7 illustrate this finding in more detail.
TABLE 4.6 – Respondents’ Perceptions on the Degree of Presence of the Glass Ceiling Effect on Working Women Without Caring Responsibilities – by Occupation and Age Bracket Counts Break % Respondents Total No, not at all So and so No Yes Yes, very m uch Don't know / Don't rem em ber Refused Total 600 37 6.2% 172 28.7% 99 16.5% 150 25.0% 23 3.8% 118 19.7% 1 0.2% Elem entary Occupation- Service Worker- Middle Managem ent/ Managem ent- 15 - 34 yrs 35 - 64 yrs 15 - 34 yrs 35 - 64 yrs 15 - 34 yrs 35 - 64 yrs 50 - - 12 13 12 24.0% 26.0% 24.0% 3 6.0% 10 20.0% - - 51 2 14 3.9% 27.5% 5 9.8% 13 25.5% 3 5.9% 14 27.5% - - 29.3% 30.7% 11.4% 15.8% 140 13 9.3% 41 16 33 23.6% 5 3.6% 31 22.1% 1 0.7% 114 10 8.8% 35 18 25 21.9% 2 1.8% 24 21.1% - - 132 6 4.5% 28.0% 37 25 18.9% 32 24.2% 9 6.8% 23 17.4% - - 113 6 5.3% 29.2% 19.5% 33 22 35 31.0% 1 0.9% 16 14.2% - - 142 FIGURE 4.2 – Respondents’ Perceptions on the Presence of the Glass Ceiling Effect on Working Women Without Caring Responsibilities – By Level of Education 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 - t s o P y r a i t e T e t a u d a r g - t s o P d e s u f e R No Yes Don't know/ Don't remember Mixed feelings were expressed by the survey respondents when these were asked to indicate how much the glass ceiling affects Maltese working women without caring responsibilities.
In fact, 35% (209 respondents) of the respondents stated that the glass ceiling effect is not present, however 29% (173 respondents) of the respondents replied in the positive, while another 20% (118 respondents) indicated that they do not know and 16.5% (99 respondents) mentioned that this moderately affects working women without caring responsibilities.
It is worthy of mention Mixed feelings were expressed by the survey respondents when these were asked to indicate how much that those who hold a managerial position and those who possess a post-graduate level of the glass ceiling affects Maltese working women without caring responsibilities.
In fact, 35% (209 education tend to agree more than the other respondents that the situation where a working respondents) of the respondent stated that the glass ceiling effect is not present, however 29% (173 woman without caring responsibilities is not promoted exists among the Maltese female working respondents) of the respondents replied in the positive, while another 20% (118 respondents) indicated population.

Tables 4.6 and 4.7 illustrate this finding in more detail.
that they do not know and 16.5% (99 respondents) mentioned that this moderately affects working women without caring responsibilities.

It is worthy of mention that those who hold a managerial position and those who possess a post-graduate level of education tend to agree more than the other respondents that the situation where a working woman without caring responsibilities is not promoted exists among the Maltese female working population.

Tables 4.6 and 4.7 illustrate this finding in more detail.
Refused TABLE 4.6 – Respondents’ Perceptions on the Degree of Presence of the Glass Ceiling Effect on Working Women Without Caring Responsibilities – by Occupation and Age Bracket TABLE 4.6 – Respondents’ Perceptions on the Degree of Presence of the Glass Ceiling Effect on Working Women Without Caring Responsibilities – by Occupation and Age Bracket Counts Break % Respondents Total No, not at all No So and so Yes Yes, very m uch Don't know / Don't rem em ber Refused Total 600 37 6.2% 172 28.7% 99 16.5% 150 25.0% 23 3.8% 118 19.7% 1 0.2% Elem entary Occupation- Service Worker- Middle Managem ent/ Managem ent- 15 - 34 yrs 35 - 64 yrs 15 - 34 yrs 35 - 64 yrs 15 - 34 yrs 35 - 64 yrs 50 - - 12 24.0% 13 26.0% 12 24.0% 3 6.0% 10 20.0% - - 51 2 3.9% 14 27.5% 5 9.8% 13 25.5% 3 5.9% 14 27.5% - - 140 13 9.3% 41 29.3% 16 11.4% 33 23.6% 5 3.6% 31 22.1% 1 0.7% 114 10 8.8% 35 30.7% 18 15.8% 25 21.9% 2 1.8% 24 21.1% - - 132 6 4.5% 37 28.0% 25 18.9% 32 24.2% 9 6.8% 23 17.4% - - 113 6 5.3% 33 29.2% 22 19.5% 35 31.0% 1 0.9% 16 14.2% - - TABLE 4.7 – Respondents’ Perceptions on the Degree of Presence of the Glass Ceiling Effect on Working Women Without Caring Responsibilities – by Level of Education TABLE 4.7 – Respondents’ Perceptions on the Degree of Presence of the Glass Ceiling Effect on Working Women Without Caring Responsibilities – by Level of Education 142 Counts Break % Respondents Total No, not at all No So and so Yes Yes, very m uch Don't know / Don't rem em ber Refused Total 600 37 6.2% 172 28.7% 99 16.5% 150 25.0% 23 3.8% 118 19.7% 1 0.2% No form al education Prim ary Secondary Post- Secondary Tetiary Post- graduate Refused 3 - - 1 33.3% - - 1 33.3% - - 12 1 8.3% 3 25.0% 1 8.3% 4 33.3% - - 1 33.3% 3 25.0% - - - - 223 13 5.8% 71 31.8% 36 16.1% 44 19.7% 8 3.6% 51 22.9% - - 154 12 7.8% 46 29.9% 21 13.6% 39 25.3% 7 4.5% 28 18.2% 1 0.6% 121 4 3.3% 30 24.8% 26 21.5% 31 25.6% 5 4.1% 25 20.7% - - 86 7 8.1% 21 24.4% 15 17.4% 31 36.0% 3 3.5% 9 10.5% - - 1 - - - - - - - - - - 1 100.0% - - According to the survey respondents, the
 glass ceiling effect is more present among working females who have caring responsibilities than among those without caring responsibilities.
In fact, 23% (138 respondents) of the respondents pointed out that they heard of instances where a working woman with 139 caring responsibilities (who possesses the required qualifications, skills and abilities) was not chosen for a managerial position or was not given a job promotion because she has such responsibilities.

This was primarily stated by survey respondents occupying senior management positions and by those who possess a post-graduate level of education, as Tables 4.8 and 4.9 below show.
Unlocking the Female Potential - Research Report TABLE 4.8 – Respondents’ Perceptions on the Degree of Presence of the Glass Ceiling Effect on Working Women With Caring Responsibilities – by Occupation and Age Bracket TABLE 4.9 - Respondents’ Perceptions on the Degree of Presence of the Glass Ceiling Effect on Working Women With Caring Responsibilities – by Level of Education Counts Break % Respondents Total Yes No Don't know / Don't rem em ber Refused Counts Break % Respondents Total Yes No Don't know / Don't rem em ber Refused Total 600 138 23.0% 383 63.8% 77 12.8% 2 0.3% Total 600 138 23.0% 383 63.8% 77 12.8% 2 0.3% 50 10 31 8 1 2.0% 3 - - 2 1 - - Elem entary Occupation- Service Worker- Middle Managem ent/ Managem ent- 15 - 34 yrs 35 - 64 yrs 15 - 34 yrs 35 - 64 yrs 15 - 34 yrs 35 - 64 yrs 20.0% 15.7% 62.0% 68.6% 67.1% 67.5% 16.0% 15.7% 10.0% 12.3% 140 32 22.9% 94 14 - - 114 23 20.2% 77 14 - - 132 35 26.5% 59.8% 79 17 12.9% 1 0.8% 113 30 26.5% 59.3% 14.2% 67 16 - - 51 8 35 8 - - No form al education Prim ary Secondary Tetiary Refused Post- Secondary Post- graduate 66.7% 75.0% 62.8% 51.2% 16.7% 20.7% 37.2% 12 2 9 1 - - 223 47 21.1% 147 65.9% 29 13.0% - - 154 32 20.8% 105 68.2% 16 10.4% 1 0.6% 121 25 76 19 1 0.8% 86 32 44 10 - - 33.3% 8.3% 15.7% 11.6% 100.0% 1 - - - - - - 1 143 TABLE 4.7 – Respondents’ Perceptions on the Degree of Presence of the Glass Ceiling Effect on Working Women Without Caring Responsibilities – by Level of Education Counts Break % Respondents No form al education Post- Secondary Post- graduate 3 12 600 121 223 154 Total Total No Yes No Total Tetiary Refused 1 8.3% 13 5.8% 37 Total 6.2% 4 Tetiary 3.3% 7 Post- 8.1% graduate - No form al - education 12 Post- 7.8% Secondary Counts Break % Respondents 1 3 33.3% - - - - 1 1 33.3% 33.3% - - - - 1 1 33.3% 33.3% - - - - 1 33.3% 3 12 25.0% 1 1 8.3% 8.3% 3 4 25.0% 33.3% 1 - 8.3% - 4 3 33.3% 25.0% - - - - 3 25.0% Prim ary Secondary According to the survey respondents, the glass ceiling effect is more present among working TABLE 4.7 – Respondents’
 Perceptions on the Degree of Presence of the Glass Ceiling Effect on Working Women Without Caring Responsibilities – by Level of Education females who have caring responsibilities than among those without caring responsibilities.
In 1 86 fact, 23% (138 respondents) of the respondents pointed out that they heard of instances where - No, not at all Prim ary Secondary Refused - a working woman with caring responsibilities (who possesses the required qualifications, skills - 172 and abilities) was not chosen for a managerial position or was not given a job promotion because 1 600 - 28.7% she has such responsibilities.
This was primarily stated by survey respondents occupying senior - 37 - 99 No, not at all So and so - 6.2% management positions and by those who possess a post-graduate level of education, as Tables 4.8 - 16.5% - 172 and 4.9 below show.
- 150 - 28.7% - 25.0% - 99 - 23 So and so A rather worrying 37% (222 respondents) of the survey respondents communicated that the Yes, very m uch - 16.5% - 3.8% glass ceiling effect exists for working women with caring responsibilities within the company - 150 1 Don't know / Don't 118 Yes - 25.0% they work for, 31.5% (189 respondents) indicated that this situation does not exist, 17.5% (105 100.0% rem em ber 19.7% - 23 respondents) mentioned that they do not know and 14% (83 respondents) observed that this - 1 Yes, very m uch Refused - 3.8% - 0.2% situation moderately exists at their workplace.
It is interesting to note that the opinion expressed 1 Don't know / Don't 118 that the glass ceiling exists among females with caring responsibilities within the company they 100.0% rem em ber 19.7% According to the survey respondents, the glass ceiling effect is more present among working females who work for was mostly mentioned by working females who hold a managerial position and who are have caring responsibilities than among those without caring responsibilities.

In fact, 23% (138 young in age.


This same opinion was expressed by those working females who possess a tertiary respondents) of the respondents pointed out that they heard of instances where a working woman with level of education.
This finding is highlighted in Tables 4.10 and 4.11. caring responsibilities (who possesses the required qualifications, skills and abilities) was not chosen for a According to the survey respondents, the glass ceiling effect is more present among working females who managerial position or was not given a job promotion because she has such responsibilities.

This was have caring responsibilities than among those without caring responsibilities.
In fact, 23% (138 primarily stated by survey respondents occupying senior management positions and by those who respondents) of the respondents pointed out that they heard of instances where a working woman with possess a post-graduate level of education, as Tables 4.8 and 4.9 below show.
caring responsibilities (who possesses the required qualifications, skills and abilities) was not chosen for a TABLE 4.8 – Respondents’ Perceptions on the Degree of Presence of the Glass Ceiling Effect managerial position or was not given a job promotion because she has such responsibilities.
This was TABLE 4.8 – Respondents’ Perceptions on the Degree of Presence of the Glass Ceiling Effect on Working Women With Caring Responsibilities – by Occupation and Age Bracket primarily stated by survey respondents occupying senior management positions and by those who on Working Women With Caring Responsibilities – by Occupation and Age Bracket possess a post-graduate level of education, as Tables 4.8 and 4.9 below show.
Middle Managem ent/ Managem ent- 21 86 24.4% 7 15 8.1% 17.4% 21 31 24.4% 36.0% 15 3 17.4% 3.5% 31 9 36.0% 10.5% 3 - 3.5% - 9 10.5% 30 121 24.8% 4 26 3.3% 21.5% 30 31 24.8% 25.6% 26 5 21.5% 4.1% 31 25 25.6% 20.7% 5 - 4.1% - - 3.6% - 51 22.9% Elem entary Occupation- Service Worker- 1 0.6% 1 0.2% Refused - - - - - - - - - - - - Total Counts Break % TABLE 4.8 – Respondents’ Perceptions on the Degree of Presence of the Glass Ceiling Effect Respondents 35 - 64 yrs on Working Women With Caring Responsibilities – by Occupation and Age Bracket 51 113 Middle Managem ent/ Managem ent- 35 26.5% 15 - 34 yrs 79 59.8% 132 140 Service Worker- 32 22.9% 15 - 34 yrs 94 67.1% 140 23 20.2% 35 - 64 yrs 77 67.5% 114 30 26.5% 35 - 64 yrs 67 59.3% 113 10 20.0% 15 - 34 yrs 31 62.0% 50 8 15.7% 35 - 64 yrs 35 68.6% 51 Counts Break % Respondents Elem entary Occupation- 383 63.8% 600 138 Total 23.0% 15 - 34 yrs 35 - 64 yrs 15 - 34 yrs 15 - 34 yrs 35 - 64 yrs No Total Total Yes 600 114 132 50 Don't know / Don't Yes rem em ber Refused No 77 138 12.8% 23.0% 2 383 0.3% 63.8% 8 10 16.0% 20.0% 1 31 2.0% 62.0% 8 8 15.7% 15.7% - 35 - 68.6% 14 32 10.0% 22.9% - 94 - 67.1% 14 23 12.3% 20.2% - 77 - 67.5% 17 35 12.9% 26.5% 1 79 0.8% 59.8% 16 30 14.2% 26.5% - 67 - 59.3% Don't know / Don't rem em ber 77 12.8% 8 16.0% 8 15.7% 14 10.0% 14 12.3% 17 12.9% 16 14.2% Refused TABLE 4.9 - Respondents’ Perceptions on the Degree of Presence of the Glass Ceiling Effect on Working 1 Women With Caring Responsibilities – by Level of Education 0.8% Counts No form al Post- TABLE 4.9 - Respondents’ Perceptions on the Degree of Presence of the Glass Ceiling Effect on Break % education Secondary Respondents TABLE 4.9 - Respondents’ Perceptions on the Degree of Presence of the Glass Ceiling Effect on Working Working Women With Caring Responsibilities – by Level of Education Women
 With Caring Responsibilities – by Level of Education 3 Prim ary Secondary Post- graduate 1 2.0% 2 0.3% Refused Tetiary Total Total 223 121 600 154 12 86 - - - - - - - - 1 Counts Break % Respondents Yes No Total Don't know / Don't Yes rem em ber No Refused Don't know / Don't rem em ber Refused 138 Total 23.0% 383 600 63.8% 138 77 23.0% 12.8% 383 2 63.8% 0.3% 77 12.8% 2 0.3% - No form al - education 2 3 66.7% - 1 - 33.3% 2 - 66.7% - 1 33.3% - - 2 16.7% 47 21.1% Prim ary Secondary 9 12 75.0% 2 1 16.7% 8.3% 9 - 75.0% - 1 8.3% - - 147 223 65.9% 47 29 21.1% 13.0% 147 - 65.9% - 29 13.0% - - 32 Post- 20.8% Secondary 25 Tetiary 20.7% 32 Post- 37.2% graduate - Refused - - 51.2% - 10 11.6% - - - 1 - - 1 - 100.0% - - - - 1 100.0% - - 143 143 140 National Commission for the Promotion of Equality A rather worrying 37% (222 respondents) of the survey respondents communicated that the glass ceiling effect exists for working women with caring responsibilities within the company they work for, 31.5% (189 A rather worrying 37% (222 respondents) of the survey respondents communicated that the glass ceiling respondents) indicated that this situation does not exist, 17.5% (105 respondents) mentioned that they do effect exists for working women with caring responsibilities within the company they work for, 31.5% (189 not know and 14% (83 respondents) observed that this situation moderately exists at their workplace.
It is respondents) indicated that this situation does not exist, 17.5% (105 respondents) mentioned that they do interesting to note that the opinion expressed that the glass ceiling exists among females with caring not know and 14% (83 respondents) observed that this situation moderately exists at their workplace.
It is responsibilities within the company they work for was mostly mentioned by working females who hold a interesting to note that the opinion expressed that the glass ceiling exists among females with caring managerial position and who are young in age.

This same opinion was expressed by those working responsibilities within the company they work for was mostly mentioned by working females who hold a females who possess a tertiary level of education.
This finding is highlighted in Tables 4.10 and 4.11 below.

managerial position and who are young in age.

This same opinion was expressed by those working TABLE 4.10 – Respondents’ Perceptions on the Degree of Presence of the Glass Ceiling Effect on females who possess a tertiary level of education.
This finding is highlighted in Tables 4.10 and 4.11 Working Women With Caring Responsibilities – Within their Company by Occupation and Age Bracket TABLE 4.10 – Respondents’ Perceptions on the Degree of Presence of the Glass Ceiling Effect on Working below.
Women With Caring Responsibilities – by Occupation and Age Bracket TABLE 4.10 – Respondents’ Perceptions on the Degree of Presence of the Glass Ceiling Effect on Working Women With Caring Responsibilities – by Occupation and Age Bracket Elem entary Occupation- Service Worker- Total Counts Break % Respondents Middle Managem ent/ Managem ent- 15 - 34 yrs 35 - 64 yrs Elem entary Occupation- 50 51 15 - 34 yrs 35 - 64 yrs Service Worker- 114 140 15 - 34 yrs 35 - 64 yrs Middle Managem ent/ Managem ent- 132 113 15 - 34 yrs 1 2.0% 5 35 - 64 yrs 9.8% 13 15 - 34 yrs 9.3% 35 - 64 yrs 8 7.0% 9 15 - 34 yrs 6.8% 12 35 - 64 yrs 10.6% Counts Break % Respondents Total No, not at all Total No No, not at all So and so No Yes So and so Yes, very m uch Yes Don't know / Don't rem em ber Yes, very m uch Refused 600 Total 48 8.0% 600 141 23.5% 48 8.0% 83 13.8% 141 23.5% 184 30.7% 83 38 13.8% 6.3% 184 105 30.7% 17.5% 38 1 6.3% 0.2% Don't know / Don't rem em ber 105 17.5% 1 0.2% Refused Counts Break % Respondents 50 13 26.0% 1 2.0% 9 18.0% 13 26.0% 17 34.0% 9 1 18.0% 2.0% 17 9 34.0% 18.0% 1 - 2.0% - 9 18.0% - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 7.9% - 27 19.3% - - 114 31 27.2% 8 7.0% 18 15.8% 31 27.2% 33 28.9% 18 4 15.8% 3.5% 33 20 28.9% 17.5% 4 - 3.5% - 132 26 19.7% 9 6.8% 17 12.9% 26 19.7% 46 34.8% 17 14 12.9% 10.6% 46 20 34.8% 15.2% 14 - 10.6% - 113 27 23.9% 12 10.6% 21 18.6% 27 23.9% 29 25.7% 21 6 18.6% 5.3% 29 25.7% 18 15.9% 6 5.3% - - 20 17.5% - - 20 15.2% - - Post- graduate 18 15.9% - - - - Refused TABLE 4.11 – Respondents’ Perceptions on the Degree of Presence of the Glass Ceiling Effect on Working Women With Caring Responsibilities – by Level of Education Prim ary Secondary TABLE 4.11 – Respondents’ Perceptions on the Degree of Presence of the Glass Ceiling Effect on Working 86 Women With Caring Responsibilities – by Level of Education TABLE
 4.11 – Respondents’ Perceptions on the Degree of Presence of the Glass Ceiling Effect on Working Women With Caring Responsibilities – Within their Company by Level of Education 12 Refused Tetiary Total Total 600 223 121 154 3 1 No form al education Post- Secondary No, not at all Counts Break % Respondents No Total So and so No, not at all Yes No Yes, very m uch So and so Don't know / Don't rem em ber Yes Refused Yes, very m uch 48 8.0% Total 141 23.5% 600 83 48 13.8% 8.0% 184 30.7% 141 23.5% 38 6.3% 83 13.8% 105 17.5% 184 30.7% 1 0.2% 38 6.3% No form al education 1 33.3% 3 - - - - 2 1 66.7% 33.3% 2 66.7% 1 8.3% 19 8.5% Prim ary Secondary 2 16.7% 12 - 1 - 8.3% 5 2 41.7% 16.7% - - - - 4 5 33.3% 41.7% - - - - 66 29.6% 223 24 19 10.8% 8.5% 63 66 28.3% 29.6% 7 24 3.1% 10.8% 43 63 19.3% 28.3% 1 0.4% 7 3.1% 14 Post- 9.1% Secondary 39 25.3% 154 21 14 13.6% 9.1% 44 39 28.6% 25.3% 12 21 7.8% 13.6% 24 44 15.6% 28.6% - - 12 7.8% 9 7.4% Tetiary 18 14.9% 121 26 9 21.5% 7.4% 32 18 26.4% 14.9% 9 26 7.4% 21.5% 27 32 22.3% 26.4% - - 9 7.4% 5 Post- 5.8% graduate 15 17.4% 86 12 5 14.0% 5.8% 38 15 44.2% 17.4% 10 12 11.6% 14.0% 6 7.0% 38 44.2% - - 10 11.6% - - - - - - - - - - 1 - - - - - - - - - - 1 - 100.0% - Don't know / Don't rem em ber A mere 1% (6 respondents) of the aggregate respondents stated that they had applied for a job promotion at their place of work and were not chosen because of their gender, this was stated by survey respondents holding different job positions.
Another 1% (7 respondents) claimed that they were not 1 100.0% 24 15.6% 4 33.3% 27 22.3% 43 19.3% 105 17.5% 6 7.0% - - - - 1 0.4% - - - - - - Refused 1 0.2% A mere 1% (6 respondents) of the aggregate respondents stated that they had applied for a job promotion at their place of work and were not chosen because of their gender, this was stated by survey respondents holding different job positions.
Another 1% (7 respondents) claimed that they were not 144 144 A mere 1% (6 respondents) of the aggregate respondents stated that they had applied for a job promotion at their place of work and were not chosen because of their gender, this was stated by survey respondents holding different job positions.

Another 1% (7 respondents) claimed that they were not chosen for a job promotion because of their caring responsibilities.
These respondents currently hold either a service worker position or a managerial position.

Moreover, the level of education is not a contributing factor among these respondents who have been discriminated against.

Only few of these survey respondents indicated that they took action against this discrimination and those who did, either sued the company or resigned from the company they worked for.
Unlocking the Female Potential - Research Report 141 chosen for a job promotion because of their caring responsibilities.

These respondents currently hold either a service worker position or a managerial position.

Moreover, the level of education is not a The Glass Cliff Effect contributing factor among these respondents who have been discriminated against.
Only few of these Only 7% (40 respondents) of the 600 working females interviewed claimed that they are aware survey respondents indicated that they took action against this discrimination and those who did, either sued the company or resigned from the company they worked for.

of instances where a woman was put in a managerial position, where there was a higher risk of failure.

These survey respondents hold different designations, hail from different age groups and different levels of education.
Figures 4.3 and 4.4 below highlight this finding.

The Glass Cliff Effect Only 7% (40 respondents) of the 600 working females interviewed claimed that they are aware of instances where a woman was put in a managerial position, where there was a higher risk of failure.

These survey respondents hold different designations, hail from different age groups and different levels of education.

Figures 4.3 and 4.4 below highlight this finding.
FIGURE 4.3 - Respondents’ Perceptions on the Presence of the Glass Cliff Effect on Women in Managerial Positions – by Occupation and Age Bracket FIGURE 4.3 - Respondents’ Perceptions on the Presence of the Glass Cliff Effect on Women in Managerial Positions – by Occupation and Age Bracket 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 s r y 4 3 - s r y 4 6 - 5 1 5 3 Elementary Occupation- s r y 4 3 - 5 1 s r y 4 6 - 5 3 s r y 4 3 - 5 1 s r y 4 6 - 5 3 Service Worker- Middle Management/ Management- Yes No Don't know/ Don't remember Refused FIGURE 4.4 - Respondents’ Perceptions on the Presence of the Glass Cliff Effect on Women in Managerial Positions – by Level of Education FIGURE 4.4 - Respondents’ Perceptions on the Presence of the Glass Cliff Effect on Women in Managerial Positions – by Level of Education 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 - t s o P y r a i t e T e t a u d a r g - t s o P 145 d e s u f e R Yes No Don't know/ Don't remember Refused The majority (52% - 311 respondents) of the survey respondents, irrespective of their current designation, age and level of education, stated that situations of glass cliff do not exist in the company they work for.
This was followed by 25.5% (153 respondents) who stated that they do not know if such situations exist, by 14.5% (87 respondents) of the respondents who gave a positive response and by 8% (48 respondents) who said that such situations moderately exist at their workplace.

This is illustrated in Tables 4.12 and 4.13 below.
National Commission for the Promotion of Equality 142 TABLE 4.12 – Respondents’ Perceptions on the Degree of Presence of the Glass Cliff Effect on Women in Managerial Positions – by Occupation and Age Bracket Counts Break % Respondents Total No, not at all So and so No Yes Yes, very m uch Don't know / Don't rem em ber Refused Total 600 75 12.5% 236 39.3% 48 8.0% 78 13.0% 9 1.5% 153 25.5% 1 0.2% Elem entary Occupation- Service Worker- Middle Managem ent/ Managem ent- 15 - 34 yrs 35 - 64 yrs 15 - 34 yrs 35 - 64 yrs 15 - 34 yrs 35 - 64 yrs 50 5 21 10.0% 51 4 22 7.8% 42.0% 43.1% 10.0% 7.8% 12.0% 17.6% 2.0% 12 24.0% 2.0% 11 21.6% 4 9 1 - - 5 6 1 - - 140 18 12.9% 54 38.6% 8 5.7% 22 15.7% 2 1.4% 36 25.7% - - 114 15 13.2% 45 39.5% 6 5.3% 10 8.8% 1 0.9% 36 31.6% 1 0.9% 132 19 14.4% 36.4% 48 16 15 12.1% 11.4% 4 3.0% 30 22.7% - - 113 14 12.4% 46 40.7% 9 8.0% 16 14.2% 28 24.8% - - - - TABLE 4.13 – Respondents’ Perceptions on the Degree of Presence of the Glass Cliff Effect on Women in Managerial Positions – by Level of Education 146 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 - t s o P Yes y r a i t e T e t a u d a r g - t s o P d e s u f e R No Don't know/ Don't remember The majority (52% - 311 respondents) of the survey respondents, irrespective of their current designation, age and level of education, stated that situations of glass cliff do not exist in the company they work for.
This was followed by 25.5% (153 respondents) who stated that they do not know if such situations exist, by 14.5% (87 respondents) of the respondents who gave a positive response and by 8% (48 respondents) who said that such situations moderately exist at The majority (52% - 311 respondents) of the survey respondents, irrespective of their current designation, their workplace.

This is illustrated in Tables 4.12 and 4.13 below.


age and level of education, stated that situations of glass cliff do not exist in the company they work for.

This was followed by 25.5% (153 respondents) who stated that they do not know if such situations exist, by 14.5% (87 respondents) of the respondents who gave a positive response and by 8% (48 respondents) who said that such situations moderately exist at their workplace.

This is illustrated in Tables 4.12 and 4.13 below.
Refused TABLE 4.12 – Respondents’ Perceptions on the Degree of Presence of the Glass Cliff Effect TABLE 4.12 – Respondents’ Perceptions on the Degree of Presence of the Glass Cliff Effect on Women in Managerial Positions – by Occupation and Age Bracket on Women in Managerial Positions – by Occupation and Age Bracket Counts Break % Respondents Total No, not at all No So and so Yes Yes, very m uch Don't know / Don't rem em ber Refused Total 600 75 12.5% 236 39.3% 48 8.0% 78 13.0% 9 1.5% 153 25.5% 1 0.2% Elem entary Occupation- Service Worker- Middle Managem ent/ Managem ent- 15 - 34 yrs 35 - 64 yrs 15 - 34 yrs 35 - 64 yrs 15 - 34 yrs 35 - 64 yrs 50 5 10.0% 21 42.0% 5 10.0% 6 12.0% 1 2.0% 12 24.0% - - 51 4 7.8% 22 43.1% 4 7.8% 9 17.6% 1 2.0% 11 21.6% - - 140 18 12.9% 54 38.6% 8 5.7% 22 15.7% 2 1.4% 36 25.7% - - 114 15 13.2% 45 39.5% 6 5.3% 10 8.8% 1 0.9% 36 31.6% 1 0.9% 132 19 14.4% 48 36.4% 16 12.1% 15 11.4% 4 3.0% 30 22.7% - - 113 14 12.4% 46 40.7% 9 8.0% 16 14.2% - - 28 24.8% - - TABLE 4.13 – Respondents’ Perceptions on the Degree of Presence of the Glass Cliff Effect on Women in Managerial Positions – by Level of Education TABLE 4.13 – Respondents’ Perceptions on the Degree of Presence of the Glass Cliff Effect on Women in Managerial Positions – by Level of Education Counts Break % Respondents Total No, not at all No So and so Yes Yes, very m uch Don't know / Don't rem em ber Refused Total 600 75 12.5% 236 39.3% 48 8.0% 78 13.0% 9 1.5% 153 25.5% 1 0.2% No form al education Prim ary Secondary Post- Secondary Tetiary Post- graduate Refused 146 3 - - 1 33.3% - - - - - - 2 66.7% - - 12 1 8.3% 4 33.3% 1 8.3% 5 41.7% - - 1 8.3% - - 223 21 9.4% 99 44.4% 17 7.6% 23 10.3% 3 1.3% 59 26.5% 1 0.4% 154 22 14.3% 62 40.3% 8 5.2% 18 11.7% 3 1.9% 41 26.6% - - 121 19 15.7% 40 33.1% 13 10.7% 17 14.0% 2 1.7% 30 24.8% - - 86 12 14.0% 30 34.9% 9 10.5% 15 17.4% 1 1.2% 19 22.1% - - 1 - - - - - - - - - - 1 100.0% - - III.
Factors Hindering Women from Occupying Managerial Positions Caring Responsibilities As Figure 4.5 shows, a total of 255 respondents (42.5%) pointed out that they currently have caring responsibilities, almost all of them having child related responsibilities (as opposed to dependent-adult responsibilities).

These survey respondents are largely those whose age falls in the 35 - 64 years 143 bracket.
An important finding emerged in that the survey respondents occupying a managerial position are the working females, who least have caring responsibilities, followed by those employed in an elementary designation and by Service Workers.

The majority of the respondents, who have child caring responsibilities, either have one or two children to take care of.
Unlocking the Female Potential - Research Report FIGURE 4.5 – Caring Responsibilities of Working Women 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 s r y 4 3 - 5 1 s r y 4 6 - 5 3 s r y 4 3 - 5 1 s r y 4 6 - 5 3 s r y 4 3 - 5 1 s r y 4 6 - 5 3 Elementary Occupation- Service Worker- Middle Management/ Management- Yes, Currently with caring responsibilities Yes, Past caring responsibilities No, never had caring responsibilities Refused 147 III.
Factors Hindering women from Occupying Managerial Positions Caring Responsibilities As Figure 4.5 shows, a total of 255 respondents (42.5%) pointed out that they currently have caring responsibilities, almost all of them having child related responsibilities (as opposed to dependent-adult responsibilities).

These survey respondents are largely those whose age falls in the 35 - 64 years bracket.
An important finding emerged in that the survey respondents occupying Refused Prim ary Secondary a managerial position are the working females, who least have caring responsibilities, followed by those employed in an elementary designation and by Service Workers.

The majority of the respondents, who have child caring responsibilities, either have one or two children to take care of.
Post- Secondary No form al education Post- graduate 19 15.7% 12 14.0% 75 12.5% 22 14.3% No, not at all 1 8.3% 21 9.4% Tetiary Counts Break % Respondents Total Total 600 154 121 223 86 12 - - - - 1 3 - - No So and so 48 8.0% 1 33.3% 99 44.4% 62 40.3% 236 39.3% 30 4 34.9% 33.3% Almost 15% (88 respondents) indicated that during the job interview for their current 1 employment, they were asked questions on their plans and commitments related to their personal 8.3% lives.
53% (47 respondents) of these 88 survey respondents recalled that the question (related to - their personal lives) asked most frequently at their recruitment interview related to whether they - had children or not.

Moreover, more than 36% (32 respondents) were asked whether they were - Yes, very m uch - planning on getting married while 31% (27 respondents) recalled that they were asked whether 1 2 Don't know / Don't they planned on having children.
100.0% 66.7% rem em ber Yes - - - - - - - - - - - - Refused 1 0.2% - The 305 respondents who currently have or had caring responsibilities were asked whether they - had such responsibilities while they were employed by their current employer.

It results that 77% (235 respondents) of the respondents gave a positive response.
Among these respondents were 110 respondents (81.5%) who hold a service worker position, 45 respondents (79%) who hold an elementary position and 80 respondents (71%) who occupy a managerial position.

1 0.4% - - - - - - - - III.


Factors Hindering Women from Occupying Managerial Positions Caring Responsibilities Child-minding support provided by grandparents is the most used child-minding arrangement As Figure 4.5 shows, a total of 255 respondents (42.5%) pointed out that they currently have caring by working mothers.
Indeed, this was mentioned by 52.5% (134 respondents) of the 255 survey responsibilities, almost all of them having child related responsibilities (as opposed to dependent-adult respondents who currently have caring responsibilities.

The husband/ partner sharing child responsibilities).

These survey respondents are largely those whose age falls in the 35 - 64 years care responsibilities was the second most mentioned child-minding arrangement by the same bracket.
An important finding emerged in that the survey respondents occupying a managerial position are the working females, who least have caring responsibilities, followed by those employed in an elementary designation and by Service Workers.

The majority of the respondents, who have child caring responsibilities, either have one or two children to take care of.
FIGURE 4.5 – Caring Responsibilities of Working Women FIGURE 4.5 – Caring Responsibilities of Working Women 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 s r y 4 3 - s r y 4 6 - 5 1 5 3 Elementary Occupation- s r y 4 3 - 5 1 s r y 4 6 - 5 3 s r y 4 3 - 5 1 s r y 4 6 - 5 3 Service Worker- Middle Management/ Management- Yes, Currently with caring responsibilities Yes, Past caring responsibilities No, never had caring responsibilities Refused 144 National Commission for the Promotion of Equality 147 respondents; this was mentioned by 20% (50 respondents) of the survey respondents with caring responsibilities.
The latter two arrangements were equally mentioned by survey respondents occupying different designations.

Almost 39% (19 respondents) of the 49 respondents who had caring responsibilities in the past communicated that they were not in paid employment while they still had caring responsibilities.

This was followed by 22% (11 respondents) who stated that the grandparents used to take care of the children when they were at work.
A very high 78% (223 respondents) of the 286 survey respondents, who either currently have caring responsibilities or had similar responsibilities in the past, while being in employment, conveyed that they are either satisfied or completely satisfied with their child-minding arrangements.
This was observed by 83% (91 respondents) of those respondents occupying a managerial position, by 77% (37 respondents) of those holding an elementary position and by 75% (95 respondents) of those occupying a Service Worker position.

As Table 4.14 below shows, for more than 40% (115 respondents) of the same 286 respondents, having caring responsibilities did not affect their employment and they maintained the same job and working hours.
Interestingly, this was primarily indicated by those holding a high position, followed by Service Workers and by those holding an elementary position.

Following, 20% (58 respondents) of these respondents stated that they reduced the working hours but maintained the same employment when they had caring responsibilities.

This was indicated largely by survey respondents holding an elementary occupation.
TABLE 4.14 – The Impact of Caring Responsibilities on Women in Paid Employment Counts Break % Respondents Total Elem entary Occupation- Service Worker- Middle Managem ent/ Managem ent- 15 - 34 yrs 35 - 64 yrs 15 - 34 yrs 35 - 64 yrs 15 - 34 yrs 35 - 64 yrs Total 286 11 38 36 91 10 3.5% 1 9.1% 1 2.6% 5 5.5% 1 2.8% 2 5.6% 21 - - 89 2 2.2% 8 9.0% - - 6 15.8% 15 16.5% 4 19.0% Yes, I changed the job for a less dem anding one, w orking hours rem ained the sam e Yes, I changed the job for a less dem anding one and have also reduced the w orking hours Yes, I reduced the w orking hours but m aintained the sam e em ploym ent No, I chose m y career to accom odate any future caring responsibilities No, I m aintained the sam e job and w orking hours No, I did not w ork at the tim e Don't know / Don't rem em ber Refused - - - - 6 15.8% 11 28.9% 4 10.5% 1 2.6% - - 4 11.1% 19 52.8% 2 5.6% - - - - 7 7.7% 31 34.1% 13 14.3% 1 1.1% 3 3.3% 4 19.0% 9 42.9% - - - - - - 5 5.6% 42 47.2% 11 12.4% 3 3.4% 1 1.1% The 305 respondents, who currently have or had in the past caring responsibilities, were then asked to specify the aspects they looked for in a job before having such responsibilities.
28.5% (87 respondents) stated that they first considered the salary being offered.

This was claimed mainly by the respondents at 145 an elementary occupation.

Another 24% (73 respondents) specified that they considered how much the job inspired them.

In this case, this was mainly stated by those occupying a managerial position.

This is shown in Table 4.15 below.


Unlocking the Female Potential - Research Report It is important to note that the 294 respondents, who never had caring responsibilities, also consider the salary offered as the first most important aspect in a job, followed by how much the job inspires them.

Once again, the salary aspect was mainly stated by those occupying an elementary position while the second aspect was mentioned primarily by those occupying a middle management/ management position.
TABLE 4.15 – Aspects Taken Into Consideration By Women When Looking For a Job Prior To Having Caring Responsibilities 149 The 305 respondents who currently have or had in the past caring responsibilities, were then asked to specify the aspects they looked for in a job before having such responsibilities.

28.5% (87 respondents) stated that they first considered the salary being offered.

This was claimed mainly by the respondents at an elementary occupation.
Another 24% (73 respondents) specified that they considered how much the job inspired them.

In this case, this was mainly stated by those occupying a managerial position.

This is shown in Table 4.15.

It is important to note that the 294 respondents who never had caring responsibilities, also consider the salary offered as the first most important aspect in a job, followed by how much the job inspires them.
Once again, the salary aspect was mainly stated by those occupying an elementary position while the second aspect was mentioned primarily by those occupying a middle management/ management position.

A significant 48% (146 respondents) of the 305 interviewees remarked that the aspects they looked for in a job did not change when they had caring responsibilities.

Nevertheless, another 34% (104 respondents) claimed that these aspects changed.
Respondents hold different levels of designations and also hail from different age groups.

Out of the 104 respondents, 74% (77 respondents) stated that they started looking at the ‘working hours’ aspect after having caring responsibilities while 35% (36 respondents) indicated that they started looking at the position’s ‘flexi-time’ aspect.

An also significant 59% (180 respondents) of the 305 respondents recalled that they did not receive any job promotions during the time they had caring responsibilities.
This was mainly observed by those holding an elementary occupation and by the service workers respondents.

Meanwhile, another 25% (76 respondents) indicated that they did receive a job promotion when they had caring responsibilities.

These were largely respondents who currently hold a managerial position.
TABLE 4.15 – Aspects Taken into Consideration by Women when Looking for a Job prior to Having Caring Responsibilities Counts Break % Respondents Total How m uch the job inspired m e The career developm ents I w ould have available How challenging the job w as The w orking hours The salary being offered Other I never looked for a job before having caring responsibilities Don't know / Don't rem em ber Refused Total 305 73 23.9% 31 10.2% 22 7.2% 57 18.7% 87 28.5% 15 4.9% 10 3.3% 7 2.3% 3 1.0% Elem entary Occupation- Service Worker- Middle Managem ent/ Managem ent- 15 - 34 yrs 35 - 64 yrs 15 - 34 yrs 35 - 64 yrs 15 - 34 yrs 35 - 64 yrs 11 - - - - - - 4 36.4% 6 54.5% - - 1 9.1% - - - - - - 1 2.7% - - - - - - 2 9.1% - - 91 31 34.1% 16 17.6% 9 9.9% 5 5.5% 22 24.2% 5 5.5% 2 2.2% 1 1.1% - - A significant 48% (146 respondents) of the 305 interviewees remarked that the aspects they looked for in a job did not change when they had caring responsibilities.
Nevertheless, another 34% (104 respondents) claimed that these aspects changed.

Respondents hold different levels of designations and also hail from 146 different age groups.

Out of the 104 respondents, 74% (77 respondents) stated that they started looking at the ‘working hours’ aspect after having caring responsibilities while 35% (36 respondents) indicated that they started looking at the position’s ‘flexi-time’ aspect.
National Commission for the Promotion of Equality An also significant 59% (180 respondents) of the 305 respondents recalled that they did not receive any job promotions during the time they had caring responsibilities.

This was mainly observed by those holding an elementary occupation and by the service workers respondents.

Meanwhile, another 25% (76 respondents) indicated that they did receive a job promotion when they had caring responsibilities.
These were largely respondents who currently hold a managerial position.

Almost 11% (31 respondents) of the 295 respondents, who have or had caring responsibilities and were in employment during this time, recalled that they refused a job promotion due to their caring responsibilities.

Moreover, 14% (40 respondents) of these same respondents also recalled that they refused the opportunity of attending training programme/s due to their caring responsibilities.
These survey respondents were largely those who either hold a service worker position or a managerial position.

A positive 87% (524 respondents) of the aggregate 600 female survey respondents recalled that they have never been discriminated against due to their gender or motherhood.

Nevertheless, more than 6% (38 respondents) stated that they have been discriminated against because of being a woman while 4% (23 respondents) claimed that they have been discriminated against because of being a mother.
This discrimination is primarily felt among respondents who hold a high position, followed by those who hold a service worker position and by those who are elementary workers.

A high 67% (400 respondents) of the respondents agree that caring responsibilities do influence a woman’s decision on whether to pursue a career or not.

Respondents making this observation occupy different levels of designations and hail from different age groups.
150 Almost 11% (31 respondents) of the 295 respondents, who have or had caring responsibilities and were in employment during this time, recalled that they refused a job promotion due to their caring responsibilities.

Moreover, 14% (40 respondents) of these same respondents also recalled that they refused the opportunity of attending training programme/s due to their caring responsibilities.

These survey respondents were largely those who either hold a service worker position or a managerial position.
A positive 87% (524 respondents) of the aggregate 600 female survey respondents recalled that they have never been discriminated against due to their gender or motherhood.

Nevertheless, more than 6% (38 respondents) stated that they have been discriminated against because of being a woman while 4% (23 respondents) claimed that they have been discriminated against because of being a mother.
This discrimination is primarily felt among respondents who hold a high position, followed by those who hold a service worker position and by those who are elementary workers.

A high 67% (400 respondents) of the respondents agree that caring responsibilities do influence a woman’s decision on whether to pursue a career or not.

Respondents making this observation occupy different levels of designations and hail from different age groups.
More than half (52% - 311 respondents) of the respondents indicated that at current workplace, female employees with caring responsibilities are considered for job promotions in a fair manner.

An interesting finding emerges that this was indicated by 57% (140 respondents) of those occupying a managerial position at work, followed by 51.5% (131 respondents) of the service workers and by 40% (40 respondents) of those occupying an elementary position.
An encouraging 49% (295 respondents) of the aggregate survey respondents communicated that the company they work for offers other family-friendly measures over and above those stipulated by law.

This was primarily stated by those who hold a managerial position, followed by those who hold a service worker position and by those who hold an elementary occupation.

Reduced hours and flexi-time are the two family-friendly measures mostly offered by employers.
More specifically, 78% (230 respondents) of the 295 respondents mentioned reduced hours while 58% (171 respondents) of the same respondents mentioned flexi-hours.

Out of the 120 respondents interviewed who currently have caring responsibilities and whose employer offers family friendly measures, 27.5% (33 respondents) indicated that they are making use of the reduced hours measure, while 23% (28 respondents) specified that they are presently making use of the flexi-hours measure.
These measures are made use of mostly by respondents occupying a middle-management/ management position.

39.5% (237 respondents) of the survey respondents observed that when an employee makes use of family-friendly measures, he/she has a lesser chance of occupying a managerial position.

As Table 4.16 below illustrates, this was stated by respondents at all job levels.
Conversely, another 34% (202 respondents) of the respondents stated that this is not the case and those who avail themselves of family-friendly measures have the same chances of occupying managerial positions as those who do not.

40% (240 respondents) of the respondents indicated that when a woman becomes a mother, she has a lesser chance of occupying a managerial position.
Those occupying an elementary occupation and those who occupy a service worker position were the respondents who observed this the most.

Nevertheless, another 36% (217 respondents) are of the opinion that motherhood does not have an effect on the chances of occupying a managerial designation.
Unlocking the Female Potential - Research Report 147 More than half (52% - 311 respondents) of the respondents indicated that at current workplace, female employees with caring responsibilities are considered for job promotions in a fair manner.

An interesting finding emerges that this was indicated by 57% (140 respondents) of those occupying a managerial position at work, followed by 51.5% (131 respondents) of the service workers and by 40% (40 respondents) of those occupying an elementary position.
An encouraging 49% (295 respondents) of the aggregate survey respondents communicated that the company they work for offers other family-friendly measures over and above those stipulated by law.

This was primarily stated by those who hold a managerial position, followed by those who hold a service worker position and by those who hold an elementary occupation.

Reduced hours and flexi-time are the two family-friendly measures mostly offered by employers.
More specifically, 78% (230 respondents) of the 295 respondents mentioned reduced hours while 58% (171 respondents) of the same respondents mentioned flexi-hours.

Out of the 120 respondents interviewed, who currently have caring responsibilities and whose employer offers family friendly measures, 27.5% (33 respondents) indicated that they are making use of the reduced hours’ measure, while 23% (28 respondents) specified that they are presently making use of the flexi-hours measure.
These measures are made use of mostly by respondents occupying a middle- management/ management position.

39.5% (237 respondents) of the survey respondents observed that when an employee makes use of family-friendly measures, he/she has a lesser chance of occupying a managerial position.

As Table 4.16 below illustrates, this was stated by respondents at all job levels.
Conversely, another 34% (202 respondents) of the respondents stated that this is not the case and those who avail themselves of family- friendly measures have the same chances of occupying managerial positions as those who do not.
TABLE 4.16 – The Chances of Occupying a Managerial Position when Male and Female Employees Avail Themselves of FFMs TABLE 4.16 – The Chances of Occupying a Managerial Position When Male and Female Employees Avail Themselves of FFMs Counts Break % Respondents Total No, not at all No So and so Yes Yes, very m uch Don't know / Don't rem em ber Refused Total 600 39 6.5% 163 27.2% 108 18.0% 191 31.8% 46 7.7% 52 8.7% 1 0.2% Elem entary Occupation- Service Worker- Middle Managem ent/ Managem ent- 15 - 34 yrs 35 - 64 yrs 15 - 34 yrs 35 - 64 yrs 15 - 34 yrs 35 - 64 yrs 50 1 2.0% 12 24.0% 13 26.0% 16 32.0% 4 8.0% 4 8.0% - - 51 1 2.0% 11 21.6% 9 17.6% 20 39.2% 1 2.0% 9 17.6% - - 140 9 6.4% 45 32.1% 31 22.1% 37 26.4% 10 7.1% 8 5.7% - - 114 6 5.3% 31 27.2% 10 8.8% 39 34.2% 14 12.3% 13 11.4% 1 0.9% 132 10 7.6% 35 26.5% 25 18.9% 43 32.6% 8 6.1% 11 8.3% - - 113 12 10.6% 29 25.7% 20 17.7% 36 31.9% 9 8.0% 7 6.2% - - 40% (240 respondents) of the respondents indicated that when a woman becomes a mother, she has a lesser chance of occupying a managerial position.
Those occupying an elementary occupation and those who occupy a service worker position were the respondents who observed this the most.

Nevertheless, another 36% (217 respondents) are of the opinion that motherhood does not have an effect on the chances of occupying a managerial designation.

The research findings show the salient reasons given by the 313 respondents of why being a mother and availing oneself of family-friendly measures lessen a female worker’s chances of occupying a managerial position.
It emerges that the majority (51% - 159 respondents) of these respondents perceive this because after having children, a female worker shifts her focus from work to family.

This was observed mostly by those occupying an elementary position.

Moreover, another 26% (80 respondents) of the respondents indicated that this is because a mother might not wish to work very long hours, hence impeding her from occupying managerial positions which demand longer working hours.
151 The survey respondents were asked about their perceptions on a number of issues relating to ‘the career advancement of working women’ which emerged from the qualitative research phase of the study.

A high 68.5% (411 respondents) of the total survey cohort agree/ completely agree that at their workplace, the ability to balance effectively work with home responsibilities is essential for a woman to advance in her career.
Also, 46.5% (279 respondents) believe that at their current workplace, being single is helpful in enhancing a woman’s career advancement.

Only 24% (146 respondents) of the respondents agree that at their current workplace, the willingness to put the family on the back burner and devote all the attention to the career is helpful in the advancement of a woman’s career.
The Study also explored the survey respondents’ level of agreement and disagreement with a number of statements regarding women’s career advancement.

A staggering 93% (560 respondents) of the respondents claimed that the provision of flexi-time work schedules are essential in developing and advancing women’s careers.
This was followed by a very high 89% (532 respondents) who indicated that the implementation of onsite childcare facilities at the workplaces and financial subsidies by employers to mothers towards their preferred childcare facility are helpful measures to encourage women with caring responsilities to advance in their career.

A total of 411 respondents (68.5%) argued that Maltese society still considers housework as a woman’s duty.
This was indicated by respondents, irrespective of their designation level.

Furthermore, a very high 84% (506 respondents) remarked that housework puts extra pressure on the working woman.

This was also stated by respondents hailing from all three designation levels.
When the survey respondents were probed on who does specific housework duties within their 148 National Commission for the Promotion of Equality household, it results that cooking, washing clothes and house cleaning are the sole responsibility of more than half of the respondents, while other females claimed that these chores are done by the parents/in-laws (some 32%) or are shared between themselves and their husband/partner (some 13%) or else by husband/partner alone (approx 5%).
Gender Issues Almost 47% (280 respondents) of the 600-respondent cohort believe that local employers still attribute certain jobs to gender, however 28.5% (171 respondents) felt that this is not the case.

The 280 respondents were then asked whether they attribute this to the subjects typically studied by males and females in schools.

Almost half of them (139 respondents) observed that they did not make this correlation; this was largely observed by the respondents occupying a managerial position.
A high 59.5% (357 respondents) of the respondents communicated that managerial positions in Malta’s workplace are largely occupied by males, followed by 33% (197 respondents) who stated that such positions are equally occupied by males and females.

These views came from respondents hailing from different age groups, occupying different job designations.
Almost 63% (224 respondents) of the 357 respondents stated that the main reason why males generally occupy managerial positions is because it is in a cultural norm in Malta for males to be in authority.

Moreover, 39% (140 respondents) of the respondents claimed that this is due to the fact that when women become mothers they would be unable to take up very demanding jobs while 30.5% (109 respondents) indicated that women may eventually leave the job to take care of the family.
Results in more detail are shown in Table 4.17.
TABLE 4.17 – Perceived Reasons Why Males Generally Occupy Managerial Positions at the Workplace Counts Break % Respondents Total It is in our culture that m ales should be in authority Wom en have children so they w ould not be able to take up very dem anding jobs Wom en m ay eventually leave the job to take care of the fam ily Men do not w ish to occupy those positions considered as 'fem ale' roles Wom en by nature are m ore gentle and organised Men have m ore physical strength than w om en Other Don't know / Don't rem em ber Refused Total 357 224 62.7% 140 39.2% 109 30.5% 46 12.9% 18 5.0% 21 5.9% 34 9.5% 8 2.2% 1 0.3% Elem entary Occupation- Service Worker- Middle Managem ent/ Managem ent- 15 - 34 yrs 35 - 64 yrs 15 - 34 yrs 35 - 64 yrs 15 - 34 yrs 35 - 64 yrs - - 1 3.3% 1 3.3% - - - - 2 6.3% 1 3.1% 3 9.4% - - 10 12.5% 6 7.5% 9 11.3% 7 8.8% 2 2.5% - - 9 12.3% 4 5.5% 2 2.7% 9 12.3% - - 1 1.4% 13 16.3% 3 3.8% 4 5.0% 8 10.0% 1 1.3% - - 7 11.3% 3 4.8% 4 6.5% 8 12.9% 1 1.6% - - Unlocking the Female Potential - Research Report Mixed feelings were expressed when all respondents were asked to voice their opinion on a number of issues relating to men and women at Malta’s workplaces.
As Table 4.18 below shows, 41% (244 149 respondents) of the respondents agree or completely agree that at Malta’s workplaces, women have to prove their ability and need to perform harder than males and that an error made by a woman at the workplace is more noticeable than a similar error made by a male employee.
Furthermore, a lower 37.5% (225 respondents) feel that at Malta’s workplaces, a man is assumed competent until he proves otherwise while 34% (205 respondents) stated that in workplaces in Malta, a woman is assumed incompetent until she proves otherwise.
TABLE 4.18 – Respondents’ Perceptions on Issues Related To Males and Females at Malta’s Workplaces 153 Mixed feelings were expressed when all respondents were asked to voice their opinion on a number of issues relating to men and women at Malta’s workplaces.
As Table 4.18 below shows, 41% (244 respondents) of the respondents agree or completely agree that at Malta’s workplaces, women have to prove their ability and need to perform harder than males and that an error made by a woman at the workplace is more noticeable than a similar error made by a male employee.
Furthermore, a lower 37.5% (225 respondents) feel that at Malta’s workplaces, a man is assumed competent until he proves otherwise while 34% (205 respondents) stated that in workplaces in Malta, a woman is assumed incompetent until she proves otherwise.

A worrying 71% (425 respondents) indicated that their employer does not adopt an ‘equal opportunity’ policy.

This was primarily observed by respondents holding a service worker or a managerial position.
A low 9% (54 respondents) of the respondents pointed out that they experienced a form of sexual abuse at the place of work.

These respondents hail from different age groups and occupy different job positions at Malta’s workplaces.

Almost 41% (22 respondents) of the same 54 respondents indicated that they did not take any action against the abuse and simply avoided the perpetrator, however, another 30% (16 respondents) stated that they confronted the perpetrator personally.
A total of 228 respondents (38%) conveyed that both males and females do not feel awkward taking instructions from a female senior.

Nevertheless, another 31.5% (189 respondents) observed that only male employees dislike taking orders from a female senior, while another 20% (120 respondents) indicated that both male and female employees do not like taking instructions from a female senior.

No differences emerged from the replies given by respondents from different designations and age groups.
TABLE 4.18 – Respondents’ Perceptions on Issues Related To Males and Females at Malta’s Workplaces Counts Analysis % Responde nts At Malta's w orkplaces, w omen have to prove their ability and need to perform harder at the w orkplace than their male counterparts At Malta's w orkplaces, a w oman is assumed incompetent until she proves otherw ise At Malta's w orkplaces, a man is assumed competent until he proves otherw ise At Malta's w orkplaces, an error made by a w oman is much more noticeable than the same error committed by a man Total Com pletely Disagree Disagree Neither Agree nor Disagree Agree Com pletely Agree Don't know / Don't rem em ber A worrying 71% (425 respondents) indicated that their employer does not adopt an ‘equal opportunity’ policy.
This was primarily observed by respondents holding a service worker or a managerial position.

A low 9% (54 respondents) of the respondents pointed out that they experienced a form of sexual abuse at the place of work.

These respondents hail from different age groups and occupy different job positions at Malta’s workplaces.
Almost 41% (22 respondents) of the same 54 respondents indicated that they did not take any action against the abuse and simply avoided the perpetrator, however, another 30% (16 respondents) stated that they confronted the perpetrator personally.

A total of 228 respondents (38%) conveyed that both males and females do not feel awkward taking instructions from a female senior.
Nevertheless, another 31.5% (189 respondents) observed that only 150 male employees dislike taking orders from a female senior, while another 20% (120 respondents) indicated that both male and female employees do not like taking instructions from a female senior.

No differences emerged from the replies given by respondents from different designations and age groups.
National Commission for the Promotion of Equality More than 26% (158 respondents) of the survey respondents indicated that in their current designation, they have employees reporting to them.

As expected, the majority of these respondents currently occupy a managerial position.

Almost 65% (102 respondents) of the same 158 respondents have both male and female employees reporting to them while 29% (46 respondents) have only female employees reporting to them.
An encouraging 87% (138 respondents) of these female respondents claimed that they feel that they are respected by their employees.

A staggering 81% (485 respondents) of the respondents remarked that at their workplace, advanced education contributes towards the enhancement of women’s career advancement.

A finding emerges that the gender of the mentor does not influence a woman’s career advancement.
Nevertheless, it was indicated by 32% (191 respondents) that at their current workplace, women are primarily encouraged to apply for ‘supporting roles’ rather than managerial ones.

Also, 30% (181 respondents) stated that at their workplace, women have to perform better than men to be promoted to the same position.

Table 4.19 below shows these findings.


TABLE 4.19 – Respondents’ Perceptions on Issues Related To Women’s Career Advancement at Malta’s Workplaces 154 More than 26% (158 respondents) of the survey respondents indicated that in their current designation, they have employees reporting to them.

As expected, the majority of these respondents currently occupy a managerial position.
Almost 65% (102 respondents) of the same 158 respondents have both male and female employees reporting to them while 29% (46 respondents) have only female employees reporting to them.

An encouraging 87% (138 respondents) of these female respondents claimed that they feel that they are respected by their employees.

A staggering 81% (485 respondents) of the respondents remarked that at their workplace, advanced education contributes towards the enhancement of women’s career advancement.
A finding emerges that the gender of the mentor does not influence a woman’s career advancement.

Nevertheless, it was indicated by 32% (191 respondents) that at their current workplace, women are primarily encouraged to apply for ‘supporting roles’ rather than managerial ones.

Also, 30% (181 respondents) stated that at their workplace, women have to perform better than men to be promoted to the same position.

Table 4.19 shows these findings.


A positive 93% (557 respondents) of the total survey cohort agree that women are as capable as men in occupying a senior executive position, another 72% (432 respondents) maintained that there is a strong male domination of senior positions at Malta’s workplaces and 48.5% (291 respondents) stated that male managers tend to feel threatened by women leaders.
On the other hand, a high 80% (478 respondents) of the respondents believe that management do not have the right to ask personal questions to female candidates during a job interview, 66% (396 respondents) disagree that it is generally felt that women are too indecisive, weak and irrational to be effective leaders and 64% (385 respondents) disagree that it is generally felt that women are not sufficiently competitive and ambitious.

Table 4.20 below illustrates these findings in more detail.
TABLE 4.19 – Respondents’ Perceptions on Issues Related To Women’s Career Advancement at Malta’s Workplaces Counts Analysis % Resp onde nts Women are primarily encouraged to apply for support roles (ex.
administrative services) rather than management positions Women have to perform better than their male counterparts to be promoted to the same position Advanced education is helpful in enhancing w omen's career advancement Having a senior level male mentor is helpful in enhancing w omen's career advancement Having a senior level female mentor is helpful in enhancing w omen's career advancement Total Com pletely Disagree Disagree Neither agree nor disagree Agree Com pletely Agree Don't know / Not applicable A positive 93% (557 respondents) of the total survey cohort agree that women are as capable as men in occupying a senior executive position, another 72% (432 respondents) maintained that there is a strong male domination of senior positions at Malta’s workplaces and 48.5% (291 respondents) stated that male managers tend to feel threatened by women leaders.
151 On the other hand, a high 80% (478 respondents) of the respondents believe that management do not have the right to ask personal questions to female candidates during a job interview, 66% (396 respondents) disagree that it is generally felt that women are too indecisive, weak and irrational to be Unlocking the Female Potential - Research Report effective leaders and 64% (385 respondents) disagree that it is generally felt that women are not sufficiently competitive and ambitious.
Table 4.20 below illustrates these findings in more detail.
TABLE 4.20 – Respondents’ Perceptions on Issues Related To Women in Managerial Positions 155 TABLE 4.20 – Respondents’ Perceptions on Issues Related To Women in Managerial Positions Counts Analysis % Respondents The w orking practices of Maltese employers favour male employees There is lack of genuine commitment to gender equality by Maltese employers There is male domination of senior positions at Malta's w orkplaces Management has a right to ask personal questions to prospective female employes during a job interview Management have a tendency not to assign w omen to challenging job positions Male managers tend feel 'threatened' by w omen leaders It is generally felt that female employees are timid and lack of sufficient self- confidence It is generally felt that w omen are not sufficiently competitive and ambitious It is generally felt that w omen are too indecisive, w eak and irrational to be effective leaders It is generally felt that men make better managers than w omen It is generally felt that w omen should not be in a position of authority over men It is generally felt that w omen are emotionally unsuitable for managerial positions It is generally felt that w omen's career are not important because they are not the primary family provider Women are as capable as men in occupying a senior executive position Total Com pletely Disagree Disagree Neither agree nor disagree Agree Com pletely Agree Don't know / Not applicable 4.0%
Finally, all the survey respondents were asked whether they foresee a job promotion for them at their workplace in the near future.
A rather high 68% (408 respondents) replied in the negative; these were largely respondents who currently occupy elementary positions or service worker positions.

Table 4.21 illustrates the reasons given by the 408 respondents as to why they believe their job promotion prospects at their current workplace are low.

It emerges that more than 54% (221 respondents) observed that there are no job openings they may apply for.

This is stated primarily by respondents holding an elementary position.
156 152 National Commission for the Promotion of Equality Finally, all the survey respondents were asked whether they foresee a job promotion for them at their workplace in the near future.

A rather high 68% (408 respondents) replied in the negative; these were largely respondents who currently occupy elementary positions or service worker positions.

Table 4.21 illustrates the reasons given by the 408 respondents as to why they believe their job promotion prospects at their current workplace are low.
It emerges that more than 54% (221 respondents) observed that there are no job openings they may apply for.

This is stated primarily by respondents holding an elementary position.
4.5.2 ACTIVITY II – Assessing The Relevance of ‘Economic Independence’ to the Maltese Female The following findings emerge from the quantitative research study with employed, inactive and unemployed females: I. Respondent Profile Age, Level of Education, Marital status and Caring Responsibilities At least 600 (607 interviews actually conducted) female individuals were interviewed in order to address the research objectives of this study.
These survey respondents were selected on their present employment status, i.e.
females who currently occupy an “elementary/ service worker” TABLE 4.21 – Perceived Reasons For Low Job Prospects At The Workplace TABLE 4.21 – Perceived Reasons For Low Job Prospects At The Workplace Counts Break % Respondents Total There are no job openings w hich I can apply for There are other em ployees w ho are m ore preferred than m yself for a prom otion The highest position for m y rank w ithin the com pany has already been reached Usually m ale colleagues are given the job prom otions I do not have a good relationship w ith the person responsible for job prom otions As I am w orking on part tim e/ reduced hours basis I w ill not be given a job prom otion Other Don't know / Don't rem em ber Refused Total 407 221 54.3% 12 2.9% 45 11.1% 1 0.2% 3 0.7% 22 5.4% 98 24.1% 4 1.0% 1 0.2% Elem entary Occupation- Service Worker- Middle Managem ent/ Managem ent- 15 - 34 yrs 35 - 64 yrs 15 - 34 yrs 35 - 64 yrs 15 - 34 yrs 35 - 64 yrs 40 24 60.0% 1 2.5% 1 2.5% 1 2.5% - - 3 7.5% 10 25.0% - - - - 44 28 63.6% 1 2.3% 1 2.3% - - - - 1 2.3% 13 29.5% - - - - 90 52 57.8% 2 2.2% 14 15.6% - - - - 5 5.6% 14 15.6% 3 3.3% - - 84 47 56.0% 2 2.4% 3 3.6% - - 2 2.4% 7 8.3% 23 27.4% - - - - 71 37 52.1% 4 5.6% 78 33 42.3% 2 2.6% 8 11.3% 18 23.1% - - - - 1 1.4% 20 28.2% - - 1 1.4% - - 1 1.3% 5 6.4% 18 23.1% 1 1.3% - - 4.5.2 ACTIVITY II – Assessing The Relevance of ‘Economic Independence’ to Maltese Females Unlocking the Female Potential - Research Report 153 The following findings emerge from the quantitative research study with employed, inactive and unemployed females: I. Respondent Profile Age, Level of Education, Marital Status and Caring Responsibilities At least, 600 (607 interviews actually conducted) female individuals were interviewed to order to address the research objectives of this study.
These survey respondents were selected on their present employment status, i.e.

females who currently occupy an “elementary/ service worker” position; females who currently hold a “managerial position” and females who are either inactive (150 respondents) or unemployed (51 respondents).
The survey respondents under “elementary/ service worker” include females engaged in the following job designations: elementary positions, plant and machine operator, assembler, service worker, shop and sales worker, clerk, craft & related trades workers and skilled agricultural and fishery worker.
The survey respondents under “managerial position” include females who hold a middle management/ management 157 position; females who currently hold a “managerial position” and females who are either inactive (150 respondents) or unemployed (51 respondents).
The survey respondents under “elementary/ service worker” include females engaged in the following job designations: elementary positions, plant and machine operator, assembler, service worker, shop and sales worker, clerk, craft & related trades workers and skilled agricultural and fishery workers.
The survey respondents under “managerial position” include females who hold a middle management/ management position, which covers the following designations: technician, associate professional, professional, legislator, senior official and manager.
Almost 61% (122 respondents) of the inactive/ unemployed respondents are aged between 45 - 59 years, while 35% (70 respondents) of those occupying an elementary/ service worker designation are aged between 15 - 24 years and 35% (71 respondents) of those holding a managerial position are aged between 25 - 34 years.

A good representation of respondents hailing from Malta’s six geographical regions (including Gozo) was attained.
The majority of the females who occupy an elementary/ service worker position hold either a secondary or post-secondary level of education, almost all respondents holding a managerial position possess a post-secondary level of education or higher, while the majority of the inactive/ unemployed hold a secondary level of education.
Almost 57% (345 respondents) are married, 33% (199 respondents) are single, 7% (44 respondents) are annulled/divorced or separated, 2% (12 respondents) are co-habitating and 1% (6 respondents) are widowed.

64% (388 respondents) of the respondents currently have or had (in the past) caring responsibilities, with 85% (331 respondents) of these state that they currently have such responsibilities, the majority of whom have 1 or 2 children.
Most of the inactive/ unemployed females have/ had caring responsibilities.

Inactive and Unemployed Females More than 88% (45 respondents) of the unemployed females are actively looking for a job but are not formally registering for work and 39% (20 respondents) indicated that they have been looking for a job for less than five months.

With regards to the inactive females, 75% (113 respondents) indicated that they have been inactive from paid employment for more than 10 years.
Of the 201 inactive/ unemployed females, more than 20% (41 respondents) claimed that they have never been employed, with the main reason for this being that they were housewives with caring responsibilities.

Meanwhile, 92.5% (148 respondents) of the 160 inactive/ unemployed interviewees, who used to be employed in the past, communicated that they used to hold an elementary/ service worker position.
Current/ Past - business sector engaged in, Employment basis, salary, socio-Economic Classification and social security benefits More than 21% (43 respondents) of the respondents who occupy an elementary position/ service worker position specified that they are currently employed in the Retail and Wholesale sector, followed by 20% (40 respondents) who indicated that they are engaged in the Hospitality and Tourism sector.
Respondents occupying a managerial position are engaged primarily in the Education sector followed by the Health and Social Care sector with 26% (53 respondents) and 19.5% (40 respondents) respectively.

Almost 46% (73 respondents) of the 160 inactive/ unemployed respondents who were in employment before were employed in the Manufacturing sector.
Almost 73% (146 respondents) and 44% (90 respondents) of those holding an elementary/ service worker position and a managerial position respectively, claimed that they are currently employed 154 National Commission for the Promotion of Equality within the private sector.

Moreover, a high 92.5% (148 respondents) of the inactive/ unemployed pointed out that they used to be employed in this sector as well.
More than 53% (302 respondents), of the 566 employed females and inactive/ unemployed females who were in employment in the past, specified that they are currently/ were in their last designation employed on full-time basis working office hours, while 14% (80 respondents) remarked that they are/ were employed on part-time basis.
A total of 97 respondents (48%) of the 201 respondents, who hold an elementary/ service worker position, pointed out that they earn a gross salary of less than €10,000 per annum, 71 respondents (35%) of those occupying a managerial position stated that they earn an amount of between €15,000 and €20,000 yearly, while 97 respondents (61 respondents) of those who used to work in the past indicated that they used to earn a gross salary of less than €10,000 yearly.
Of the 198 respondents, who are currently in employment and who are either married or co- habiting, 54% (107 respondents) pointed out that their salary is less than their husband’s/ partner’s and 25% (49 respondents) indicated that it is almost the same.

39.5% (81 respondents) and 25% (51 respondents) of the respondents holding a managerial position and an elementary/ service worker designation respectively specified that they have been engaged with their current employer for over seven years.
Also, 33% (53 respondents) of the 160 inactive/ unemployed respondents stated that they were employed with the same employer in their last designation for more than seven years.

The households of the respondents who currently occupy an elementary/ service worker position or who are currently inactive/ unemployed tend to form part of the C1C2 socio-economic classification, while the households of those who currently occupy a managerial position fall mainly in the AB classification.
More than 23% (141 respondents) of the aggregate respondents conveyed that they are currently receiving social security benefits, with the majority of them being respondents who are inactive/ unemployed.

A high 75% (106 respondents) of these respondents specified that they are presently receiving a children’s allowance.

II.
II.

Economic Independence definition of the term Almost 30% (163 respondents) of the aggregate 607 interviewees define the term economic independence as the ability to choose ones own lifestyle.

This was indicated by 29% (59 respondents) of those who occupy an elementary/ service worker position, by 32% (65 respondents) of those who hold a managerial position and by 19% (39 respondents) of the inactive/ unemployed.
Another 20% (119 respondents) indicated that the term means that there would be no need to rely on another person for providing a source of income.

Among these respondents there were 23% (47 respondents) of those who occupy a managerial position, 21% (42 respondents) of those who are inactive/ unemployed and 15% (30 respondents) of those who occupy an elementary/ service worker designation.
Earning enough to live comfortably and provide for future dependents was also a definition given to the term ‘economic independence’ by 14% (85 respondents) of the interviewees.

This was Unlocking the Female Potential - Research Report 155 stated by 17% (35 respondents) of those who are inactive/ unemployed, by 14% (28 respondents) of those who occupy an elementary/ service worker position and by 11% (22 respondents) of those who hold high job positions.
Table 4.22 below illustrates this finding in more detail.

All respondents were then prompted with a list of possible definitions of the term ‘Economic Independence’ and were asked to indicate whether they agree or not with the definition.

A high 81.5% (495 respondents) communicated that they agree that the term also means being able to support the family alone in case of emergency.
Moreover, more than 75% (457 respondents) believe that the term also means having a steady source of income from a job and 66% (398 respondents) stated that being able to spend your own money as you like also defines ‘Economic Independence’.

This finding is illustrated in Table 4.23 below.
TABLE 4.22 – Definition of the Term ‘Economic Independence’ – Spontaneously Mentioned Counts Break % Respondents Total Being able to choose ow n lifestyle Earning enough to live com fortably and provide for future dependents Being able to supply the fam ily w ith the basic needs w ithout luxuries/extras ('kapricci') Being able to supply the fam ily w ith the basic needs w ith luxuries/extras ('kapricci') Being able to increase the standard of living for yourself and your fam ily There w ould be no need to rely on another person for providing a source of incom e Earning the sam e am ount of husband/ partner Having no large loans/ debts Having a steady source of incom e from a job Being able to afford things w ithout needing to w orry about the cost Being able to spend your ow n m oney as you like Having access to the husbnad's/ partner's w age Being able to support the fam ily alone in case of em ergency Other Don't know / Don't rem em ber Refused Total Elem entary Occupation/ Service Worker Middle Mngt/ Managem ent Inactive/ Unem ployed 201 59 29.4% 28 13.9% 18 9.0% 12 6.0% 10 5.0% 30 14.9% 1 0.5% 3 1.5% 9 4.5% 7 3.5% 9 4.5% 1 0.5% - - 9 4.5% 5 2.5% - - 205 65 31.7% 22 10.7% 14 6.8% 11 5.4% 15 7.3% 47 22.9% - - 4 2.0% 8 3.9% 5 2.4% 3 1.5% - - 4 2.0% 4 2.0% 3 1.5% - - 201 39 19.4% 35 17.4% 15 7.5% 11 5.5% 10 5.0% 42 20.9% - - 7 3.5% 15 7.5% 3 1.5% 4 2.0% 3 1.5% 2 1.0% 5 2.5% 9 4.5% 1 0.5% All respondents were then prompted with a list of possible definitions of the term ‘Economic Independence’ and were asked to indicate whether they agree or not with the definition.
A high 81.5% (495 respondents) communicated that they agree that the term also means being able to support the 156 family alone in case of emergency.

Moreover, more than 75% (457 respondents) believe that the term also means having a steady source of income from a job and 66% (398 respondents) stated that being able to spend your own money as you like also defines ‘Economic Independence’.

This finding is illustrated in Table 4.23 below.
National Commission for the Promotion of Equality 160 TABLE 4.23 – Definition of the Term ‘Economic Independence’ - Prompted TABLE 4.23 – Definition of the Term ‘Economic Independence’ - Prompted Counts Analysis % Respondents Being able to choose ow n lifestyle Earning enough to live comfortably and provide for future dependents Being able to supply the family w ith the basic needs w ithout luxuries/extras ('kapricci') Being able to supply the family w ith the basic needs w ith luxuries/extras ('kapricci') Being able to increase the standard of living for yourself and your family There w ould be no need to rely on another person for providing a source of income Earning the same amount of husband/ partner Having no large loans/ debts Having a steady source of income from a job Being able to afford things w ithout needing to w orry about the cost Being able to spend your ow n money as you like Having access to the husbnad's/ partner's w age Being able to support the family alone in case of emergency Total 607 607 607 607 607 607 607 607 607 607 607 607 607 Yes 340 56.0% 369 60.8% 329 54.2% 294 48.4% 468 77.1% 388 63.9% 200 32.9% 351 57.8% 457 75.3% 309 50.9% 398 65.6% 279 46.0% 495 81.5% No 39 6.4% 40 6.6% 158 26.0% 158 26.0% 36 5.9% 33 5.4% 339 55.8% 156 25.7% 30 4.9% 215 35.4% 113 18.6% 275 45.3% 30 4.9% Don't know Mentioned in Previous Question A high 83% (506 respondents) of the females claimed that high education improves a woman’s chances of being ‘economically independent’.
This was indicated by all respondents irrespective of the current employment status and their job position level.

An also high 76% (460 respondents) indicated that for a woman to be ‘economically independent’ she has to make sacrifices and undergo pressure and stress.

A high 83% (506 respondents) of the females claimed that high education improves a woman’s Once again, this was mentioned by respondents who currently occupy an elementary/ service worker chances of being ‘economically independent’.
This was indicated by all respondents irrespective of position, who hold a managerial position and also by the inactive/ unemployed.

the current employment status and their job position level.

An also high 76% (460 respondents) indicated that for a woman to be ‘economically independent’ she has to make sacrifices and undergo pressure and stress.
Once again, this was mentioned by respondents who currently occupy A total of 383 respondents (63%) declared that they presently feel ‘economically independent’, these an elementary/ service worker position, who hold a managerial position and also by the inactive/ being primarily respondents who hold a high position of employment, followed by those occupying an unemployed.

elementary/ service worker position and by the inactive/ unemployed.

Figure 4.26 below highlights this finding.


Respondents feeling Economic Independent FIGURE 4.6 – Respondents Feeling Economically Independent Respondents feeling Economic Independent A total of 383 respondents (63%) declared that they presently feel ‘economically independent’, these being primarily respondents who hold a high position of employment, followed by those occupying an elementary/ service worker position and by the inactive/ unemployed.

Figure 4.6 below highlights this finding.


161 Unlocking the Female Potential - Research Report 157 FIGURE 4.6 – Respondents Feeling Economically Independent 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 y r a t n e m e l E / n o i t a p u c c O r e k r o W e c i v r e S / e v i t c a n I l d e y o p m e n U / t g n M e l d d M i t n e m e g a n a M Yes No Don't know/ Don't remember The respondents were then asked to specify the reasons why they currently feel/ do not feel ‘economically independent’.
It emerges that having an income/ job is the main reason why females feel financially independent.

Moreover, being able to provide for self and family and earning enough to live comfortably The respondents were then asked to specify the reasons why they currently feel/ do not feel were also reasons why employed females feel financially independent.

With regards to the inactive/ unemployed females, having easy access to the husband’s/ partner’s income and being in control of the ‘economically independent’.
It emerges that having an income/ job is the main reason why females household’s finances are considered as aspects which makes them economically independent.

feel financially independent.

Moreover, being able to provide for self and family and earning enough to live comfortably were also reasons why employed females feel financially independent.
The main reasons for not feeling financially independent were attributed to the dependence on husband/ With regards to the inactive/ unemployed females, having easy access to the husband’s/ partner’s partner for money, not earning/ not earning enough money, income not being enough to cover the income and being in control of the household’s finances are considered as aspects which make expenses, and, social security benefits not being sufficient, the latter being mentioned by respondents who are currently inactive/ unemployed.
them economically independent.

The advantages of being economically independent were indicated by 383 respondents.

More than 66% The main reasons for not feeling financially independent were attributed to the dependence (253 respondents) stated that they have more peace of mind financially.
Among these respondents, there on husband/ partner for money, not earning/ not earning enough money, income not being were 74% (124 respondents) who currently occupy a managerial position, 70% (57 respondents) of the inactive/ unemployed and a lower 53% (72 respondents) of those holding an elementary/ service worker enough to cover the expenses, and, social security benefits not being sufficient, the latter being designation.

mentioned by respondents who are currently inactive/ unemployed.
Furthermore, 60% (230 respondents) indicated that financial independence gives them control and do not The advantages of being economically independent were indicated by 383 respondents.

More need to rely on another person for a source of income.

This was mainly mentioned by respondents who are employed at an elementary/ service worker level and at a managerial level.

than 66% (253 respondents) stated that they have more peace of mind financially.
Among these respondents, there were 74% (124 respondents) who currently occupy a managerial position, 70% Almost half (50% - 101 respondents) of the 203 respondents, who presently do not feel financially (57 respondents) of the inactive/ unemployed and a lower 53% (72 respondents) of those holding independent, pointed out that they are not doing anything to change this.

This was stated by 56% (61 an elementary/ service worker designation.
respondents) of the inactive/ unemployed, by 49% (17 respondents) of those engaged in a managerial position and by 39% (23 respondents) of those employed at an elementary/ service worker position.

Table 4.24 below highlights this finding in more detail.

Furthermore, 60% (230 respondents) indicated that financial independence gives them control and do not need to rely on another person for a source of income.
This was mainly mentioned by TABLE 4.24 – Intention of Doing Something To Increase Economic Independence respondents who are employed at an elementary/ service worker level and at a managerial level.

Almost half (50% - 101 respondents) of the 203 respondents, who presently do not feel financially independent, pointed out that they are not doing anything to change this.
This was stated by 56% (61 respondents) of the inactive/ unemployed, by 49% (17 respondents) of those engaged in a managerial position and by 39% (23 respondents) of those employed at an elementary/ service worker position.

Table 4.24 below highlights this finding in more detail.
162 158 National Commission for the Promotion of Equality TABLE 4.24 – Intention of Doing Something To Increase Economic Independence Counts Break % Respondents Total Yes, I intend to increase m y w orking hours Yes, I am looking for another job w ith a higher pay Yes, I intend to find a part tim e job besides m y current em ploym ent Yes, I plan on starting looking for em ploym ent Yes, I am looking for em ploym ent No, I am not doing anything to change this Other Don't know / Don't rem em ber Total 203 21 10.3% 12 5.9% 11 5.4% 12 5.9% 36 17.7% 101 49.8% 25 12.3% 4 2.0% Elem entary Occupation/ Service Worker Middle Mngt/ Managem ent Inactive/ Unem ployed 59 15 25.4% 7 11.9% 5 8.5% 2 3.4% - - 23 39.0% 10 16.9% 2 3.4% 35 5 14.3% 3 8.6% 3 8.6% - - - - 17 48.6% 8 22.9% 1 2.9% 109 1 0.9% 2 1.8% 3 2.8% 10 9.2% 36 33.0% 61 56.0% 7 6.4% 1 0.9% More than 47% (286 respondents) claimed that they feel more financially secure than ten years ago.
This was primarily stated by respondents holding a managerial position and by those occupying an elementary/ service worker position.

Nevertheless, another 29% (175 respondents) specified that they do not feel this way.

More than 47% (286 respondents) claimed that they feel more financially secure than ten years ago.

This was primarily stated by respondents holding a managerial position and by those occupying an elementary/ service worker position.
Nevertheless, another 29% (175 respondents) specified that they do not feel this way.
The main reasons as to why respondents feel more financially secure now than ten years ago are because they used to be dependent on their parents, they did not use to work at the time but now they have a full time job, they now have a better salary than before, they have more money to spend than before, and, husband has now found a better job with a higher salary, the latter being indicated by respondents who are inactive/ unemployed.
Meanwhile, reasons given by respondents why they do not feel financially secure are the drastic increase in the cost-of-living and the fact that they used to work and they have now stopped.
The main reasons as to why respondents feel more financially secure now than ten years ago are because they used to be dependent on their parents, they did not use to work at the time but now they have a full time job, they now have a better salary than before, they have more money to spend than before, and, husband has now found a better job with a higher salary, the latter being indicated by respondents who are inactive/ unemployed.
Meanwhile, reasons given by respondents on why they do not feel financially secure are the drastic increase in the cost-of-living and the fact that they used to work and they have now stopped.

Mixed feelings were expressed when respondents were asked whether they believe they will be financially secure when they reach their pensionable age.
In fact, 37% (223 respondents) mentioned that they are uncertain, another 31% (188 respondents) gave a positive response while 23% (138 respondents) gave a negative response.

The females holding a managerial position tend to be more convinced that they will be financially secure, while the inactive/ unemployed and those who hold an elementary/ service worker position expressed their uncertainty.
Mixed feelings were expressed when respondents were asked whether they believe they will be financially secure when they reach their pensionable age.

In fact, 37% (223 respondents) mentioned that they are uncertain, another 31% (188 respondents) gave a positive response while 23% (138 respondents) gave a negative response.
The females holding a managerial position tend to be more convinced that they will be financially secure, while the inactive/ unemployed and those who hold an elementary/ service worker position expressed their uncertainty.

A very high 84% (512 respondents) remarked that Maltese women are becoming more economically independent; this was stated by all respondents irrespective of their employment status and job designation.
The main reason for this is that nowadays a good number of women are in paid employment.

Other reasons mentioned were that nowadays women are furthering their education, hence finding better jobs; women have learnt to be independent; women are less willing to depend on their husbands and more life opportunities are on offer to everyone.

III.
III.

Females in Employment vs Traditional Family Roles A very high 84% (512 respondents) remarked that Maltese women are becoming more economically independent; this was stated by all respondents irrespective of their employment status and job designation.

The main reason for this is that nowadays a good number of women are in paid employment.
Other reasons mentioned were that nowadays women are furthering their education, hence finding better jobs; women have learnt to be independent; women are less willing to depend on their husbands and more life opportunities are on offer to everyone.

163 Unlocking the Female Potential - Research Report 159 III.

Females in Employment vs Traditional Family Roles Reasons why Women Work Reasons why women work The financial need is the primary reason why more females are seeking employment.
This was stated by more than 86% (524 respondents) of the aggregate respondents.

Following, 48% (291 respondents) indicated that the reason why more females are seeking employment is because more women are becoming more educated so they want to apply what they studied.

Moreover, 41% (250 respondents) observed that women want to be more ‘economically independent’.

These responses were given by respondents hailing from different job designations and even from the inactive/ unemployed females.
Table 4.25 below illustrates these findings in more detail.

The financial need is the primary reason why more females are seeking employment.

This was stated by more than 86% (524 respondents) of the aggregate respondents.

Following, 48% (291 respondents) indicated that the reason why more females are seeking employment is because more women are The fact that more women are going into paid employment is perceived positively by more than becoming more educated so they want to apply what they studied.
Moreover, 41% (250 respondents) observed that women want to be more ‘economically independent’.

These responses were given by 60% (365 respondents) of the interviewees.

This was mainly stated by respondents who are respondents hailing different job designations and even from the inactive/ unemployed females.

Table currently in employment.

The increase of women in paid employment is perceived as positive for 4.25 below illustrates these findings in more detail.
two main reasons: it means that women have become more economically independent and they do not need to rely on their husbands/ partners anymore for their financial needs.

Moreover, it was also stated that this also means that women are becoming better off financially; there is now more equality between genders; women have become more empowered; women are now contributing towards their families; and women have a greater well-being.
The fact that more women are going into paid employment is perceived positively by more than 60% (365 respondents) of the interviewees.

This was mainly stated by respondents who are currently in employment.

The increase of women in paid employment is perceived as positive for two main reasons: it means that women have become more economic independent and they do not need to rely on their husbands/ partners anymore for their financial needs.
Nonetheless, it was also stated that this also means that women are becoming better off financially; there is now more equality between genders; women have become more empowered; women are now contributing towards their families; and women have a greater well-being.
TABLE 4.25 – Reasons Why Women Work – (Multiple Responses Per Respondent) TABLE 4.25 – Reasons Why Women Work – (Multiple Responses Per Respondent) Counts Break % Respondents Total There is a financial need More w om en are becom ing m ore educated so they w ould w ant to practise w hat they w ould have studied Wom en w ant to have a social life outside the fam ily Wom en are going out to w ork for their w ell-being Wom en do not w ant to be dependent on their husband/partner anym ore Wom en w ant to be 'Econom ically Independent' Other 1 Other 2 Other 3 Don't know Total 607 524 86.3% 291 47.9% 208 34.3% 195 32.1% 208 34.3% 250 41.2% 101 16.6% 20 3.3% 5 0.8% 1 0.2% Elem entary Occupation/ Service Worker Middle Mngt/ Managem ent Inactive/ Unem ployed 201 179 89.1% 89 44.3% 67 33.3% 53 26.4% 65 32.3% 80 39.8% 29 14.4% 3 1.5% 2 1.0% - - - - Perceptions of Female Employment and their Role within the Family 160 National Commission for the Promotion of Equality 164 Perceptions of Female Employment and their Role within the Family A positive 71% (432 respondents) of the whole respondent cohort agree in principle that a woman should go out to work in order to be economically independent.
This was stated by 80% (160 respondents) of those holding an elementary/ service worker position, by 78% (160 respondents) of the female managers and by a lower 56% (112 respondents) of the inactive/ unemployed.

Conversely, a much lower 42% (256 respondents) observed that they believe that a woman with caring responsibilities should go out to work in order to be economically independent.
Among these respondents there were half (100 respondents) of those occupying an elementary/ service worker position, 48% (99 respondents) of those holding a managerial position and 28% (57 respondents) of the inactive/ unemployed.

The main reason why respondents do not agree that a woman with caring responsibilities should go out to work is because children would need their mother to be constantly with them.
Others believe that having children is a vocation so a mother must always give her 100% to them and should a mother go out to work, children would have to be raised by outsiders.

Table 4.26 shows the level of agreement/ disagreement with various statements concerning traditional family roles.
It emerges that 72% (437 respondents) agree/ completely agree that in A positive 71% (432 respondents) of the whole respondent cohort agree in principle that a woman should Malta, a woman still has the full responsibility of bringing up the children.

Moreover, 68% (413 go out to work in order to be economically independent.
This was stated by 80% (160 respondents) of respondents) indicated that husbands/ partners still expect that housework is done by the woman those holding an elementary/ service worker position, by 78% (160 respondents) of the female managers and by a lower 56% (112 respondents) of the inactive/ unemployed.

and 62% (376 respondents) pointed out that in Maltese households, there is still the perception that the husband/ male partner is the head of household.
Conversely, a much lower 42% (256 respondents) observed that they believe that a woman with caring responsibilities should go out to work in order to be economically independent.

Among these respondents there were half (100 respondents) of those occupying an elementary/ service worker position, 48% (99 respondents) of those holding a managerial position and 28% (57 respondents) of the inactive/ unemployed.

Figure 4.38 below highlights this finding.


More than 54% (329 respondents) of the females conveyed that even though the number of employed women is on the increase, traditional gender roles have remained intact.

This was mentioned by all respondents irrespective of their employment status and their employment designation.

The main reason why respondents do not agree that a woman with caring responsibilities should go out to work is because children would need their mother to be constantly with them.
Others believe that having children is a vocation so a mother must always give her 100% to them and should a mother go out to work, children would have to be raised by outsiders.

A considerably high 43% (261 respondents) affirmed that they believe that when a couple are both in employment, there is a higher risk of problems within the family.
This was mainly Table 4.26 below shows the level of agreement/ disagreement with various statements concerning indicated by respondents who are currently inactive/ unemployed, followed by those occupying an traditional family roles.

It emerges that 72% (437 respondents) agree/ completely agree that in Malta, a elementary/ service worker position and by those who occupy a managerial designation.

woman still has the full responsibility of bringing up the children.
Moreover, 68% (413 respondents) indicated that husbands/ partners still expect that housework is done by the woman and 62% (376 respondents) pointed out that in Maltese households, there is still the perception that the husband/ male partner is the head of household.
TABLE 4.26 – Respondents’ Perceptions on Issues Concerning Roles TABLE 4.26 – Respondents’ Perceptions on Issues Concerning Roles Within the Maltese Household Within the Maltese Household Counts Analysis % Respondents In Malta, there is still the perception that, w ithin the Maltese families the husband is the head of household Within the Maltese culture, a w oman still has the full responsibility of the upbringing of the children Husbands/partners still expect that housew ork is done by the w oman Providing for the family is a man's responsibility Managing family finances is a man's responsibility Men are less responsible w ith money than w omen Total Com pletely Disagree Disagree Neither Agree nor Disagree Agree Com pletely Agree Don't know Refused More than 54% (329 respondents) of the females conveyed that even though the number of employed women is on the increase, traditional gender roles have remained intact.
This was mentioned by all respondents irrespective of their employment status and their employment designation.

Unlocking the Female Potential - Research Report 161 A considerably high 43% (261 respondents) affirmed that they believe that when a couple are both in employment, there is a higher risk of problems within the family.
This was mainly indicated by respondents who are currently inactive/ unemployed, followed by those occupying an elementary/ service worker position and by those who occupy a managerial designation.

165 IV.

The Impact of Employment on women Reasons For being In Paid Employment The financial need is the main driver which makes females enter into paid employment.
In fact, 29% (117 respondents) of the 406 employed female respondents stated that the main reason why they are in employment is because they have a financial pressing need to make ends meet.

This was stated by respondents holding different levels of employment.

Following, another 16% (64 respondents) claimed that the main reason for being in paid employment is because it is not possible for their household to go beyond their basic needs with just one paycheque.
With regards to the 150 inactive females, the main reason for not being in employment is because they have children to take care of.

This was mentioned by almost 53% (79 respondents) of these inactive respondents.

Following, 45% (68 respondents) stated that they have retained their inactive status because they have housework to do while 21% (31 respondents) mentioned that there is no financial need for them to find employment.
A total of 267 respondents (44%), irrespective of their employment status, maintained that having children deters women in Malta from becoming employed.

This was followed by 23% (138 respondents) who stated that the responsibilities of family and work would be too stressful for a woman, hence this impedes them from taking up paid employment.

Table 4.27 below depicts this finding in more detail.
More than 93% (566 respondents) of the respondents agreed that in order to encourage more women to go out to work, family roles have to be shared equally between spouses; more support structures have to be in place for mothers who wish to go out to work and employers have to be encouraged to offer more teleworking/ reduced hours/ flexi-time working arrangements to working parents.

Table 4.28 below illustrates this finding in more detail.
women’s Perceptions on Employment 88% (359 respondents) of the 406 employed females communicated that they perceive their job as something positive in their life.

This was indicated by 90% (184 respondents) and by 87% (175 respondents) of those occupying a managerial position and an elementary/ service worker position respectively.

A positive 81% (330 respondents) of the same 406 respondents claimed that employment makes them feel more ‘empowered’ as a woman.
Among these respondents there were 90% (184 respondents) of those holding a managerial position and 87% (175 respondents) of those occupying an elementary/ service worker designation.

A positive response was also registered when the 406 respondents were asked to state how the financial aspect of their employment is affecting their lifestyle.

In fact, 81% (329 respondents) observed that it is affecting their lifestyle in a positive/ very positive way.
This was specified by 86% (176 respondents) of those who are engaged in a managerial position and by 76% (153 respondents) of those occupying an elementary/ service worker position.

It also emerges that employment has a positive impact on the well-being of the female employees.

In fact, this was mentioned by 77% (313 respondents) of the females.
This was stated by 81.5% (167 respondents) of those who hold a managerial position and by 73% (146 respondents) of those who occupy an elementary/ service worker position.

A finding emerges that paid employment seems to have a more positive impact on females who occupy high positions at the workplace.
As the results show, females holding a high position 162 National Commission for the Promotion of Equality TABLE 4.27 – Respondents’ Perceptions on Factors Hindering Females From Taking Up Paid Employment Counts Break % Respondents Total The responsibilities of fam ily and w ork w ould be too stressful Having children House chores are still considered as a w om en's responsibility No support structures for w orking m others Lack of reduced/ telew orking/ flexi tim e offered by em ployers Lack of understanding of em ployers Lack of child care centres Men still believe that a w om an's role is to take care of the house The com m on m entality in Malta (including the w om en's) is that once a w om an get m arried/ has children she has to stay at hom e and take care of the fam ily School hours/ holidays are not com patible w ith w orking hours Other Don't know / Don't rem em ber Refused Total 607 138 22.7% 267 44.0% 22 3.6% 43 7.1% 27 4.4% 10 1.6% 18 3.0% 11 1.8% 18 3.0% 17 2.8% 32 5.3% 3 0.5% 1 0.2% Elem entary Occupation/ Service Worker Middle Mngt/ Managem ent Inactive/ Unem ployed 201 53 26.4% 90 44.8% 5 2.5% 10 5.0% 8 4.0% 4 2.0% 5 2.5% 3 1.5% 6 3.0% 3 1.5% 14 7.0% - - - - 205 44 21.5% 88 42.9% 7 3.4% 24 11.7% 13 6.3% 2 1.0% 9 4.4% 2 1.0% 6 2.9% 4 2.0% 5 2.4% - - 1 0.5% 201 41 20.4% 89 44.3% 10 5.0% 9 4.5% 6 3.0% 4 2.0% 4 2.0% 6 3.0% 6 3.0% 10 5.0% 13 6.5% 3 1.5% - - More than 93% (566 respondents) of the respondents agreed that in order to encourage more women to go out to work, family roles have to be shared equally between spouses; more support structures have to be in place for mothers who wish to go out to work and employers have to be encouraged to offer more teleworking/ reduced hours/ flexi-time working arrangements to working parents.
Table 4.28 below perceive their employment more positively.

Moreover, the financial aspect of the job, the illustrates this finding in more detail.

empowerment that work gives and the positive impact on the well-being are positive attributes that employment gives more to female employees who hold a managerial position rather than to females who hold an elementary/ service worker position.
TABLE 4.28 – Respondents’ Perceptions on Possible Incentives Encouraging More Women to Go Out To Work Almost 40% (242 respondents) of the aggregate 600 interviewees declared that they lead a stressful life.

This was primarily mentioned by 47% (96 respondents) of those holding a managerial position, by 37% (74 respondents) of those holding an elementary/ service worker designation and by 36% (72 respondents) of the inactive/ unemployed.
167 As Table 4.29 below shows, this stress is mainly attributed to a combination of both personal problems and work pressure, as expressed by more than 29% (71 respondents) of the respondents.

Following, 20% (49 respondents) attribute their stress solely to work pressure while 19% (46 respondents) relate their stress with personal life problems.

As one may observe, work pressure affects primarily females who occupy a managerial position.
Moreover, females engaged in an elementary/ service worker position tend more to attribute their stress to a combination of Unlocking the Female Potential - Research Report 163 TABLE 4.28 – Respondents’ Perceptions on Possible Incentives Encouraging More Women to Go Out To Work Counts Break % Respondents Total The responsibilities of fam ily and w ork w ould be too stressful Having children House chores are still considered as a w om en's responsibility No support structures for w orking m others Lack of reduced/ telew orking/ flexi tim e offered by em ployers Lack of understanding of em ployers Lack of child care centres Men still believe that a w om an's role is to take care of the house The com m on m entality in Malta (including the w om en's) is that once a w om an get m arried/ has children she has to stay at hom e and take care of the fam ily School hours/ holidays are not com patible w ith w orking hours Other Don't know / Don't rem em ber Refused Total 607 138 22.7% 267 44.0% 22 3.6% 43 7.1% 27 4.4% 10 1.6% 18 3.0% 11 1.8% 18 3.0% 17 2.8% 32 5.3% 3 0.5% 1 0.2% Elem entary Occupation/ Service Worker Middle Mngt/ Managem ent Inactive/ Unem ployed 201 53 26.4% 90 44.8% 5 2.5% 10 5.0% 8 4.0% 4 2.0% 5 2.5% 3 1.5% 6 3.0% 3 1.5% 14 7.0% - - - - 205 44 21.5% 88 42.9% 7 3.4% 24 11.7% 13 6.3% 2 1.0% 9 4.4% 2 1.0% 6 2.9% 4 2.0% 5 2.4% - - 1 0.5% 201 41 20.4% 89 44.3% 10 5.0% 9 4.5% 6 3.0% 4 2.0% 4 2.0% 6 3.0% 6 3.0% 10 5.0% 13 6.5% 3 1.5% - - More than 93% (566 respondents) of the respondents agreed that in order to encourage more women to go out to work, family roles have to be shared equally between spouses; more support structures have to be in place for mothers who wish to go out to work and employers have to be encouraged to offer more teleworking/ reduced hours/ flexi-time working arrangements to working parents.
Table 4.28 below illustrates this finding in more detail.

personal problems and work pressure, while the inactive/ unemployed, as to be expected, relate their stress to personal life problems.
TABLE 4.28 – Respondents’ Perceptions on Possible Incentives Encouraging More Women to Go Out To Work Almost 33% (133 respondents) of the 406 employed females pointed out that if they had to change an aspect of their job, they would increase their salary as they feel that they are not getting well paid for the work they do.

Following, more than 22% (91 respondents) claimed that they would shorten their working hours, this being mentioned particularly by respondents occupying a managerial position.
167 From Figure 4.7, it is worth noting that more than 46% (93 respondents) of those holding an elementary/ service worker position prefer working longer hours earning more money.

On the contrary, more than 56% (115 respondents) of those holding a managerial position claimed that they prefer to work regular hours earning less money.

Moreover, 46% (93 respondents) of the inactive/ unemployed respondents stated they prefer not work at all.
164 National Commission for the Promotion of Equality Other Relevant Issues on the subject According to 63% (384 respondents) of the survey respondents remarked that it is still financially worth it to go out to work after calculating the expenses incurred related to employment (e.g.

personal grooming, help at home, etc.).

This was indicated primarily by respondents who are currently employed, however, the majority of the inactive/ unemployed respondents expressed the opposite.
A similar result emerged when females were asked to indicate whether they believe that it is worth their while financially to be in employment after income tax and social security contributions are deducted from the gross salary.

51% (312 respondents) of the respondents believe that it is still worth their while; this was expressed primarily by those who are in paid employment rather than the inactive/ unemployed respondents.

male interviewees.

This is illustrated in Table 4.30 below.


The majority (51% - 45 respondents) of the 88 respondents recalled that their parent/ guardian was unemployed for more than one year.
TABLE 4.30 – Parent/ Guardian Being Ever Unemployed During His/Her Employable Age TABLE 4.29 – Factors Attributing to Stress Counts Break % Respondents Total Yes No Don't know / Don't rem em ber Refused Total 535 88 16.4% 391 73.1% 52 9.7% 4 0.7% Male- Fem ale- 15 - 34 yrs 35 - 64 yrs 15 - 34 yrs 35 - 64 yrs 168 26 15.5% 122 72.6% 18 10.7% 2 1.2% 197 39 19.8% 130 66.0% 27 13.7% 1 0.5% 91 12 13.2% 75 82.4% 4 4.4% - - 79 11 13.9% 64 81.0% 3 3.8% 1 1.3% Social Security Beneficiaries FIGURE 4.7 – Preferred Employment Status Almost 64% (340 respondents) of the interviewees indicated that they are currently receiving social security benefits (various).
Among these respondents there were 70% (257 respondents) of the male respondents and a lower 49% (83 respondents) of the female respondents.

50 60 40 It is interesting to point out that respondents who possess a low level of education tend to be more dependent on social security benefits than those who hold a higher level of education, as Figure 4.8 below shows.
30 20 10 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 FIGURE 4.8 – Respondents Receiving Social Security Benefits – by Level of Education 0 y r a t n e m e E l / n o i t a p u c c O r e k r o W e c i v r e S / t g n M e d d M i l t n e m e g a n a M / e v i t c a n I l d e y o p m e n U Longer working hours earning more money Regular hours earning less money Not work at all Other Relevant Issues on the Subject Unlocking the Female Potential - Research Report According to 63% (384 respondents) of the survey respondents remarked that it is still financially worth it to go out to work after calculating the expenses incurred related to employment (e.g.
personal grooming, 165 help at home, etc.).

This was indicated primarily by respondents who are currently employed, however, y the majority of the inactive/ unemployed respondents expressed the opposite.
r a m A similar result emerged when females were asked to indicate whether they believe that it is worth their while financially to be in employment after income tax and social security contributions are deducted from o n d e the gross salary.
51% (312 respondents) of the respondents believe that it is still worth their while; this was expressed primarily by those who are in paid employment rather than the inactive/ unemployed - t s P f o N c u w o d a e k r S - t s o P i r P c e S respondents.

A total of 237 respondents (39%) maintained that they do not believe that social security contributions are a long term investment for when one is of a pensionable age.
This was followed by another 189 respondents (31%) who claimed that NI contributions are a long term investment but it would need to be supported by another income.

These views were expressed by all respondents irrespective of their employment status and job designation.

Refused e T Yes No The socio-economic classification also has an impact on whether individuals receive social security household.
Nevertheless, husbands/ partners and friends also provide emotional support to the females Practical and emotional support is mainly given to the female respondents by family members outside the benefits.

A high 73.5% (289 respondents) of the 393 respondents who fall within the DE category receive interviewed.

such benefits.
such benefits.

This can be attributed to the fact that 65% (346 respondents) of the respondents are the Finally, the 479 respondents, who are not the main income earners of their household, were asked to main income earners of their households.

Table 4.32 highlights this finding.

state whether they believe they would be able to sustain themselves and their dependents (if any) on their own.
A rather worrying 38% (182 respondents) gave a negative response while another 38% (181 respondents) replied in the positive.

The research findings show that those giving a negative response either occupy an elementary/ service worker position or are inactive/ unemployed while those who believe that they would be able to cope by themselves are primarily females who occupy a managerial position.
172 170 A total of 237 respondents (39%) maintained that they do not believe that social security contributions are a long term investment for when one is of a pensionable age.

This was followed by another 189 respondents (31%) who claimed that NI contributions are a long term investment but it would need to be supported by another income.

These views were expressed by all respondents irrespective of their employment status and job designation.
Practical and emotional support is mainly given to the female respondents by family members outside the household.

Nevertheless, husbands/ partners and friends also provide emotional support to the females interviewed.

Finally, the 479 respondents, who are not the main income earners of their household, were asked to state whether they believe they would be able to sustain themselves and their dependents (if any) on their own.
A rather worrying 38% (182 respondents) gave a negative response while another 38% (181 respondents) replied in the positive.

The research findings show that those giving a negative response either occupy an elementary/ service worker position or are inactive/ unemployed while those who believe that they would be able to cope by themselves are primarily females who occupy a managerial position.
4.5.3 ACTIVITY III – Analysing the Effect of social security benefits on w omen in their decision to take up Employment or not This section highlights the findings that emerged from the quantitative research study with unemployed males and females: I. Respondent Profile Gender, Age, Level of Education, Marital status and Caring Responsibilities A total of at least 500 (535 interviews were actually conducted) completed interviews were conducted with unemployed individuals for the purpose of this research study.
Of these respondents, 365 (68%) were male while 170 (32%) were female.

The majority of the male respondents aged between 35 - 64 years while the age of the females was mostly between 15 - 34 years.

The majority (54% - 290 respondents) of the respondents, both male and female, possess a secondary level of education and the majority of them (53% - 285 respondents) are single and of a younger age.
A rather high 67% (360 respondents) of the interviewees indicated that they do not have any caring responsibilities while 23% (122 respondents) indicated that they have and they are the main carers.

It is worthy of mention that respondents having caring responsibilities are both male and female respondents.

Almost all of these respondents with child-caring responsibilities, have either one or two children.
93% (497 respondents) of the interviewees are currently formally registering for work with ETC and 43% (228 respondents) have been unemployed for one to five years, the latter being mainly respondents whose age falls in the 35 to 64 years bracket.

166 National Commission for the Promotion of Equality Past Employment A very high 88% (470 respondents) of the aggregate respondents claimed that they used to be employed in the past, this being stated primarily by those aged between 35 - 64 years.
A rather high 47% (220 respondents) of these respondents indicated that they used to hold an elementary occupation/ plant and machine operator/ assembler designation and 35% (163 respondents) pointed out that they used to be employed in the Manufacturing sector.

Almost all of the same 470 respondents used to be employed in the Private sector and half of them mentioned that they were engaged on full-time basis working office hours.
The majority of these respondents (59% - 276 respondents) specified that they held their last designation for less than three years while 22% (104 respondents) indicated that they were in their last occupation for over seven years.

A rather high 62% (291 respondents) conveyed that they used to earn a gross salary less than 10,000 per annum in their last employment.

Meanwhile, 12% (65 respondents) indicated that they were never employed.

These respondents were primarily female under 34 years of age.
Being a student was the main reason given by the respondents who were never in employment.

social background A high 73.5% (393 respondents) of the respondents’ households fall within the DE socio-economic classification.

This is more evident among male respondents, where 82% (298 respondents) of them fall within this category as opposed to 56% (95 respondents) of the females.

All respondents were then asked to specify whether their parent/ guardian was ever unemployed during his/ her employable age.
It results that more than 73% (391 respondents) replied that his/her parent/ guardian was not unemployed during his/ her employable age, while 16% (88 respondents) gave a positive response.

It is interesting to note that the respondents who replied in the positive were mainly male interviewees.

This is illustrated in Table 4.30.

The majority (51% - 45 respondents) of the 88 respondents recalled that their parent/ guardian was unemployed for more than one year.
social security beneficiaries Almost 64% (340 respondents) of the interviewees indicated that they are currently receiving social security benefits (various).

Among these respondents there were 70% (257 respondents) of the male respondents and a lower 49% (83 respondents) of the female respondents.

It is interesting to point out that respondents who possess a low level of education tend to be more dependent on social security benefits than those who hold a higher level of education, as Figure 4.8 shows.
The socio-economic classification also has an impact on whether individuals receive social security benefits.

A high 73.5% (289 respondents) of the 393 respondents who fall within the DE category receive such benefits.

This can be attributed to the fact that 65% (346 respondents) of the respondents are the main income earners of their households.

Table 4.31 highlights this finding.


Of the 340 respondents who are currently receiving social security benefits, a high 74% (253 respondents) indicated that they are receiving social security benefits, that is, benefits received after a person would have been unemployed for more than six months.

Following, 21% (70 respondents) mentioned that they are receiving unemployment benefits aimed at persons who have been unemployed for less than six months.
Table 4.32 below illustrates this finding in more detail.

Unlocking the Female Potential - Research Report 167 male interviewees.

This is illustrated in Table 4.30 below.

The majority (51% - 45 respondents) of the 88 male interviewees.

This is illustrated in Table 4.30 below.

The majority (51% - 45 respondents) of the 88 respondents recalled that their parent/ guardian was unemployed for more than one year.

respondents recalled that their parent/ guardian was unemployed for more than one year.
TABLE 4.30 – Parent/ Guardian Being Ever Unemployed During His/Her Employable Age TABLE 4.30 – Parent/ Guardian Being Ever Unemployed During His/Her Employable Age TABLE 4.30 – Parent/ Guardian Being Ever Unemployed During His/Her Employable Age Counts Break % Respondents Counts Break % Respondents Total Yes No Total Yes Don't know / Don't rem em ber No Refused Total Total 535 88 16.4% 535 391 73.1% 88 16.4% 391 73.1% 52 9.7% 4 0.7% Male- Male- Fem ale- Fem ale- 15 - 34 yrs 35 - 64 yrs 15 - 34 yrs 35 - 64 yrs 15 - 34 yrs 168 35 - 64 yrs 197 91 15 - 34 yrs 79 35 - 64 yrs - - 11 91 13.9% 64 12 81.0% 13.2% 3 3.8% 75 1 82.4% 1.3% 4 4.4% 79 11 13.9% 64 81.0% 3 3.8% Social Security Beneficiaries Don't know / Don't rem em ber 52 9.7% 4 Almost 64% (340 respondents) of the interviewees indicated that they are currently receiving social 0.7% security benefits (various).
Among these respondents there were 70% (257 respondents) of the male respondents and a lower 49% (83 respondents) of the female respondents.

Refused 2 1.2% 1 0.5% 1 1.3% - - Social Security Beneficiaries It is interesting to point out that respondents who possess a low level of education tend to be more dependent on social security benefits than those who hold a higher level of education, as Figure 4.8 below shows.
Almost 64% (340 respondents) of the interviewees indicated that they are currently receiving social security benefits (various).

Among these respondents there were 70% (257 respondents) of the male FIGURE 4.8 – Respondents Receiving Social Security Benefits – by Level of Education respondents and a lower 49% (83 respondents) of the female respondents.
FIGURE 4.8 – Respondents Receiving Social Security Benefits – by Level of Education 100 90 80 It is interesting to point out that respondents who possess a low level of education tend to be more dependent on social security benefits than those who hold a higher level of education, as Figure 4.8 below shows.
40 60 50 70 30 20 FIGURE 4.8 – Respondents Receiving Social Security Benefits – by Level of Education 10 100 0 y r a m i r P y r a d n o c e S y r a d n o c e S - t s o P y r a i t r e T Yes No Refused e t a u d a r G - 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 The socio-economic classification also has an impact on whether individuals receive social security benefits.
A high 73.5% (289 respondents) of the 393 respondents who fall within the DE category receive such benefits.

This can be attributed to the fact that 65% (346 respondents) of the respondents are the y r main income earners of their households.

Table 4.32 highlights this finding.
a d y n r o a c m e S TABLE 4.31 – Respondents Receiving Social Security Benefits – by Socio-Economic Classification e t a u d a r G 172 y r a l TABLE 4.32 – Respondents Receiving Social Security Benefits – by Socio-Economic Classification a m r o f o N o t e t u t i b r w w n o o d h i n t Refused to s a a w c d state u o a d n e Occupation e k r d e s u f e R y r a d n o Counts c e Break % S Respondents i r P Total Yes No Refused Total - t s o P 535 340 63.6% 193 36.1% 2 0.4% i t r e T AB 46 18 39.1% Yes 28 60.9% No - - Refused C1C2 76 23 30.3% 52 68.4% 1 1.3% - t s o P DE 393 289 73.5% 103 26.2% 1 0.3% 20 10 50.0% 10 50.0% - - The socio-economic classification also has an impact on whether individuals receive social security Of the 340 respondents who are currently receiving social security benefits, a high 74% (253 benefits.
A high 73.5% (289 respondents) of the 393 respondents who fall within the DE category receive 168 respondents) indicated that they are receiving social security benefits, that is, benefits received after a such benefits.

This can be attributed to the fact that 65% (346 respondents) of the respondents are the person would have been unemployed for more than six months.

Following, 21% (70 respondents) main income earners of their households.

Table 4.32 highlights this finding.


mentioned that they are receiving unemployment benefits aimed at persons who have been unemployed National Commission for the Promotion of Equality for less than six months.

Table 4.33 below illustrates this finding in more detail.
172 TABLE 4.33 – Social Security Benefits Currently being Received Counts Break % Respondents Male- Fem ale- Total 15 - 34 yrs 35 - 64 yrs 15 - 34 yrs 35 - 64 yrs Total 340 101 156 37 46 received after person 70 w ould have been less 20.6% 18 17.8% 34 21.8% 9 24.3% 9 19.6% Unem ploym ent benefits (benefits than 6 m onths unem ployed) Social Security benefits (benefits received after person w ould have been m ore than 6 m onths unem ployed) Widow 's Persion Children's allow ance Single m other benefits Persons w ith disability benefits Housing allow ance Sickness benefits Suplem entary Incom e Allow ance Carers' pension 6.9% 18.9% 8.7% 13 8.3% Social Assistance for separated persons 2.6% 3.2% 2.7% 6.5% 253 74.4% 79 78.2% 121 77.6% 25 67.6% 28 60.9% 31 9.1% 0.9% 1.5% 19 5.6% 11 3.2% 31 9.1% - - 9 3 5 - - 5 1 1 - - 7 - - - - 2 4 3 9 - - 1 1 - - 2.0% 4.0% 3.0% 8.9% - - 5 - - 2 - - 2 - - - - 1.3% 10 6.4% 7 4.5% 15 9.6% 8.1% 2.7% 2.7% 8.7% 2.2% 2.7% 13.0% - - 4 3 - - - - 4 1 6 - - 2 - - 1 - - 7 1 3 1 1 - - 1 - - - - - - - - Other 1.5% 1.0% 1.3% 4.3% Don't know / Don't rem em ber 0.3% 1.0% Refused 0.3% 2.2% The majority (59% - 201 respondents) of the same 340 respondents stated that they are getting more than €151 in social security benefits every four weeks while 17% (58 respondents) indicated that they are getting between €76 and €100.
This finding is highlighted in Table 4.34 below.
173 TABLE 4.32 – Respondents Receiving Social Security Benefits – by Socio-Economic Classification Counts Break % Respondents Total Yes No Total 535 340 63.6% 193 36.1% AB 46 18 39.1% 28 60.9% C1C2 DE 76 23 30.3% 52 68.4% 393 289 73.5% 103 26.2% Refused to state Occupation 20 10 50.0% 10 50.0% Refused 2 0.4% - - The majority (59% - 201 respondents) of the same 340 respondents stated that they are getting more than e151 in social security benefits every four weeks while 17% (58 respondents) indicated that they are getting between e76 and e100.
This finding is highlighted in Table 4.33.

Of the 340 respondents who are currently receiving social security benefits, a high 74% (253 respondents) indicated that they are receiving social security benefits, that is, benefits received after a person would have been unemployed for more than six months.

Following, 21% (70 respondents) mentioned that they are receiving unemployment benefits aimed at persons who have been unemployed for less than six months.
Table 4.33 below illustrates this finding in more detail.
A high 73% (248 respondents) of the same interviewees communicated that they have been dependent on social security benefits for less than three years; 39% (134 respondents) for less 1 0.3% 1 1.3% - - TABLE 4.32 – Social Security Benefits Currently being Received TABLE 4.33 – Social Security Benefits Currently being Received Counts Break % Respondents Male- Fem ale- Total 15 - 34 yrs 35 - 64 yrs 15 - 34 yrs 35 - 64 yrs Total 340 101 156 37 46 Unem ploym ent benefits (benefits received after person w ould have been less than 6 m onths unem ployed) Social Security benefits (benefits received after person w ould have been m ore than 6 m onths unem ployed) Widow 's Persion Children's allow ance Social Assistance for separated persons Single m other benefits Persons w ith disability benefits Housing allow ance Sickness benefits Suplem entary Incom e Allow ance Carers' pension Other Don't know / Don't rem em ber Refused 70 20.6% 18 17.8% 34 21.8% 9 24.3% 9 19.6% 253 74.4% 79 78.2% 121 77.6% 25 67.6% 28 60.9% - - 31 9.1% 9 2.6% 3 0.9% 5 1.5% 19 5.6% 11 3.2% 31 9.1% - - 5 1.5% 1 0.3% 1 0.3% - - 7 6.9% - - - - 2 2.0% 4 4.0% 3 3.0% 9 8.9% - - 1 1.0% 1 1.0% - - - - 13 8.3% 5 3.2% - - 2 1.3% 10 6.4% 7 4.5% 15 9.6% - - 2 1.3% - - - - - - 7 18.9% 1 2.7% 3 8.1% 1 2.7% 1 2.7% - - 1 2.7% - - - - - - - - - - 4 8.7% 3 6.5% - - - - 4 8.7% 1 2.2% 6 13.0% - - 2 4.3% - - 1 2.2% The majority (59% - 201 respondents) of the same 340 respondents stated that they are getting more than €151 in social security benefits every four weeks while 17% (58 respondents) indicated that they are getting between €76 and €100.
This finding is highlighted in Table 4.34 below.

Unlocking the Female Potential - Research Report 169 173 than a year and 33.5% (114 respondents) for between 1- 3 years.

The highest numbers were registered among females aged 15 and 34 years, which totalled 89% of this cohort.

Once again, the level of education of the unemployed individuals has an impact on the duration they remain dependent on these benefits.
In fact, those who possess a high level of education are those who have been dependent of benefits for the shortest time, with the high majority of them mentioning that they have been receiving such benefits for less than a year.

It is also very interesting to mention that those respondents, who had their parent/ guardian unemployed, are more likely to remain dependent on social security benefits for a long period of time, meaning for more than three years.
Moreover, the socio-economic classification also affects how long unemployed remain dependent on social security benefits, where those falling in the DE classification tend to remain dependent on benefits for a longer period of time than those who form part of the AB and C1C2 categories.

Table 4.34 shows this finding by the level of education of the respondent while Figure 4.9 illustrates the same result by whether respondents had their parent/ guardian unemployed.
TABLE 4.33 – Amount Received in Social Security Benefits Every Four Weeks TABLE 4.34 – Amount Received in Social Security Benefits Every Four Weeks Counts Break % Respondents Total Less than €25 Betw een €26 - €50 Betw een €51 - €75 Betw een €76 - €100 Betw een €101 - €125 Betw een €126 - €150 More than €151 Don't know / Don't rem em ber Refused Total 340 2 0.6% 9 2.6% 20 5.9% 58 17.1% 21 6.2% 14 4.1% 201 59.1% 12 3.5% 3 0.9% Male- Fem ale- 15 - 34 yrs 35 - 64 yrs 15 - 34 yrs 35 - 64 yrs 101 - - - - 37 - - 2 5.4% 1 2.7% 2 5.4% 3 8.1% 2 5.4% 23 62.2% 3 8.1% 1 2.7% 46 - - 2 4.3% 1 2.2% 11 23.9% - - 4 8.7% 24 52.2% 3 6.5% 1 2.2% A high 73% (248 respondents) of the same interviewees communicated that they have been dependent on social security benefits for less than three years; 39% (134 respondents) for less than a year and 33.5% (114 respondents) for between 1- 3 years.
The highest numbers were registered among females aged 15 and 34 years, which totalled 89% of this cohort.

Once again, the level of education of the unemployed individuals has an impact on the duration they remain dependent on these benefits.

In fact, those who possess a high level of education are those who have been dependent of benefits for the shortest time, with the high majority of them mentioning that they have been receiving such benefits for less than a year.
National Commission for the Promotion of Equality 170 It is also very interesting to mention that those respondents, who had their parent/ guardian unemployed, are more likely to remain dependent on social security benefits for a long period of time, meaning for more than three years.
Moreover, the socio-economic classification also affects how long unemployed remain dependent on social security benefits, where those falling in the DE classification tend to remain dependent on benefits for a longer period of time than those who form part of the AB and C1C2 categories.

Table 4.35 shows this finding by the level of education of the respondent while Table 4.36 illustrates the same result by whether respondents had their parent/ guardian unemployed.
TABLE 4.35 – Duration of Time Dependent on Social Security Benefits – by Level of Education 174 TABLE 4.34 – Duration of Time Dependent on Social Security Benefits – by Level of Education Total Prim ary Secondary Post- Secondary Tertiary Post- Graduate No form al education but know s how to read and w rite Refused Counts Break % Respondents Total For less than a year Counts Break % Betw een 1 and 3 Respondents years Betw een 3 and 5 Total years Betw een 5 and 7 For less than a year years Betw een 1 and 3 years For over 7 years Betw een 3 and 5 Don't know / Don't years rem em ber Betw een 5 and 7 years Refused For over 7 years 340 134 39.4% Total 114 33.5% 32 340 9.4% 134 23 39.4% 6.8% 114 30 33.5% 8.8% 32 6 9.4% 1.8% 23 1 6.8% 0.3% 30 8.8% 25 194 81 7 28.0% Prim ary 7 28.0% 72 37.1% Secondary 76 39.2% 31 38.3% Post- Secondary 22 27.2% 21 15 71.4% Tertiary 4 19.0% 6 3 50.0% Post- Graduate 2 33.3% 4 25 16.0% 7 2 28.0% 8.0% 7 4 28.0% 16.0% 4 - 16.0% - 2 1 8.0% 4.0% 4 16.0% 15 194 7.7% 72 9 37.1% 4.6% 76 19 39.2% 9.8% 15 3 7.7% 1.5% 9 - 4.6% - 19 9.8% 10 81 12.3% 31 11 38.3% 13.6% 22 4 27.2% 4.9% 10 3 12.3% 3.7% 11 - 13.6% - 4 4.9% 1 4.8% 21 15 - 71.4% - 4 1 19.0% 4.8% - - - - 1 4.8% - - 1 4.8% 13 No form al 6 education 46.2% but know s how to 3 read and 23.1% w rite 2 15.4% 13 6 - - 3 50.0% 1 16.7% 6 46.2% - - - - - - - - 2 33.3% - - 1 16.7% - - 3 23.1% 2 15.4% 2 15.4% - - 2 15.4% - - - - Refused - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Don't know / Don't rem em ber TABLE 4.36 – Duration of Time Dependent on Social Security Benefits – by Parent/ Guardian Ever Being Unemployed 3 1.5% 3 3.7% 6 1.8% - - - - - - - - 70 Refused 1 0.3% 1 4.0% - - - - - - - - - - 60 FIGURE 4.9 – Duration of Time Dependent on Social Security Benefits – by Parent/ Guardian 50 Ever Being Unemployed 40 TABLE 4.36 – Duration of Time Dependent on Social Security Benefits – by Parent/ Guardian Ever Being Unemployed 70 30 60 20 50 10 40 0 30 20 10 0 s e Y s e Y II.
Perceptions of Employment Reasons for looking for Employment II.
Perceptions of Employment d e s u f e R d e s u f e R r e b m e m e r t ' n o D / w o n k t ' n o D r e b m e m e r t ' n o D / w o n k t ' n o D o N o N For less than a year Between 1 and 3 years Between 3 and 5 years Between 5 and 7 years For less than a year For over 7 years Between 1 and 3 years Don't know/ Don't remember Between 3 and 5 years Between 5 and 7 years Refused For over 7 years Don't know/ Don't remember Refused Reasons for looking for Employment The main circumstance which led respondents to becoming unemployed was due to company downsizing and creating redundancies at their workplace.
This was expressed by 32% (170 respondents) of the aggregate 535 respondents, these being largely male respondents.

Following another 15.5% (83 II.

Perceptions of Employment The main circumstance which led respondents to becoming unemployed was due to company downsizing and creating redundancies at their workplace.

This was expressed by 32% (170 respondents) of the aggregate 535 respondents, these being largely male respondents.
Following another 15.5% (83 Reasons for looking for Employment The main circumstance which led respondents to becoming unemployed was due to company downsizing and creating redundancies at their workplace.

This was expressed by 32% (170 respondents) of the aggregate 535 respondents, these being largely male respondents.
Following another 15.5% (83 respondents) indicated that they were made redundant through the closure of the establishment they used to work for, this also being mentioned by more male than female respondents.

175 175 Unlocking the Female Potential - Research Report 171 Table 4.35 highlights the reasons why respondents would like to take up employment.

It is very evident that the financial need is the main reason why both male and female interviewees are looking for work.
In fact, this was mentioned by a staggering 93% (265 respondents) of the respondents.

This was followed by another 23% (66 respondents), mainly male respondents, who claimed that they would like to work to be able to keep up with the standard of living.

respondents) indicated that they were made redundant through the closure of the establishment they used to work for, this also being mentioned by more male than female respondents.
The financial need was also highlighted as the main reason why respondents, who had left their last job because of their caring responsibilities and who still have such responsibilities, are looking for employment.

These respondents also claimed that once they get employed, the grandparents will take care of the children.

Table 4.37 below highlights the reasons why respondents would like to take up employment.
It is very evident that the financial need is the main reason why both male and female interviewees are looking for work.

In fact, this was mentioned by a staggering 93% (265 respondents) of the respondents.

This was Almost 54% (288 respondents) of the aggregate interviewees pointed out that the main reason followed by another 23% (66 respondents), mainly male respondents, who claimed that they would like to why they cannot find employment is because there is a lack of job opportunities.
This was mainly stated by male and female respondents aged between 15 and 34 years.

Secondly, another 17% work to be able to keep up with the standard of living.

(91 respondents) claimed being rejected by employers because of the 45/50 years age factor is the main reason why they cannot find employment.

Table 4.36 highlights this finding.


The financial need was also highlighted as the main reason why respondents, who had left their last job because of their caring responsibilities and who still have such responsibilities, are looking for employment.

These respondents also claimed that once they get employed, the grandparents will take care of the children.
TABLE 4.35 – Main Reasons for Looking for Employment TABLE 4.37 – Main Reasons for Looking for Employment Counts Break % Respondents Total There is a financial need Being in em ploym ent is a m otivator for one's w ell being Sole provider of the fam ily To keep up w ith the standard of living Social security benefits are insufficient I w ish to do som ething w orthy in m y life I got bored doing nothing Other Don't know / Don't rem em ber Refused Total 285 265 93.0% 44 15.4% 39 13.7% 66 23.2% 28 9.8% 20 7.0% 48 16.8% 5 1.8% 3 1.1% - - Male- Fem ale- 15 - 34 yrs 35 - 64 yrs 15 - 34 yrs 35 - 64 yrs 93 90 96.8% 13 14.0% 9 9.7% 26 28.0% 7 7.5% 6 6.5% 18 19.4% - - 2 2.2% - - 120 113 94.2% 18 15.0% 26 21.7% 28 23.3% 15 12.5% 6 5.0% 17 14.2% 3 2.5% - - - - 31 27 87.1% 5 16.1% - - 5 16.1% 1 3.2% 5 16.1% 7 22.6% - - 1 3.2% - - 41 35 85.4% 8 19.5% 4 9.8% 7 17.1% 5 12.2% 3 7.3% 6 14.6% 2 4.9% - - - - Almost 54% (288 respondents) of the aggregate interviewees pointed out that the main reason why they cannot find employment is because there is a lack of job opportunities.
This was mainly stated by male 172 and female respondents aged between 15 and 34 years.

Secondly, another 17% (91 respondents) claimed being rejected by employers because of the 45/50 years age factor is the main reason why they cannot find employment.

Table 4.38 below highlights this finding.
National Commission for the Promotion of Equality TABLE 4.38 – Main Reason why Respondents cannot find Employment 176 TABLE 4.36 – Main Reason why Respondents cannot find Employment Counts Break % Respondents Total Lack of job opportunities Rejected due to the over 45/50 years age factor No or low level of academ ic qualifications Lack of skills for the job offered Jobs offered have inferior designation Asked to go on self- em ploym ent Em ployers refuse to engage persons w ith caring responsibilites Lack of availability of fam ily-friendly m easures Paym ent is not com m ensurate w ith the hours and job perform ed Other Don't know / Don't rem em ber Refused Total 535 288 53.8% 91 17.0% 27 5.0% 11 2.1% 6 1.1% - - 2 0.4% 2 0.4% 9 1.7% 83 15.5% 16 3.0% - - Male- Fem ale- 15 - 34 yrs 35 - 64 yrs 15 - 34 yrs 35 - 64 yrs 168 102 60.7% 7 4.2% 7 4.2% 7 4.2% 1 0.6% - - 1 0.6% 1 0.6% 3 1.8% 33 19.6% 6 3.6% - - 197 92 46.7% 57 28.9% 6 3.0% - - 4 2.0% - - 1 0.5% 1 0.5% 3 1.5% 31 15.7% 2 1.0% - - 91 59 64.8% 1 1.1% 7 7.7% 4 4.4% 1 1.1% - - - - - - 2 2.2% 14 15.4% 3 3.3% - - 79 35 44.3% 26 32.9% 7 8.9% - - - - - - - - - - 1 1.3% 5 6.3% 5 6.3% - - Desired Employment desired Employment A very high 84% (449 respondents), of the aggregate 535 respondents, are presently looking for full time A very high 84% (449 respondents) of the aggregate 535 respondents, are presently looking for employment.
This was stated by all respondents, irrespective of gender and age, however, one observes full time employment.

This was stated by all respondents, irrespective of gender and age, however, that a good number of females over 35 years of age would like to find a job on part time basis.

one observes that a good number of females over 35 years of age would like to find a job on part time basis.
The 36 respondents, these being mainly female respondents, who mentioned that they would like to find employment on part-time, reduced hours or casual basis were asked to specify the reason behind this.
It The 36 respondents, these being mainly female respondents, who mentioned that they would like to find employment on part-time basis, reduced hours or casual basis were asked to specify the emerges that being the main carer in the household is the main reason why respondents do not wish to reason behind this.

It emerges that being the main carer in the household is the main reason why work on full time basis.

respondents do not wish to work on full time basis.
A total of 198 respondents (37%) mentioned that they would like to find a job at an elementary/ plant and machine operator/ assembler level.

This was expressed by both male and female respondents of different ages.

Meanwhile, another 27% (146 respondents) pointed out that they would like a service 173 worker/ shop and sales worker, clerk position.

This was primarily mentioned by female respondents of different ages.

This finding in illustrated in more detail in Table 4.39 below.
Unlocking the Female Potential - Research Report TABLE 4.39 – Desired Job Designation 177 A total of 198 respondents (37%) mentioned that they would like to find a job at an elementary/ plant and machine operator/ assembler level.

This was expressed by both male and female respondents of different ages.

Meanwhile, another 27% (146 respondents) pointed out that they would like a service worker/ shop and sales worker, clerk position.

This was primarily mentioned by female respondents of different ages.
This finding is illustrated in more detail in Table 4.37 below.

A high 73% (389 respondents) of the respondents indicated that they are willing to accept a job which is not what they actually desire.

This was mentioned mainly by respondents aged between 15 - 34 years.

Moreover, more than 64% (344 respondents) expressed that they would accept a job at a lower grade than what they are actually looking for.

This was mentioned by respondents irrespective of their gender and age.
Unfortunately, a high 75% (402 respondents) currently are not undergoing any training in order to better their chances of finding employment.

Nevertheless, 25% (133 respondents) indicated that they are, these respondents being both males and females of different ages.

The latter respondents are mainly undergoing: computer/ ECDL training, English language course, food handling course, security course, health and safety training, and, job skills course.
TABLE 4.37 – Desired Job Designation Counts Break % Respondents Total Male- Fem ale- 15 - 34 yrs 35 - 64 yrs 15 - 34 yrs 35 - 64 yrs Total 535 168 197 91 79 Elem entary Occupation; Plant & Machine Operator/ Assem bler Craft & Related Trades Worker; Skilled Agricultural & Fishery Worker Service Worker/ Shop & Sales Worker; Clerk Technician/ Associate Professional Professional/ Legislator/ Senior Official/ Manager Other Don't know Refused 198 37.0% 43 8.0% 146 27.3% 17 3.2% 32 6.0% 83 15.5% 16 3.0% - - 63 37.5% 76 38.6% 28 30.8% 31 39.2% 16 9.5% 44 26.2% 3 1.8% 9 5.4% 27 16.1% 6 3.6% - - 22 11.2% 32 16.2% 10 5.1% 14 7.1% 35 17.8% 8 4.1% - - 1 1.1% 4 5.1% 44 48.4% 26 32.9% 4 4.4% 4 4.4% 10 11.0% - - - - - - 5 6.3% 11 13.9% 2 2.5% - - A high 73% (389 respondents) of the respondents indicated that they are willing to accept a job which is 174 not what they actually desire.
This was mentioned mainly by respondents aged between 15 - 34 years.

National Commission for the Promotion of Equality Moreover, more than 64% (344 respondents) expressed that they would accept a job at a lower grade than what they are actually looking for.

This was mentioned by respondents irrespective of their gender and age.

Unfortunately, a high 75% (402 respondents) currently are not undergoing any training in order to better their chances of finding employment.
Nevertheless, 25% (133 respondents) indicated that they are, these respondents being both males and females of different ages.

The latter respondents are mainly undergoing: computer/ ECDL training, English language course, food handling course, security course, health and safety training, and, job skills course.

III.
III.

Perceptions of Social Security Benefits Social Security Benefits – Abuse and Fairness A worrying 45% (242 respondents) of the aggregate respondents believe that social security benefits are abused of in Malta.

This was stated by 48% (82 respondents) of the female respondents and 44% (160 respondents) of the male respondents.

One also observes that respondents whose age falls in the 35 - 64 years bracket are more sceptical of the social security benefits system than those of a younger age.
A good number of these respondents indicated that the main reason for this abuse is because many people do informal work while they are registering for employment and receiving social benefits.

However, other reasons for this abuse included ‘single’ mothers who are not actually single and the people registering for work, receiving benefits, but who do not really want to work.

178 III.
178 III.

Perceptions of social security benefits social security benefits – Abuse and Fairness A worrying 45% (242 respondents) of the aggregate respondents believe that social security benefits are abused of in Malta.

This was stated by 48% (82 respondents) of the female respondents and 44% (160 respondents) of the male respondents.

One also observes that respondents whose age falls in the 35 - 64 years bracket are more sceptical of the social security benefits system than those of a younger age.
A good number of these respondents indicated that the main reason for this abuse is because many people do informal work while they are registering for employment and receiving social security benefits.
However, other reasons for this abuse included ‘single’ mothers who are not Nevertheless, another 25% (136 respondents) claimed that social security benefits are not abused of, this actually single and the people registering for work, receiving benefits, but who do not really want being stated mainly by males and females are a younger than 34 years of age.

to work.
to work.

Mixed feelings were expressed when all respondents were asked to indicate whether they feel that the Nevertheless, another 25% (136 respondents) claimed that social security benefits are not abused of, this being stated mainly by males and females who are younger than 34 years of age.

system of social security benefits in Malta works fairly for everyone.

In fact, 33% (179 respondents) replied in the negative while 30% (159 respondents) gave a positive response.
It emerges that males Mixed feelings were expressed when all respondents were asked to indicate whether they feel provided a more negative response than the female respondents.

Moreover, respondents who age over that the system of social security benefits in Malta works fairly for everyone.

In fact, 33% (179 35 years were more pessimistic than those of a younger age.

This is illustrated in Table 4.40 below.

respondents) replied in the negative while 30% (159 respondents) gave a positive response.
It emerges that males provided a more negative response than the female respondents.

Moreover, respondents who age over 35 years were more pessimistic than those of a younger age.

This is illustrated in Table 4.38 below.

The respondents observed that the main reasons as to why the system does not work fairly for everyone were because not everyone receives the same amount in benefits and the people who are truly in need are not getting sufficient assistance through these benefits.
TABLE 4.40 – Respondents’ Perceptions on the Fairness of Social Security Benefits TABLE 4.38 – Respondents’ Perceptions on the Fairness of Social Security Benefits Counts Break % Respondents Total No, not at all No So and so Yes Yes, very m uch Don't know Refused Male- Fem ale- 15 - 34 yrs 35 - 64 yrs 15 - 34 yrs 35 - 64 yrs 168 9 5.4% 50 29.8% 27 16.1% 48 28.6% 2 1.2% 31 18.5% 1 0.6% 197 8 4.1% 59 29.9% 30 15.2% 50 25.4% 5 2.5% 45 22.8% - - 91 2 2.2% 18 19.8% 15 16.5% 35 38.5% 4 4.4% 17 18.7% - - 79 10 12.7% 23 29.1% 17 21.5% 14 17.7% 1 1.3% 13 16.5% 1 1.3% Total 535 29 5.4% 150 28.0% 89 16.6% 147 27.5% 12 2.2% 106 19.8% 2 0.4% A very high 75% (260 respondents) of the 346 respondents, who are the main income earners in their households, remarked that the amount they receive in social security benefits is not enough to support financially the household.
This was mentioned by 77% (215 respondents) of the male interviewees and 175 by 67% (45 respondents) of the female respondents.

Another 12% (43 respondents) pointed out that they are not currently receiving any benefits while 11% (37 respondents) claimed that the benefits they receive are enough to support their household.
Unlocking the Female Potential - Research Report Social Security Benefits hindering Individuals from finding Employment A high 71% (378 respondents) argued that social benefits do not hinder individuals from looking for employment.

This was stated by 72% (264 respondents) of the male respondents and by 67% (114 respondents) of the female interviewees.
Following, another 13% (71 respondents) claimed that such benefits discourage unemployed persons from finding work, this being mentioned by 13% (47 respondents) and by 14% (24 respondents) of the male and female respondents respectively.
Out of the 36 respondents, who had previously indicated that they wish to be employed on part time, reduced hours or casual basis, 44.5% (16 respondents) claimed that they would be earning more through employment than they are currently receiving in social benefits while another 11% (4 respondents) stated that they would not be earning more.
Half (269 respondents) of the aggregate respondents specified that, if they were in employment, they would be earning at least €151 more, every four weeks, than what they are presently receiving in benefits.
Moreover, another 26% (137 respondents) indicated that they do not know how much more they would be 179 The respondents observed that the main reasons as to why the system does not work fairly for everyone were because not everyone receives the same amount in benefits and the people who are truly in need are not getting sufficient assistance through these benefits.
A very high 75% (260 respondents) of the 346 respondents, who are the main income earners in their households, remarked that the amount they receive in social security benefits is not enough to support financially the household.

This was mentioned by 77% (215 respondents) of the male interviewees and by 67% (45 respondents) of the female respondents.
Another 12% (43 respondents) pointed out that they are not currently receiving any benefits while 11% (37 respondents) claimed that the benefits they receive are enough to support their household.

social security benefits hindering Individuals from finding Employment A high 71% (378 respondents) argued that social security benefits do not hinder individuals from looking for employment.

This was stated by 72% (264 respondents) of the male respondents and by 67% (114 respondents) of the female interviewees.
Following, another 13% (71 respondents) claimed that such benefits discourage unemployed persons from finding work, this being mentioned by 13% (47 respondents) and by 14% (24 respondents) of the male and female respondents respectively.
Out of the 36 respondents who had previously indicated that they wish to be employed on part time, reduced hours or casual basis, 44.5% (16 respondents) claimed that they would be earning more through employment than they are currently receiving in social security benefits while another 11% (4 respondents) stated that they would not be earning more.
Half (269 respondents) of the aggregate respondents specified that, if they were in employment, they would be earning at least e151 more, every four weeks, than what they are presently receiving in benefits.

Moreover, another 26% (137 respondents) indicated that they do not know how much more they would be earning while 23% (121 respondents) claimed that they would be earning less than e150.

This is illustrated comprehensively in Table 4.39 below.
82% (437 respondents) of the aggregate interviewees communicated that the additional amount received through being in employment does not have a negative effect on their motivation to look for work.

Among these respondents there were 83% (141 respondents) and 81% (296 respondents) of the female and male respondents respectively.

Only a few respondents (4.5% - 23 respondents) indicated that the extra amount they would be receiving through employment discourages them from seeking a job.
Figure 4.10 below depicts this finding.

IV.

Government Incentives Table 4.40 below shows the respondents’ awareness of various government incentives targeted at increasing the participation in the labour market.

It emerges that the “Ifta˙ in-Negozju Tieg˙ek” scheme (“Start your own Business” scheme) is the scheme which respondents are mostly aware of.

In fact, this was stated by 41% (218 respondents) of the interviewees.
This was followed by 37% (198 respondents) who conveyed that they are aware of the “I CAN” Employability Programme and by 34% (180 respondents) who are aware of the Work Trial Scheme.

On the other hand, more than 51% (276 respondents) indicated that they never heard of the Bridging the Gap Scheme, and the tax incentives on child care services.
The interviewees were then asked to indicate whether they have ever made use of the incentives which they were aware of and the results for this are illustrated in Table 4.41 below.

It is clear that the “I CAN” Employability Programme is the scheme which was made use of the most by the 176 National Commission for the Promotion of Equality earning while 23% (121 respondents) claimed that they would be earning less than €150.

This is illustrated comprehensively in Table 4.41 below.
TABLE 4.41 – Additional Amount Received If Respondents Were in Employment TABLE 4.39 – Additional Amount Received If Respondents Were in Employment Counts Break % Respondents Total Male- Fem ale- 15 - 34 yrs 35 - 64 yrs 15 - 34 yrs 35 - 64 yrs earning while 23% (121 respondents) claimed that they would be earning less than €150.

This is illustrated comprehensively in Table 4.41 below.
535 168 197 91 79 Total Less than €25 1 1.3% TABLE 4.41 – Additional Amount Received If Respondents Were in Employment 3 3.8% 1 0.6% 15 - 34 yrs 35 - 64 yrs Counts Betw een €26 - €50 Break % Respondents 3 1.5% 7 1.3% 6 3.0% 2 2.2% 9 1.7% 15 - 34 yrs 35 - 64 yrs Fem ale- Male- Total - - - - Betw een €51 - €75 Total 20 3.7% Less than €25 Betw een €76 - €100 Betw een €26 - €50 40 7.5% Betw een €51 - €75 Betw een €101 - €125 15 2.8% Betw een €76 - €100 Betw een €126 - €150 30 Betw een €101 - €125 5.6% Betw een €126 - €150 269 50.3% More than €151 Don't know / Don't rem em ber 137 25.6% 8 1.5% More than €151 Don't know / Don't rem em ber Refused Refused 535 9 1.7% 7 1.3% 20 3.7% 40 7.5% 15 2.8% 30 5.6% 269 50.3% 137 25.6% 8 1.5% 7 168 4.2% - - - - (437 respondents) of the aggregate interviewees communicated that the additional amount received through being in employment does not have a negative effect on their motivation to look for work.
Among these respondents there were 83% (141 respondents) and 81% (296 respondents) of the female and male respondents respectively.

Only a few respondents (4.5% - 23 respondents) indicated that the extra 82% (437 respondents) of the aggregate interviewees communicated that the additional amount received amount they would be receiving through employment discourages them from seeking a job.

Figure 4.9 through being in employment does not have a negative effect on their motivation to look for work.
Among below depicts this finding.

these respondents there were 83% (141 respondents) and 81% (296 respondents) of the female and FIGURE 4.10 – Additional Amount Received Through Employment Hindering Respondents from FIGURE 4.9 – Additional Amount Received Through Employment Hindering Respondents from Engaging in Paid Employment male respondents respectively.
Only a few respondents (4.5% - 23 respondents) indicated that the extra Engaging in Paid Employment amount they would be receiving through employment discourages them from seeking a job.

Figure 4.9 below depicts this finding.


40 60 50 30 FIGURE 4.9 – Additional Amount Received Through Employment Hindering Respondents from Engaging in Paid Employment 20 10 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0 s r y 4 3 - 5 1 s r y 4 6 - 5 3 s r y 4 3 - 5 1 s r y 4 6 - 5 3 Male- Female- No, not at all No So and so Yes Yes, very much Don't know Refused\ IV.
Government Incentives s r y 4 3 - 5 1 Unlocking the Female Potential - Research Report 4 6 - 177 s r y 5 3 Male- s r y 4 3 - 5 1 Female- 180 s r y 4 6 - 5 3 No, not at all So and so No Yes Yes, very much Don't know Refused\ IV.

Government Incentives 180 Table 4.42 below shows the respondents’ awareness of various government incentives targeted at increase participation in the labour market.
It emerges that the “Iftah in-Negozju Tieghek” scheme (“Start your own Business” scheme) is the scheme which respondents are mostly aware of.

In fact, this was stated by 41% (218 respondents) of the interviewees.

This was followed by 37% (198 respondents) who conveyed that they are aware of the “I CAN” Employability Programme and by 34% (180 respondents) who are aware of the Work Trial Scheme.
On the other hand, more than 51% (276 respondents) indicated that they never heard of the Bridging the Gap Scheme, tax incentives on child care services.
TABLE 4.40 – Respondents’ Awareness of Various Government Incentives TABLE 4.42 – Respondents’ Awareness of Various Government Incentives Counts Analysis % Respondents I CAN Employability Programme Youth Employment Programme Work Trial Scheme Bridging the Gap Scheme Training Subsidy Scheme Objectives Employment Aid Programme Iftah in-Negozju Tieghek FES Tax incentives Total No, I am not aw are of the incentive Not sure, I m ight have heard about it Yes, I am aw are of the incentive Don't know Refused/ NA - - 1 0.2% - - - - - - - - - - 25 4.7% 25 4.7% TABLE 4.41 – Respondents’ Usage of Various Government Incentives The interviewees were then asked to indicate whether they have ever made use of the incentives which they were aware of and the results for this are illustrated in Table 4.43 below.
It is clear that the “I CAN” Employability Programme is the scheme which was made use of the most by the respondents.

In fact, this was mentioned by a considerably high 45.5% (90 respondents).

Another 36% (65 respondents) specified that they made use of the Work Trial Scheme while 28% (35 respondents) stated that they availed themselves to the Training Subsidy Scheme Objectives.
No, but I w as interested to use it (could not due to On the contrary, even though it was the scheme which respondents were aware of the most, the ‘Iftah in- specifications) Negozju Tieghek’ scheme was the one which was the least used by the respondents, followed by tax 9 4.5% incentives on child care services.
No, I w as not interested to use the schem e/ It did not apply for m e Yes, I m ade use of the schem e/ program m e Counts Analysis % Respondents I CAN Employability Programme 90 45.5% 88 44.4% Refused/ NA Don't know 11 5.6% Total 198 - - TABLE 4.43 – Respondents’ Usage of Various Government Incentives 114 68.7% 100 55.6% 21 12.7% 13 7.2% 25 15.1% 65 36.1% 6 3.6% 2 1.1% 166 180 Youth Employment Programme Work Trial Scheme Bridging the Gap Scheme Training Subsidy Scheme Objectives Employment Aid Programme Iftah in-Negozju Tieghek FES Tax incentives - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 4.6 Conclusion Clearly, a number of interesting findings and conclusions emerge from the studies comprised in these three Activities.
These are presented in Chapter 2 of this Report, together with some policy considerations addressing the situation of the cohorts discussed in this Project.

respondents.

In fact, this was mentioned by a considerably high 45.5% (90 respondents).

Another 36% (65 respondents) specified that they made use of the Work Trial Scheme while 28% (35 respondents) stated that they availed themselves to the Training Subsidy Scheme Objectives.

181 5.
181 5.

ANALYSING INACTIVITY FROM A GENDER PERSPECTIVE On the contrary, even though it was the scheme which respondents were aware of the most, the ‘Ifta˙ in-Negozju Tieg˙ek’ scheme was the one which was the least used by the respondents, followed by tax incentives on child care services.

5.1.1 Overriding Research Objective 5.1 Research Objectives 4.6 Conclusion Clearly, a number of interesting findings and conclusions emerge from the studies comprised in these three Activities.
These are presented in Chapter 2 of this Report, together with some policy The overriding research objective of this research project aimed at researching inactivity in the labour considerations addressing the situation of the cohorts discussed in this Project.

market from a gender perspective.

This was researched by way of two Activities.

ACTIVITY I: to analyse inactivity from a gender perspective.
This research project focused on identifying, understanding and validating the reasons underlying the inactivity of the female segment in the Maltese and Gozitan population.

ACTIVITY II: to conduct an ‘inactive population skills’ study to understand better where and why 178 National Commission for the Promotion of Equality the skills of the inactive do not match the requirements of the current labour market.
5.1.2 Project Specific Objectives Activity I The specific research objectives of Activity I comprised the following: To explore and identify: a.

The main reasons and perceptions embraced by inactive Maltese and Gozitan women.

b. Profiles of inactive women, following the trends and patterns that emerge from the research.

182 5.
182 5.

ANALYsING INACTIVITY FROM A GENdER PERsPECTIVE 5.1 Research Objectives 5.1.1 Overriding Research Objective The overriding research objective of this research project aimed at researching inactivity in the labour market from a gender perspective.

This was researched by way of two Activities.

ACTIVITY I: to analyse inactivity from a gender perspective.
This research project focused on identifying, understanding and validating the reasons underlying the inactivity of the female segment in the Maltese and Gozitan population.

ACTIVITY II: to conduct an ‘inactive population skills’ study to understand better where and why the skills of the inactive do not match the requirements of the current labour market.
5.1.2 Project specific Objectives Activity I The specific research objectives of Activity I comprised the following: To explore and identify: • The main reasons and perceptions embraced by inactive Maltese and Gozitan women.

• Profiles of inactive women, following the trends and patterns that emerge from the research.
• Whether men and women are aware of the available support structures and other incentives (including support offered by relatives and friends, childcare facilities, day centres & respite services for dependent adults and tax incentives, amongst others).

• Inactive men’s and women’s perceptions of these support structures and other incentives; and to what extent inactive men and women are willing to utilize each and every one of them.
• The strengths and weaknesses of every support structure and incentive.

• Recommendations as to how support structures and incentives can be addressed in order to improve the service.

Activity II The specific research objectives of Activity II comprised the following: To explore and identify: • The skills of inactive men and women in Malta and Gozo.

• What hinders inactive Maltese and Gozitan men and women from participating in lifelong training or education.
• The skills required for the job opportunities currently available.

• A skills needs assessment of the inactive men and women in Malta and Gozo, in order to identify what skills are lacking.

• In what sectors and posts is the skills mismatch most common.

• Recommendations on possible training sessions that can be provided to the inactive in order to improve or upgrade their skills.

• A skills/mismatch report, in consultation with ETC, in order to match the inactive population with available jobs.
Unlocking the Female Potential - Research Report 179 5.2 Analysing Inactivity From a Gender Perspective - A Review of Recent Literature 5.2.1 Inactive women in the Maltese Labour Market definition and background Information The Labour Force Survey (LFS) of the National Statistics Office defines persons who are Inactive in the labour market as “all persons who are not classified as employed or unemployed”.
This effectively refers to the section of the population aged between 15 and 64, who are not in paid work and who are not actively seeking work in the formal economy.

According to figures from the LFS (Quarter 1/2011), the number of inactive persons in the Maltese labour market amount to 174,275 exceeding the total number of employed persons (both full-time and part-time), which amount to 168,023 (49.3% and 47.5% respectively of the working age population).
Of the total inactive population, 65.2% (116,600) are women.

In all Member States, women are more likely than men to be outside the labour force.

In the Nordic and Baltic States the employment gender gap between women and men was 7 percentage points or less in 2009, while in Mediterranean countries like Italy and Greece, the difference was more than 20 percentage points.

In Malta the employment gender gap reaches 35.8 percentage points (Eurostat, October, 2010).
This categorisation of people who are not in formal employment and who are not actively seeking work includes retired persons, students and persons undergoing training (but not doing paid jobs), persons looking after their home and/or family (often housewives) and those who cannot work because of their own long-term sickness.
Inactivity in the labour market is age specific with the young not being in the labour market due to their education, while retirement is the main reason for inactivity of older persons.

Traditional gender roles, in which men assume the breadwinning role and women assume most of the family responsibilities, appear to be the main reason why by far more women than men are out of the labour market both in Malta and the EU (De, La Fuente, 2010).
According to Eurostat Employment statistics (2011), in the EU 27, the employment rate for men reached 70.1% as compared with 58.2% for women.

In Malta, the male employment rate for the same period was 72.4% whilst the female employment rate was 39.3%.

This means that Malta had a negative employment gap of nearly 19 percentage points when compared to the EU female employment rates, whilst it had a positive employment gap of over 2% when compared to the EU male employment rates (Eurostat, 2011).
A report on persons outside the Labour Force claims, that since 2000, the number of inactive persons in the EU 27 continued to decrease overall.

In fact, since 2000 the share of the inactive population aged 15 to 64 years old has dropped from 31.4% to 28.9% in the EU-27.

This implies an increase in the activity rates across the EU.

In Europe the positive development was “largely due to the increased participation of women in the labour market”.

(De, La Fuente, 2010).


In fact, since 2000, the share of inactive women has gone down from 39.9 % to 35.7%, while the share of men outside the labour force has remained relatively stable, falling slightly from 22.8% to 22.2% in 2009.

The inactivity rate of women in Malta has also gone down from 69.6 % in 2003 (NSO, 2003) to 65.2% in 2011 (NSO, 2011).

In spite of this positive trend, Malta remains the country with the lowest female employment rate when compared to the EU 27.
180 National Commission for the Promotion of Equality Reasons for Inactivity Women and men behave differently in the labour market, often following traditional gendered norms and expectations which are socially constructed and which can change over time and place (Lewis, 1996).

Research confirms that the discrepancy between inactive women and men is largely due to the withdrawal of women from the labour market in order to deal with family responsibilities.
In fact, according to the responses from an NSO survey (LFS, 2010) which amongst other things captured the reasons for inactivity, 41% of the inactive Maltese women were not active in the labour market due to ‘other family or personal reasons’.

The number of men who were inactive for the same reasons was statistically insignificant and was not even reported.

By contrast, a majority of men (34.4%) and a minority of women (9.3%) indicated retirement as their main reason for inactivity.
The data also reveals that 18.9% of women reported that they were inactive ‘due to other reasons’, 15.3% due to ‘education or training’ and 10.8% because they were looking after children or adults with caring needs.

The number of men indicating that they were inactive because they were looking after children or adults with caring needs was also statistically insignificant.
A Eurofound study (2008) on gender differences across the EU labour markets, confirms that family responsibility was also the main reason cited by women for their inactivity.

The report indicated that the activity level of mothers is affected by the number and age of their children and the more children and the younger they were, the greater the likelihood that mothers were economically inactive.

For men, the opposite was true.


Till now, Maltese women who leave the labour market during their childbearing and childrearing years do not seem to be returning back to the formal economy once their children are older.

In fact, when one looks at the employment rates by age group, one notes that there are 21,167 women in the labour market aged 25-34 (LFS, Q1/2011).

This amount goes down to 12,142 when one looks at women in the next age bracket (35-44).
This does not mean that they are totally absent from the labour market, and it could well be that a portion of these women work, possibly part-time, in the informal economy.

A Workers’ Participation Development Centre study called ‘Factors Affecting Women’s Formal Participation in the Malta Labour Market (2003), in fact found that for every 4 women in the formal economy, there may be a fifth working in the informal economy.
This study indicated that the female participation rate at the time was approximately 8 to 9% higher (+/- 3.1% margin of error) than the official rate given.

Largely due to the female employment deficit, the overall employment rate in Malta is estimated to be around 57% which is distant from the proposed 2020 EU strategy targets of 75% (LFS, Q1, 2011).

Such target is unlikely to be reached if one does not increase female employment.

But do Maltese women want to enter the formal labour market?
Does work pay enough?

If they are willing to do paid work, under which conditions are they willing to do so?

Reasons for the low female employment rates are complex and are influenced by: culture, the economic climate, working conditions, religion and politics amongst other.

The social infrastructure is also important, for example short school opening hours and the lack of affordable, accessible, quality childcare can also make a difference to mothers who want to work (Borg & Debono, 2009).
The reconciliation of work with family and care seem to pose the biggest challenges for women.

An NCPE qualitative study called Promoting Equal Opportunities through Empowerment (2007), identified other reasons for the low female employment rates.

These include: age discrimination, lack of work experience, lack of qualifications, lack of transport, working in the informal economy and work that does not pay amongst the barriers that keep women out of the formal labour market.
The NCPE (2007) research also indicated that inactive people who may want to work are less interested in training in spite of having low skills.

Unlocking the Female Potential - Research Report 181 The work Aspirations of Maltese women According to a study on the Work Aspirations of Maltese Women carried out by the Employment and Training Corporation (2007), 44.8% of the inactive respondents wished to work.
Those who were not interested in working were significantly older, tended to have lower levels of education and had older and more children.

Additionally their partners tended to have a higher income and they were less likely to have ever worked.

Only age and whether one’s partner had a second job were found to be significantly associated with the wish to work.

The research showed that younger women and those whose partner had a second job were more interested to work.
The age of the youngest child also had an important impact on women’s decisions to work, although contrary to what one may expect, mothers of older children were also less inclined to work.

This may be due to the loss of confidence in relation to the labour market or because their skills have become outdated after taking a long time out of work to bring up children (ETC, 2007).

Living on the income of the main breadwinner may make it difficult for families to make ends meet.
In fact, financial reasons were cited as the important reason for wanting to work (97.6%).

This was followed by the opportunity to learn (90.1%), and the opportunity to socialise (82.2%).

According to the respondents, the ideal conditions that would encourage them to work consisted of: good working conditions especially family friendly hours; adequate job opportunities; further education and training; and fiscal issues concerning national insurance and tax rates (ETC, 2007).
Whilst in the ETC survey, 44.8% of women showed a positive inclination to work, an NSO Survey (037/2009) indicates that 92.6% of Maltese women who are unemployed or inactive do no want to change anything, and only 7.4% would like a job and want to reduce\ share their caring responsibility.

Likewise, Eurostat data (2008) reveals that only 6.7% of inactive Maltese women want to get a job.
This disparity between the ETC (2007) survey and the NSO (2009) and Eurostat (2008) is rather conflicting and requires further analysis.

Does this mean that Maltese women do not want to work or are they envisaging problems in combining work with family and hence their reluctance to change anything?

Can the hurdles that are keeping women out of the labour market be identified and dismantled through policy changes?
And how can gender roles change in order to arrive to a more equitable sharing of family responsibilities which could ultimately allow more time for women to engage in paid work outside the home.

work-Life Issues The vast majority of female employees (73.3%) have a full-time job and this may be an indicator of the unavailability of attractive part-time jobs for women (LFS, Q1/2011).

This could also keep women who want to combine work with care, out of the labour market.
It is also pertinent to point out that there is a marked difference in the working conditions of the employees in the public sector and those in the private.
Family friendly measures in the Public Service and Public Sector are much more generous, for example these include 12-months Parental Leave (as against three months currently allowed to parents working in the Private Sector - which will increase to four months on 08.03.2012) and a one-off 5 year career break (which is not available to workers in the Private Sector).
Workers in the Public Service and Public Sector also have an option to work on a reduced timetable until the child reaches 12 years of age and the possibility to Telework, if such requests are approved by their directors (Family Friendly Measures Handbook, 2009).

Employees in the private sector are regulated by the Employment and Industrial Relations Act (2002) and one wonders whether the conditions of work are enabling parents, especially working mothers, to reconcile family life with work.
It is positive to note that employers in Malta are 182 National Commission for the Promotion of Equality realising that measures that enable better work-life balance are becoming important.

In fact, recent research shows that the majority of private sector employers are adopting some form of work-life balance measures to enable their employees to combine work with care and family (Fsadni, 2009; Malta Employers Association, 2008).
There is ample evidence that where working parents, but especially where working mothers are able to reconcile work with care, their activity rates are much higher than the rest of Europe.

Birth rates in such countries are also higher.

Countries like France, who have generous maternity leave, tax credits for large families and other related benefits, have one of the highest birth rates in Europe and 81% of women, aged between 25 and 49, are in gainful employment (Wyatt 2007).
On the other hand, in the Mediterranean countries (as well as in Germany), where one may have to choose between work or children and where sufficient supporting structures are lacking, the inactivity rates of women are much higher.

When one speaks of supporting structures, these include: accessible, affordable, quality childcare services for the under 3’s and school opening hours which are compatible with typical full-time working hours.
On this Malta scores badly, in fact it has the lowest childcare provision for the 0-3 years age group in the EU (Camilleri, 2008) and one of the shortest school opening hours (Chetcuti, 2011).

In recent years, government has given a number of fiscal incentives to try to attract more women to the labour market or to help them return to work after having a child.

These include tax exemptions of up to 2,000 for employed mothers, and 5,000 for self-employed mums.
Tax credits of up to 1000 are also available to parents who use childcare (Inland Revenue Department, 2011).

Furthermore, in order not to lose out on their pension, government is crediting the National Insurance (N.I) of women who temporarily give up work in order to care for their child or children.

The credit is for 2 years and goes up to 4 years in case the child has a disability (The Times, 2006, November 22).
However, in spite of these positive incentives, the participation rate of women in Malta is still increasing at a very slow rate and one needs to ask whether women are informed of these incentives and if these are enough?

All this indicates that gender roles and stereotyping are still hampering women from achieving financial independence and men from being more involved in caring for the family.
As time goes by, it is becoming increasingly difficult to live on one wage, and the denial of an opportunity for parents to reconcile work with family and care is not cost neutral.

The country is already paying a hefty price in economic terms because of the overall low employment rate.

This situation is decreasing government revenue, hampering economic growth and will adversely affect the sustainability of pensions.

Could education and training make a difference?


Improved skills might not only encourage more inactive women to work, but would also increase their likelihood of landing a job once they join the labour supply.

The next section discusses the concept of skills in relation to inactive women.

5.2.2 skills and the Inactive Female Population defining and Measuring skill Social scientists argue that the concept of ‘skills’ has been used inconsistently, thus diffusing its meaning (e.g.
Bills, 2005; Edgell, 2006).

Skills may be defined as ‘proficiency at a given task, usually acquired through learning and experience’ (Blyton and Jenkins, 2007, p.194).

This definition is in line with the commonly held view that a skill is a level of competence reached after sufficient training and experience and is the property of the individual.

However, other researchers prefer to view skill as an attribute of the job.
‘The degree of complexity that a job contains, coupled with the amount of control over the job that the worker performing it has, are both regarded as central to gauging the extent to which the job (and, by extension, the person Unlocking the Female Potential - Research Report 183 carrying out that job) can be defined as skilled’ (Blyton and Jenkins, 2007, pp.195-196).
A third approach views skill as a social process through which groups of people protect the status of some jobs, giving them greater power in a given society.

This political aspect of skill tends to penalise women, by among others undervaluing jobs needing social and caring skills (Edgell, 2006).

These three approaches indicate that the concept of skills is a multidimensional and heterogeneous one (Bills, 2005).

The way concepts are defined influences their measurement and vice-versa.
Skills can be measured directly or indirectly.

The former can take a lot of effort, time and money in the design and implementation of a reliable and valid instrument.

Besides, the automatic execution of skills may reduce one’s ability to record and evaluate them.

Indeed, indirect measures of skill (or ‘proxy skills’), often taking the form of qualifications, are much more commonly used.
Such measures rely on two assumptions: namely that qualifications are strongly linked to skills and that the bases on which qualifications are awarded remain stable over time (Blyton and Jenkins, 2007).

However, neither of the two assumptions is totally justified.

An increasing number of persons are in occupations which require lower skills than those for which they are certified (Felstead et al.

2002, in Blyton and Jenkins, 2007).


For instance, in Malta, while about 28% of female workers have a tertiary level of education, only about 20% are in professional positions.

On the other hand, 18% of all male workers have a tertiary level of education, while about 12% are in professional jobs (data for Q1 2011 from Eurostat).
Besides, educational institutions are increasingly accrediting competencies which were previously not labelled as skills (such as soft skills or leadership skills) or accrediting informally learnt skills.

The government, through the Malta Qualifications Council (MQC), is also in the process of setting up a “National System for Accreditation and Licensing of Further and Higher Education Programmes and Providers, and of Recognition of Non-Formal and Informal Prior Learning” (Government of Malta, 2010).
This system will include the recognition of prior non-formal or informal learning on the basis of previous work or other experiences (Government of Malta, 2010).

Such processes might give the impression that skill levels are increasing, whereas the increase might be mainly an exercise in certification and qualifications.

Despite these limitations, an indirect approach to measuring skills will be adopted in this report.

skills and Economic Growth High skills are associated with economic growth.
The International Labour Organisation (ILO) ‘has for years been advising member states on skills development policies, and developing research and analysis in this area’ (ILO, 2008, p.v).

The development of human capital and lifelong learning is also one of the main guidelines in the EU’s Lisbon Agenda for economic growth, which was concluded in 2010.
Besides, in its annual assessment of Malta’s progress towards the Lisbon goals, the European Commission has emphasised the need to reduce early school leaving and enhance lifelong learning especially among the lower skilled.

Post-compulsory education has also been kept high on the European Commission’s agenda through the EU 2020 targets.
Skills gaps, that is the gaps between the skills needed by the country and the available skills in the labour market, undermine the competitive advantage of countries (NCHE, 2009).

Such gaps tend to increase due to economic changes.

Indeed, structural unemployment and larger inactivity can result from sudden economic changes, such as when countries move from a large production base to services.
Both the ILO (2008) and the European Commission (2009) view improving the matching between supply and current demand for skills, and anticipating future skills needs as key strategies to enhance economic growth.

Some of the Maltese government’s recent initiatives regarding these two strategies will be briefly reviewed below.
184 National Commission for the Promotion of Equality Improve Matching between supply and Current demand for skills The Maltese government is carrying out various initiatives meant to match supply with the current demand for skills.

For example it is enhancing the infrastructure of compulsory and higher educational institutions with the help of European funds.
The government has improved considerably lifelong learning opportunities, through several institutions catering for persons with differing levels of education.

Just to mention two examples; MCAST and the University of Malta have increased their number of courses and their student intake over the past years.

In view of the emerging need for skilled workers in scientific fields, a number of strategies have been carried out to attract more students into science-related courses.
These included advertising campaigns regarding the utility of science qualifications and the increase of stipends for students pursuing science courses.

Despite this, female students still tend not to choose science-oriented streams (University of Malta, N.D.) and there is still a lack of skilled workers in particular professions such as medicine, nursing and IT.
On the other hand, the Employment and Training Corporation (ETC) has been strengthened with increased training for their workers and clients through help from EU funds among others.

The positive results of this are apparent, with Malta currently having one of the lowest unemployment rates in Europe (Eurostat data).
The ETC has also promoted the skills of inactive persons, among others by programmes which seek to empower inactive women (such as the ‘Women for Employment’ course), though much more needs to be done to reduce the female inactivity rate.

Eurostat data for 2010 reveals that inactive women in Malta (aged 18 to 64) are less likely to participate in education and training than employed women (10% and 12% respectively).
Besides, both groups, especially inactive Maltese women pursue continuing education and training significantly less than their EU27 counterparts (20% of inactive women and 14% of employed women within the EU27 participate in education and training).

Inactive Maltese women are also much less likely to participate in education and training when compared to inactive Maltese men (22%).
However, the participation levels in education and training of employed women are considerably higher than those of employed Maltese men (7%) (Eurostat data).

The reasons for the low involvement of inactive women in continuing education and training are unclear; they might include a combination of factors such as culture, other commitments, apathy, low self-esteem, lack of interesting training opportunities and lack of time or money.
Anticipating Future skills Needs Apart from reducing the existing skills gaps, one needs to anticipate future skills needs.

Various measures are being carried out towards this aim.

First of all, the government is trying to shed light on the existing skills in Malta.
Among others, the Malta Qualifications Council (MQC) launched the Qualifications Framework for Lifelong Learning and is working towards the validation and certification of the previously non-certified informal and non-formal education and training.

Many inactive women have generic skills which could be certified such as communication skills, multitasking and so on.
The Flexicurity Pathway envisaged in the National Reform Programme 2008-2010 includes a measure to ‘Conduct a skills audit of the working age population in Malta and Gozo, to identify the type and level of skills and qualifications available and how these skills are being utilised’.

As part of such exercise, the government as an employer, carried out a ‘skills profile’ of all government employees in 2010.
In its Eco-Gozo policy, the Ministry for Gozo (2009) proposed the carrying out of a human resources supply and demand analysis in Gozo, and more specifically, a skills profile of Gozitan graduates.

In recent years, various future skills needs surveys have been carried out, focusing on specific sectors such as ICT and green jobs (Debono, 2008).

Unlocking the Female Potential - Research Report 185 skills Trends The historical direction of skill change has been a major subject of debate among scholars.
‘Pessimists’, following Braverman (1974, in Edgell, 2006), contend that with industrialisation came the deskilling of workers, with the separation of the conception from the execution of work, where managers take all the mental labour and control away from workers, whose manual jobs were simplified with the advent of mechanisation.

On the other hand, ‘optimists’ argue that the major trend being experienced in the post-industrialist society is that of upskilling.
Bell (1976, in Edgell, 2006) ties this contention to the fact that today’s societies are increasingly becoming knowledge-based and white-collar workers in the services sector are dominating the labour market.

Without delving into details, deskilling and upskilling trends are in fact probably acting contemporarily, leading to a polarization of skills in the labour market.

In advanced societies, women appear to suffer more from deskilling than men (Edgell, 2006).
However, the situation might be changing in Malta.

In Q1 2011, 28% of working women had a tertiary education in comparison to 18% of males (Eurostat data).

On the other hand, inactive women tend to have lower levels of qualifications than inactive men, and inactive persons in general tend to be less qualified than employed persons.
When women are qualified (and presumably skilled), the chances that they are in paid employment rather than being inactive are very high – indeed higher than those of qualified men.

Despite still being much lower than the EU27 average, the qualification levels of the Maltese population increased dramatically between 2000 and 2011 (Eurostat data).

In particular, the number of tertiary educated employed persons has nearly doubled (from 19,600 in Q2 2001 to 36,800 in Q2 2011).
The increase is more strongly evident among females (from 7,500 in Q2 2001 to 16,700 in Q2 2011) than males (from 12,200 in Q2 2001 to 20,100 in Q2 2011).

A somewhat slower trend in the same direction happened among the inactive female population, from 2,000 in Q2 2001 to 3,800 in Q2 2011 (While the number of inactive males with a tertiary level of education stood at about 1,800 in Q2 2011, no comparable data exists for Q2 2001).
Eurostat data highlights the differing trends in the acquisition of vocational and academic qualifications in Malta.

The number of employed persons with ISCED Levels 3-4 (many of whom probably have vocational qualifications) increased by 65% (from 22,900 in Q2 2001 to 37,800 in Q2 2011 according to Eurostat data).

Between Q2 2001 and Q2 2011, the number of females with ISCED Levels 3-4 increased by 64% (from 9,200 to 15,100) among the employed and 68% (from 5,600 to 9,400) among the inactive.
Among employed men, the increase was of 66% (from 13,700 to 22,700), whereas among the inactive men it stood at a lower 29% (from 3,500 to 4,500).

This indicates that in recent years, the growth in female qualifications was more pronounced with regards to academic rather than vocational skills.

Interestingly, an attitude survey among young Gozitan students found that their large majority aspire to pursue further studies at University rather than MCAST (Debono, 2006).
5.3 Research Methodology 5.3.1 Research Methodology In order to achieve the research objectives of this research as set out in Section 5.1 above, the research methodology adopted is as follows: • A thorough review of recent international and local literature and official international and national surveys conducted by recognised statistics bodies, i.e.

Eurostat - European Union, National Statistics Office - Malta and the Employment & Training Corporation - Malta.
• A robust qualitative research exercise involving a three-tier research study.

The objective of this thorough qualitative research phase was to obtain an ‘in-depth’ understanding of the 186 National Commission for the Promotion of Equality issues affecting the inactivity status of Maltese and Gozitan individuals and to study their attitudes, aspirations and perceptions with regards to working, family commitments, caring responsibilities and training opportunities.
The qualitative stage also served as a platform which provided the context for the quantitative studies and insights on the salient issues and research areas that needed to be included in the subsequent quantitative stage.
The three tiers comprised: - Tier One: one-to-one personal interviews with 20 key stakeholders (Senior government officials; representatives from women associations, employers and employer association officials, trade union and employees’ representatives; a husband and a child of an inactive female).
The perceptions, attitudes and views of Key Stakeholders were examined on the following research areas: • reasons for female inactivity in Malta and Gozo; • social perceptions on working women with caring responsibilities; • childcare facilities and support structures/facilities for the elderly and persons with disability; • recruitment support structures in Malta and Gozo; • inactive women’s work interests; • attitudes toward work, training, social security benefits and pension; • government incentives to encourage women to remain in or return to employment; and • the skills and attributes of inactive women.
- Tier Two: one-to-one personal interviews with 10 ‘inactive’ individuals (6 Maltese (2 of these were male) and 4 Gozitan inactive females).

- Tier Three: 5 focus group sessions (3 focus groups with Maltese and 2 focus groups with Gozitan inactive females).
The choice of participants for the FG sessions was based on pre- established ‘inactive female’ respondent profiles in order to attain a balanced attendance of participants of varying age groups, geographical localities, marital status, and levels of education.

The respondents were also selected to have different socio-economic status, caring responsibilities and previous work experiences and designations.
The perceptions, attitudes and views of focus group and interview respondents were examined on the following research areas: • previous work experience and reasons for inactivity; • perceptions on working women with caring responsibilities; • views and knowledge on ‘childcare’ and ‘elderly/persons with disability’ facilities/support structures; • seeking employment and knowledge of recruitment support structures; • respondents’ work interests; • work, training and the respondents’ future; • social security benefits and pension; • government incentives to encourage women to remain in or return to employment; and • skills and attributes of inactive women.
• A quantitative research exercise was then conducted.

Yet again, a three-tier quantitative research study was conducted.

- Tier One: A quantitative research study with 600 inactive females hailing from Malta and Gozo was conducted to analyse inactivity from a gender perspective.

This 600-count frame ensures statistically significant findings at a confidence level of 95% at a confidence interval of +/-4.

The research approach adopted was by way of a 30-minute face-to-face interview.
The 600-count sample frame was divided in two age categories: 15 to 34 years and 35 to 59 years.

A total of 245 respondents (41%) hailed from the younger age bracket while 355 respondents (59%) hailed from the 35 - 59 years.

This sample size difference reflects the difference in the actual size of the two ‘age group’ cohorts.
The sample frame also ensured a Unlocking the Female Potential - Research Report 187 good distribution of inactive females hailing from Malta’s six geographical regions (including Gozo), of varying levels of education, socio-economic status, marital status and caring responsibilities.

Only one female per household was allowed to participate in this study.
- Tier Two: Yet another quantitative research study was conducted with at least 600 (603 actually conducted) inactive females hailing from Malta and Gozo, this time to analyse inactive females’ skills and assess their ‘employability’ potential.

These 600 inactive female respondents were different from Tier One’s inactive female respondent cohort.

The same face-to-face personal interview research approach was adopted here and the interview was also of a 30-minute duration.
As already noted above, this 600-count frame ensures statistically significant findings at a confidence level of 95% at a confidence interval of +/- 4.

This 600-count sample frame was divided in two age categories: 15 to 34 years and 35 to 59 years.

The study also ensured a good distribution of inactive females hailing from Malta’s six geographical regions (including Gozo), of varying levels of education, socio-economic status, marital status and caring responsibilities.
Once again, only one female per household was allowed to participate in this study.
- Tier Three: In tandem with the ‘Tier Two’ inactive females study, a third quantitative research study was conducted with 600 (603 actually conducted) local employers, hailing from the public and private sector and representing Malta’s salient business sectors, namely, Manufacturing, Financial, Business and Community Services, Retail and Wholesale, Real Estate and Construction, Hospitality and Tourism, Transport and Communications, Health, Social Work and Care work, Education and Public Service.
The sample frame, consisting of companies/ organizations which employ, at least, one employee and over, ensured an appropriate representation of micro, small, medium and large organizations.

The research approach adopted for this study was CATI (computer-aided telephone interviews), each of a 10-minute duration.

The same confidence level and confidence interval statistical significance as in the other two CAPI studies apply here.

Only one respondent per company was allowed to participate in this study.
Given that the sub-cohort of inactive males in Malta who are inactive because of ‘child or dependant adults caring responsibilities’ is statistically insignificant, research on these inactive males was conducted via qualitative research, while the quantitative research focused entirely on the larger and statistically significant cohort, i,e.

females.

The underlying rationale for this decision is substantiated by a thorough review of recent official and national studies, as evidenced in Section 5.2 above.
5.3.2 shortcomings of the Research study Throughout the whole course of the research study, no significant obstacles were encountered.

However, an observation may be made on the small sample size of two of the industry sectors contained in the ‘Employer’ sample frame, namely, the ‘Health, Social Work and Care Work’ and the ‘Education’ sectors.
The samples representing these two industry sectors are small because, although these two sectors employ a significant number of workers, the actual number of employers operating in these two industries is small.

To address this issue, the Research Consultant ensured that the larger-employer organisations/ entities operating in these sectors participated in this study.
5.4 Qualitative Research – The salient Findings The role of the qualitative study conducted for this Project was to uncover salient views, perceptions and issues relating to inactive individuals in Malta and Gozo, as well as to identify important research areas for the quantitative phase of the study.
The semi-structured interview / focus group moderator discussion guides produced were designed to elicit the views of key stakeholders and inactive persons and gain insights on inactive people’s situation from a variety 188 National Commission for the Promotion of Equality of perspectives – personal, institutional, governmental, sociological, and psychological.
Clearly, the research findings identified at this qualitative research phase elicited a number of salient issues and patterns, which were then, in turn, addressed in the quantitative phase with a larger sample of inactive female and local employer respondents.

These issues and research areas are presented below.

Inactive women come from all walks of life, localities and levels of education.
The majority have a secondary level of education, although there are some with degrees and diplomas at tertiary level.

Geographical region appears to have no influence on inactivity, but national culture, traditions and individual caring responsibilities had a major impact.

The vast majority of inactive women are married and have children.
Two ‘categories’ of inactive women emerged from the research best identified by age: those in their late forties and older, who had stopped working completely upon marriage, and those who were younger and had worked for a number of years but had to stop as a result of their caring responsibilities, possibly with the intention to return to work in the future.
By far the most common reason for inactivity was a perception that either the family or the career should take priority (but not both) and the resulting conscious choice to give up work and dedicate maximum time and effort to the family.

This seemed to be largely determined by Maltese national culture and traditions, which dictate that the man should be the breadwinner and the woman should be the homemaker in a family.
Such stereotypes were reinforced by inactive men and women’s personal experience and the value they placed on having their mother always at home when they were young.

Gozitan inactive females with families are moreover constrained to find employment as the public service is the main provider of job opportunities on the island and it is very time-consuming to commute every day between the two islands.
Other, less common reasons for inactivity were to take care of elderly or sick relatives or to support other family members with childcare.

Full-time students and retired persons were excluded from the definition of ‘inactive’ in this study.

There was a fair level of awareness about childcare facilities and facilities for elderly or disabled persons, but the research clearly showed that they were not always considered as relevant, affordable or practical.
The most apparent issue was that both Maltese and Gozitan females were convinced in the importance of taking care of their children and relatives themselves, and the unwillingness to let ‘strangers’ handle them.

Family values appeared to be extremely strong and the concept of childcare centres seemed to be partially incompatible with the Maltese and Gozitan culture of extended family.
In addition, those who were interested in childcare centres or old people’s homes felt these were not always conveniently located, and also that they were too expensive to justify the decision to work.

Overall, saving the money from childcare by staying at home was seen as a more acceptable option, both financially and culturally.

The awareness of government incentives such as tax rebates and national insurance credits was very low.
It was clear that such financial incentives are not sufficient to entice the majority of women to seek paid employment outside the home.

Instead, the incentives are perceived as a useful support for those who have already decided to find a job or return to work for other reasons, such as the need of income, socialization, personal development or feeling of independence.
Furthermore, the government campaigns to encourage women to join the labour force were perceived as offensive by many inactive women who felt their role as mothers and housewives was underestimated.

The qualitative findings also indicated that instrumental support cannot be successful without a certain degree of cultural change, and that the effectiveness of the various schemes and incentives will be limited as long as inactive men and women are satisfied with their present status quo.
Unlocking the Female Potential - Research Report 189 In the light of the preceding review of Malta’s official statistics on inactive individuals in Malta, it transpires that the number of inactive men, who are inactive because they are looking after children or independent adults, is statistically insignificant.

Notwithstanding this, the views, opinions and perceptions of two Maltese inactive males, were sought in order to enhance this research.
An in-depth face-to-face interview was conducted with these two inactive males who had assumed caring roles in their respective household.

The underlying and sole reason for their decision (together with their respective wives) to give up paid employment and assume the role of the main full-time carer within their household, was simply due to the fact that their female spouse earned a significantly higher salary than them and hence, the decision for their inactivity was purely a financial one.
Their intention was to go back to paid employment, once their offspring is older.

With regards to skills, not surprisingly inactive women were most confident with homemaking skills such as cleaning, cooking, sewing and childcare.

The vast majority were good drivers because they have to drive their children to various activities and to coordinate their various duties as housewives.
A few women had technical skills and formal qualifications and many had at least basic knowledge of computers and information technology.

Most inactive women were fluent in largely two languages (Maltese and English) and some were also fluent in Italian.

There was a significant interest in taking up courses and training in various fields, but more for personal development rather than with the intention to use the new skills in a working environment.
A clear finding was the interest of inactive women in crafts, such as bobbins, crochet, ‘ganutell’, sewing and arts and their remarkably high involvement in voluntary work.

The qualitative findings showed that inactive females value voluntary work and prefer to remain outside the labour market as this gives them the flexibility to care for their family.

The research highlighted the need for more family-friendly measures at the workplace.
They remarked that childcare arrangements are lacking and that flexible hours and temping work is rare.

The most needed courses mentioned were in computers, communication skills and technical skills for specific jobs.

However, the inactive respondents’ perceptions show that to be effective, any training must prepare them for the transition from home to the world of work in order to be able to cope with the changes that have transformed workplaces over the past decades.
These include changes in technology, business models, work ethic and changes in the way they interact with others.

5.5 Quantitative Research – salient Findings This section highlights the salient findings which emerged from this Project’s two quantitative research studies.

As indicated in Section 5.1 above, the Project comprised two distinct Activities, both with specific research objectives.

Section 5.5.1 below illustrates the quantitative research findings for Activity I.
Activity I comprised a research study conducted with ‘inactive women’ respondents, by way of face-to-face interviews.

Section 5.5.2 encompasses the research findings of Activity II.
This Activity comprised two distinct studies: one study was conducted with ‘inactive women’, also by way of face-to-face interviews and whose survey respondents were all different from those participating in Activity I; the second study was conducted with the public sector and private sector employers hailing from micro, small, medium and large companies.

This latter study was conducted by way of telephone interviews.
190 National Commission for the Promotion of Equality 5.5.1 ACTIVITY I – Analysing Inactivity from a Gender Perspective The following findings emerge from the quantitative research study with inactive females: I. Respondent Profile This quantitative research study was conducted with ‘inactive’ females hailing from Malta and Gozo.

The sample frame consisted of a total of 600 survey respondents and the research approach adopted was by way of a 30-minute face-to-face interview.
The 600-count sample frame was divided in two age categories: 15 to 34 years and 35 to 59 years.

A total of 245 respondents (41%) hailed from the younger age bracket while 355 respondents (59%) hailed from the 35 - 59 years.

The survey also ensured a good distribution between inactive women respondents hailing from Malta’s six geographical regions, including Gozo.

So much so, that 16.5% (99 respondents) hailed from Gozo, 36 respondents aged 15 - 34 years and 63 respondents aged 35 - 59 years.
The research instrument used for this research study comprised a number of questions to draw up a profile of this inactive women respondent cohort.

Level of Education, Marital status More than half of the survey respondents possess a secondary level of education and are currently married.

A staggering 81% (484 respondents) of them indicated that currently they are not pursuing any education or training.
Moreover, a high 72.5% (435 respondents) communicated that when they were young, their mothers were also not gainfully occupied.

Caring Responsibilities The findings also illustrate that the majority (61% - 364 respondents) of inactive females have child caring responsibilities.

43.3% (106 respondents) of the younger (15 - 34 years) cohort and some 73% (258 respondents) of the older (35 – 59 years) cohort are mothers.
Most of these inactive mother respondents have between one to two children, largely aged 13 years and over.

7.8% (47 respondents) indicated that they have dependent-adult caring responsibilities; 5% (12 respondents) of the younger age group cohort and 10% (35 respondents) of the older age group cohort.

Some respondents indicated that they had both child and dependent-adult caring responsibilities.
Past Employment A rather high 34% (205 respondents) of the whole survey cohort highlighted that they have been inactive from paid employment for more than 10 years while another 26% (155 respondents) pointed out that they have never been employed.
From the 445 respondents who claimed that they have been employed in the past, 73% (325 respondents) stated that they used to work on full-time basis, 30% (133 respondents) indicated that their last designation was as a Plant and Machine Operator/ Assembler and 37.5% (167 respondents) used to work in the Manufacturing sector.
Tables 5.1, 5.2 and 5.3 give more details on these 445 inactive respondents’ past employment vis- à-vis the industry sector they worked in last before becoming inactive, their last designation held and their most recent employment status.

Unlocking the Female Potential - Research Report 191 have never been employed.
From the 445 respondents who claimed that they have been employed in the past, 73% (325 respondents) stated that they used to work on full-time basis, 30% (133 respondents) indicated that their last designation was as a Plant and Machine Operator/ Assembler and 37.5% (167 respondents) used to work in the Manufacturing sector.
Tables 5.1, 5.2 and 5.3 give more details on these 445 inactive respondents’ past employment vis-à-vis the industry sector they worked in last before becoming inactive, their last designation held and their most recent employment status.
TABLE 5.1 – The Industry Sector the Respondent Worked In Last Before Becoming Inactive TABLE 5.1 – The Industry Sector the Respondent Worked In Last Before Becoming Inactive Total 15 - 34 yrs 35 - 59 yrs Counts Break % Respondents Total Manufacturing Financial Retail & Wholesale Real Estate Tourism Transport & Com m unications 445 167 37.5% 19 4.3% 64 14.4% 6 1.3% 44 9.9% 12 2.7% Health / Social Work / Care w ork 49 11.0% Education Public Service Other TABLE 5.2 – Respondent’s Most Recent Designation Held II.
Perceptions and Reasons for Inactivity Main Reasons for Inactivity Table 5.4 below illustrates the reasons why females chose to become inactive from their previously ‘paid employment’ status.

The findings show that the main reason for this change in status was largely due to their caring responsibilities.

In fact, this was indicated by 38% (226 respondents) of the aggregate survey respondents, irrespective of age.
Moreover, this was followed by 14% (83 respondents) who stated that they became inactive because they prioritized family over work.

This means that family obligations and caring responsibilities are the main reasons why females choose to become inactive.

Other Respondents (12% - 71 respondents), mainly from the 35 to 59 age bracket, stated that they feel too old to look for employment while others (13% - 79 respondents) indicated that they do not feel motivated to work.
The respondents were then asked to rate their level of satisfaction with their current inactive status.

It results that more than half (50.5% - 303 respondents) of the females feel either satisfied or completely satisfied with this status.

Another 27% feel neither satisfied nor dissatisfied and a low 20% (119 respondents) either do not feel satisfied or do not feel at all satisfied.
It is worthy of mention that the respondents who indicated that they are not satisfied with their current status are mainly the younger females, those whose age falls in the 15 to 34 years bracket.

The findings are illustrated in Figure 5.1 below.
195 192 National Commission for the Promotion of Equality TABLE 5.2 – Respondent’s Most Recent Designation Held Counts Break % Respondents Total 15 - 34 yrs 35 - 59 yrs Total 445 153 292 Counts Break % Respondents Elem entary Occupation Total Plant & Machine Operator / Assem bler Elem entary Occupation Craft & Related Trades Worker Plant & Machine Operator / Skilled Agricultural & Assem bler Fishery Worker Craft & Related Service / Market & Trades Worker Sales Worker Skilled Agricultural & Fishery Worker Clerk Service / Market & Technician / Sales Worker Associate Professional Clerk Technician / Professional Associate Professional Legislator / Senior Official / Manager Professional Arm ed Forces Legislator / Senior Official / Manager 70 Total 15.7% 25 15 - 34 yrs 16.3% 45 35 - 59 yrs - - - - - - TABLE 5.3 – Respondent’s Most Recent Employment Status Held Arm ed Forces - - - - - - TABLE 5.3 – Respondent’s Most Recent Employment Status Held 35 - 59 yrs TABLE 5.3 – Respondent’s Most Recent Employment Status Held 15 - 34 yrs Total Counts Break % Respondents Total Counts Break % Respondents Full-tim e Total Part-tim e Full-tim e Telew orking Part-tim e Flexi hours Telew orking Full-tim e w ith Flexi hours reduced hours Full-tim e w ith Tem ping reduced hours Inform al w ork Tem ping Inform al w ork Other Other 445 Total - 34 yrs 92 60.1% 292 35 - 59 yrs 233 79.8% 153 46 30.1% 92 60.1% 1 0.7% 46 30.1% 4 2.6% 1 0.7% 2 1.3% 4 2.6% 5 3.3% 2 1.3% 5 3.3% 2 1.3% 2 1.3%
II.
Perceptions and Reasons for Inactivity II.

Perceptions and Reasons for Inactivity Main Reasons for Inactivity Unlocking the Female Potential - Research Report Main Reasons for Inactivity Table 5.4 below illustrates the reasons why females chose to become inactive from their previously ‘paid 193 employment’ status.
The findings show that the main reason for this change in status was largely due to Table 5.4 below illustrates the reasons why females chose to become inactive from their previously ‘paid 196 employment’ status.

The findings show that the main reason for this change in status was largely due to 196 their caring responsibilities.

In fact, this was indicated by 38% (226 respondents) of the aggregate survey respondents, irrespective of age.
Moreover, this was followed by 14% (83 respondents) who stated that they became inactive because they prioritized family over work.

This means that family obligations and caring responsibilities are the main reasons why females choose to become inactive.

Other Respondents (12% - 71 respondents), mainly from the 35 to 59 age bracket, stated that they feel too old to look for employment while others (13% - 79 respondents) indicated that they do not feel motivated to work.
TABLE 5.4 – Main Reasons For Not Being Gainfully Occupied TABLE 5.4 – Main Reasons For Not Being Gainfully Occupied Counts Break % Respondents Total I am pregnant To take care of m y children To take care of m y parents To take care of another relative Because for m e the fam ily is the m ain priority I can afford not to w ork (financially) There are no jobs that offer acceptable conditions and flexibility to continue w orking There are no jobs The m aternity leave is insufficient I feel too old to look for w ork I have no one to take care of m y children / relatives if I w ork My husband / other fam ily m em bers do not w ant m e to w ork It is not financially w orthw hile (including tax) Not m otivated Negative job experience There is no one else to do the housew ork for m e I don't think I have the skills currently required by em ployers Other Total 15 - 34 yrs 35 - 59 yrs - - 11 4.5% 17 6.9% 12 4.9% 18 7.3% - - 1 0.4% 13 5.3% 5 2.0% - - The respondents were then asked to rate their level of satisfaction with their current inactive status.
It results that more than half (50.5% - 303 respondents) of the females feel either satisfied or completely 197 194 National Commission for the Promotion of Equality satisfied with this status.

Another 27% feel neither satisfied nor dissatisfied and a low 20% (119 respondents) either do not feel satisfied or do not feel at all satisfied.
It worthy of mention that the respondents who indicated that they are not satisfied with their current status are mainly the younger females, those whose age falls in the 15 to 34 years bracket.

The findings are illustrated in Figure 5.1 below.

FIGURE 5.1 – Level of Satisfaction with the Current Inactivity Status (in %s) FIGURE 5.1 – Level of Satisfaction with the Current Inactivity Status (in %s) 40 35 30 25 satisfied with this status.
Another 27% feel neither satisfied nor dissatisfied and a low 20% (119 respondents) either do not feel satisfied or do not feel at all satisfied.

It worthy of mention that the respondents who indicated that they are not satisfied with their current status are mainly the younger females, those whose age falls in the 15 to 34 years bracket.

The findings are illustrated in Figure 5.1 below.
15 20 10 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 5 FIGURE 5.1 – Level of Satisfaction with the Current Inactivity Status (in %s) 0 s r y 4 3 - 5 1 s r y 9 5 - 5 3 Not at all satisfied Not satisfied Neither satisfied nor dissatisfied Satisfied Very satisfied Don't know Inactive Females and Employment An interesting finding is that although the majority of the interviewees expressed their satisfaction with their current status, a rather high 61.5% (369 respondents) expressed their interest in seeking employment.
On the other hand, when asked whether they are planning to look for a job, a significant Inactive Females and Employment 48.5% (291 respondents) replied in the negative.

Tables 5.5 and 5.6 below illustrate these findings.

An interesting finding is that although the majority of the interviewees expressed their TABLE 5.5 – Respondent’s Interest to Find Employment satisfaction with their current status, a rather high 61.5% (369 respondents) expressed their interest in seeking employment.
On the other hand, when asked whether they are planning to look Not at all satisfied for a job, a significant 48.5% (291 respondents) replied in the negative.

Tables 5.5 and 5.6 below Not satisfied illustrate these findings.

s r y s r y 5 1 9 5 5 3 4 3 - - Neither satisfied nor dissatisfied Satisfied Inactive Females and Employment Of the 213 females who indicated that they plan to look for employment, a high 75% (160 respondents) stated that the reason for this is financial, i.e.

they need more income.


Another 31% Very satisfied (66 respondents) claimed that they would like to socialize and interact more through finding a job Don't know and 29% (62 respondents) stated that they would like to pursue a career.

More than half (54.5% - 116 respondents) of the same respondents highlighted that they would like to work on part- TABLE 5.6 – Respondent Planning to Look For a Job time basis and 83% (177 respondents) expressed their desire to be employed rather than become self-employed.
Moreover, a staggering 90% (191 respondents) stated that they would be willing An interesting finding is that although the majority of the interviewees expressed their satisfaction with to take up training in order to become employed.

When asked how they plan to seek employment, their current status, a rather high 61.5% (369 respondents) expressed their interest in seeking employment.
On the other hand, when asked whether they are planning to look for a job, a significant 48.5% (291 respondents) replied in the negative.

Tables 5.5 and 5.6 below illustrate these findings.
TABLE 5.5 – Respondents’ Interest to Find Employment TABLE 5.5 – Respondent’s Interest to Find Employment 198 Unlocking the Female Potential - Research Report TABLE 5.6 – Respondent Planning to Look For a Job 195 198 TABLE 5.6 – Respondents’ Planning to Look For a Job Counts Break % Respondents Total Yes No Don't know Total 15 - 34 yrs 35 - 59 yrs 600 213 35.5% 291 48.5% 96 16.0% 245 151 61.6% 58 23.7% 36 14.7% 355 62 17.5% 233 65.6% 60 16.9% Perceptions of Employment 60% (128 respondents) indicated that they use or consult ETC’s recruitment and ‘job vacancy opportunity’ services, while 56% (119 respondents) indicated that they look for employment opportunities via the local newspaper classified recruitment advertisements.
Of the 213 females who indicated that they plan to look for employment, a high 75% (160 respondents) stated that the reason for this is financial, i.e.

they need more income.

Another 31% (66 respondents) claimed that they would like to socialize and interact more through finding a job and 29% (62 respondents) stated that they would like to pursue a career.
More than half (54.5% - 116 respondents) of the same respondents highlighted that they would like to work on part-time basis and 83% (177 respondents) expressed their desire to be employed rather than become self-employed.

Moreover, a staggering 90% (191 respondents) stated that they would be willing to take up training in order to become employed.
Perceptions of Employment When asked how they plan to seek employment, 60% (128 respondents) indicated that they use or All 600 survey respondents were asked to rate their level of agreement or disagreement with a consult ETC’s recruitment and ‘job vacancy opportunity’ services, while 56% (119 respondents) indicated number of statements on employment issues.
Table 5.7 below captures the sentiments of inactive that they look for employment opportunities via the local newspaper classified recruitment advertisements.

females on their role within the family, their caring responsibilities and paid employment.
The Research findings revealed that even though 58% (348 respondents) of the interviewees claimed that they agree/ strongly agree that both men and women should work, a rather high 48.5% (291 respondents) stated that they agree/ strongly agree that a father of young children should be All 600 survey respondents were asked to rate their level of agreement or disagreement with a number of the main income earner (breadwinner) for the whole family/household.
Furthermore, 40% (241 respondents) indicated that they agree/ strongly agree that a mother of young children should statements on employment issues.

Table 5.7 below captures the sentiments of inactive females on their not work.

On the other hand, slightly more than half of the respondents (51% - 307 respondents) role within the family, their caring responsibilities and paid employment.
The Research findings revealed expressed their disagreement with the concept that the main role of the husband/male partner that even though 58% (348 respondents) of the interviewees claimed that they agree/ strongly agree that should be the household’s breadwinner, while the main role of the wife/female partner should be both men and women should work, a rather high 48.5% (291 respondents) stated that they agree/ strongly that of a ‘stay-at-home’ carer.
agree that a father of young children should be the main income earner (breadwinner) for the whole family/household.

Furthermore, 40% (241 respondents) indicated that they agree/ strongly agree that a Furthermore, an encouraging 74% (443 respondents) indicated that they agree/ strongly agree mother of young children should not work.
On the other hand, slightly more than half of the respondents that it is possible for a woman to be a ‘good mother’ and to have a career at the same time, if (51% - 307 respondents) expressed their disagreement with the concept that the main role of the she has support at home, while 72.5% (435 respondents) agreed that ideally, women with caring husband/male partner should be the household’s breadwinner, while the main role of the wife/female responsibilities should work less hours a week or opt for a working arrangement that would allow partner should be that of a ‘stay-at-home’ carer.
her to spend more time with her children, e.g.

opt for flexi-time/ part-time/ reduced hours/ teleworking basis.

On the other hand, 41.5% (249 respondents) indicated that they would be willing to use the services of a childcare centre to be able to work.
Furthermore, an encouraging 74% (443 respondents) indicated that they agree/ strongly agree that it is possible for a woman to be a ‘good mother’ and to have a career at the same time, if she has support at home, while 72.5% (435 respondents) agreed that ideally, women with caring responsibilities should work less hours a week or opt for a working arrangement that would allow her to spend more time with her children, e.g.

opt for flexi-time/ part-time/ reduced hours/ teleworking basis.
On the other hand, 41.5% (249 respondents) indicated that they would be willing to use the services of a childcare centre to be able to work.

III.

Perceptions on support structures and Incentives TABLE 5.7 – Level of Agreement or Disagreement with Statements Regarding Employment Perceptions on Childcare Facilities More than 35% (211 respondents) of all the 600 inactive females interviewed, stated that there are no childcare facilities in their town or village.
This was followed by another 35% (209 respondents) who claimed that they did not know whether such facilities existed in their town or village; while only 30% (180 respondents) stated that they are aware of such services within their locality.

These 180 respondents were, in turn, asked whether they have ever enquired on or used these childcare facilities.
The results showed that a high 78% (140 respondents) had never 196 National Commission for the Promotion of Equality 199 TABLE 5.7 – Level of Agreement or Disagreement with Statements Regarding Employment and Family Resplonsibilities Counts Analysis % Respondents Neither agree nor disagree Strongly disagree Strongly agree Disgree Agree Total Don't know / Not applicable A mother w ith young children (under 10 years old) should not w ork.
A father of young children (under 10 years old) should be the main breadw inner for the w hole household.

Women and men should both w ork.

It is possible for a w oman to be a 'good mother' and to have a career at the same time, if she has support.

The main role of the husband should be the breadw inner, and the main role of the w ife should be a stay-at-home carer.

I w ould use the services of a childcare centre to be able to w ork.
Ideally, w omen w ith caring responsibilities should w ork on a flexi- time / part-time / reduced hours / telew orking basis instead of full time.
III.
Perceptions on Support Structures and Incentives Perceptions on Childcare Facilities enquired on or used these services; a mere 2% (4 respondents) indicated that they had intended More than 35% (211 respondents) of all the 600 inactive females interviewed, stated that there are no to enquire on or use them and 20% (36 respondents) said that they have availed themselves of childcare facilities in their town or village.
This was followed by another 35% (209 respondents) who claimed that they did not know whether such facilities existed in their town or village; while only 30% (180 such facilities.

A high 78% (28 respondents) of these 36 respondents explained that the level of respondents) stated that they are aware of such services within their locality.

These 180 respondents quality of the childcare facilities that they made use of was either good or very good.
were, in turn, asked whether they have ever enquired on or used these childcare facilities.

The results showed that a high 78% (140 respondents) had never enquired on or used these services; a mere 2% (4 respondents) indicated that they had intended to enquire on or use them and 20% (36 respondents) said The same 36 respondents were asked to give suggestions on how these childcare facilities may that they have availed themselves of such facilities.
A high 78% (28 respondents) of these 36 respondents be improved.

A rather significant 42% (15 respondents) indicated that the prices for the use of explained that the level of quality of the childcare facilities that they made use of was either good or very these facilities should be lower while 39% (14 respondents) suggested that there should be more good.

childcare centres available.


Moreover, 31% (11 respondents) stated that the opening hours of The same 36 respondents were asked to give suggestions on how these childcare facilities may be these centres should be extended to office hours and that the personnel at these facilities should improved.

A rather significant 42% (15 respondents) indicated that the prices for the use of these facilities be better trained and/or more qualified.

Table 5.8 below illustrates these findings.


should be lower while 39% (14 respondents) suggested that there should be more childcare centres available.

Moreover, 31% (11 respondents) stated that the opening hours of these centres should be extended to office hours and that the personnel at these facilities should be better trained and/or more When analysing the opinions and perceptions of the survey respondents with regards to childcare qualified.

Table 5.8 below illustrates these findings.


centres and facilities for dependent adults, it emerges that even though 41% (244 respondents) expressed their interest in taking their children to a childcare centre and 54.5% (327 respondents) agreed that childcare centres are beneficial for children, a high 65% (388 respondents) stated that they prefer to take care of their children themselves rather than using a childcare facility, even at the cost of giving up paid employment.
Furthermore, 62.5% (375 respondents) claimed that childcare centres are beneficial for children but only for a few hours a day and not every day while 40.5% (243 respondents) stated that if they had to take their children to a childcare facility they would feel as if they are ‘abandoning’ their children and hence are not good mothers.

Table 5.9 illustrates these findings.
200 Unlocking the Female Potential - Research Report 197 TABLE 5.8 – Suggestions for the Improvement of Childcare Services TABLE 5.8 – Suggestions for the Improvement of Childcare Services Counts Break % Respondents Total There should be m ore centres They should offer m ore services The opening hours should be extended The num ber of children in the groups should be sm aller The centres should open on w eekends and holidays The prices should be low er There should be m ore carers The personnel m ust be better trained / m ore qualified The centres m ust be cleaner More em phasis on play More em phasis on education Other Total 15 - 34 yrs 35 - 59 yrs 36 14 38.9% 1 2.8% 11 30.6% 7 19.4% 5 13.9% 15 41.7% 5 13.9% 11 30.6% 3 8.3% 4 11.1% 6 16.7% 3 8.3% 26 9 34.6% - - - - When analysing the opinions and perceptions of the survey respondents with regards to childcare centres and facilities for dependent adults, it emerges that even though 41% (244 respondents) expressed their interest in taking their children to a childcare centre and 54.5% (327 respondents) agreed that childcare Perceptions on dependent Adult Facilities The survey respondents were asked to voice their opinion on care centres for the elderly/ centres are beneficial for the children, a high 65% (388 respondents) stated that they prefer to take care dependent adults.
46% (277 respondents) pointed out that they would prefer to take care of the of their children themselves rather than using a childcare facility, even at the cost of giving up paid elderly/ dependent adult relatives themselves rather than using a dedicated care facility, while on employment.
Furthermore, 62.5% (375 respondents) claimed that childcare centres are beneficial for the other hand, another 40% (242 respondents) indicated that if they were to use the services of children but only for a few hours a day and not every day while 40.5% (243 respondents) stated that if such care facility, they would not feel they would be ‘abandoning’ their elderly/ dependent adult they had to take their children to a childcare facility they would feel as if they are ‘abandoning’ their relatives.
Table 5.9 below illustrates these findings.

children and hence are not good mothers.

Figure 4.8 illustrates these findings.

Perceptions on Dependent Adult Facilities Awareness and Perceptions on Government Incentives Rather worrying results emerged when respondents were asked to mention government incentives aimed at encouraging women to return to or remain in paid employment.
Sadly, more than The survey respondents were asked to voice their opinion on care centres for the elderly/dependent 68% (410 respondents) mentioned that they were not aware of any government incentives.

The adults.
The adults.

46% (277 respondents) pointed out that they would prefer to take care of the elderly/ dependent research findings clearly illustrate that the government incentive which respondents are mostly adult relatives themselves rather than using a dedicated care facility, while another 40% (242 aware of is the tax rebate of up to €2000 for inactive women who return to paid employment.
respondents) indicated that if they were to use the services of such care facility, they would not feel they Yet, only a mere 19% (112 respondents) of the whole interviewed cohort indicated that they were would be ‘abandoning’ their elderly/ dependent adult relatives.

Table 5.9 below illustrates these findings.

aware of this incentive.


TABLE 5.9 – Level of Agreement or Disagreement on Childcare Centres and Facilities for Dependent Adults/ Elderly 198 National Commission for the Promotion of Equality 201 TABLE 5.9 – Level of Agreement or Disagreement on Childcare Centres and Facilities for Dependent Adults/ Elderly Counts Analysis % Respondents I w ould take my children to a childcare centre.

Childcare centres are beneficial for the children.


I prefer to take care of my children myself, rather than using a childcare facility.

I prefer to take care of my elderly / sick relatives myself, rather than using a care facility.

If I take my children to such facilities, I feel as if I am 'abandoning' them.

If I take my elderly / sick relatives to such facilities, I feel as if I am 'abandoning' them.

I w ould be w illing to retire in an old people's home.
Childcare is good for the child, but only for a few hours per day and not every day.

The carers in childcare facilities are professionals and they know how to handle my child.

The carers in the facilities for the sick / elderly are professionals and they know how to handle my relative.

My mind is at rest w hen my child is at the childcare centre.

My mind is at rest w hen my relative is at the care centre.
Total Strongly disagree Disgree Neither agree nor disagree Agree Strongly agree Don't know / Not applicable - - 3 8.3% 15 41.7% 13 36.1% 4 11.1% 1 2.8% 1 3.4% - - Awareness and Perceptions on Government Incentives Rather worrying results emerged when respondents were asked to mention government incentives aimed Perceptions on Possible Incentives at encouraging women to return to or remain in paid employment.
Sadly, more than 68% (410 The survey respondents were then asked to indicate how much they agree or disagree with a respondents) mentioned that they were not aware of any government incentives.

The research findings clearly illustrate that the government incentive which respondents are mostly aware of is the tax rebate of number of possible measures, which may encourage more inactive individuals to enter/ re-enter/ up to €2000 for inactive women who return to paid employment.
Yet, only a mere 19% (112 respondents) remain in the labour market.

The majority of the respondents indicated that they either agree/ of the whole interviewed cohort indicated that they were aware of this incentive.

strongly agree with incentives involving childcare facilities.
In fact, a high majority of the female Perceptions on Possible Incentives respondents agreed with the setting up childcare centres at (or close to) the place of work and near schools in each locality; with government subsidising the rates of such centres; with the extension of the opening hours and the range of services being offered by these centres.
However, as to the possible incentive of extending school hours to tally with office hours, a rather high 42% (253 respondents) expressed their disagreement with such measure.

202 The majority of the respondents also agreed that there should be more ‘working hours’ flexibility on the job.

This was, in fact, expressed by more than 77% of the whole surveyed cohort.

These claimed that employers should offer more flexi-time, reduced hours and Teleworking employment arrangements.
Unlocking the Female Potential - Research Report 199 Moreover, more than 79% of the respondents expressed their agreement with tax benefits to encourage more participation in the labour market.

The findings show that the majority of the respondents agree that there should be tax incentives or financial benefits in the first 5 years of employment for inactive women to enter/ re-enter the labour market and also for employers who introduce flexible work arrangements.
Table 5.10 below illustrates these findings.
When respondents were asked to indicate which of these incentives/ measures would interest them and encourage them to enter the labour market, the findings clearly show that a significant 41% (244 respondents) showed a keen interest on ‘flexi-time’ work arrangements, while 36% TABLE 5.10 – Level of Agreement Relating to Measures/Incentives Encouraging Inactive Individuals to Enter the Labour Market Counts Analysis % Respondents Extension of school hours to tally w ith w orking hours (through after-school play activities) Possibility to w ork in a flexible manner Tax credits or financial benefits in the first 5 years for inactive w omen w ho return to w ork Tax credits or financial benefits for employers w ho introduce flexible w ork arrangements Educational campaigns to change the cultural gender stereotypes in Malta (i.e.
husband as breadw inner, w oman as mother / housew ife) The setting up of childcare centres at the place of w ork or close to the place of w ork Childcare centres in each locality attached to primary / secondary schools Childcare should alw ays be subsidized by the government The setting up of more governmental facilities for elderly/people w ith disability Childcare centres having an extended range of services and opening hours Introducing longer shop and office hours / Sunday shopping Reduced hours w eek Telew orking More training for inactive w omen to update their skills Total Strongly disagree Disgree Neither agree not disagree Agree Strongly agree Don't know / Refused When respondents were asked to indicate which of these incentives/ measures would interest them and encourage them to enter the labour market, the findings clearly show that a significant 41% (244 respondents) showed a keen interest on ‘flexi-time’ work arrangements, while 36% (216 respondents) showed an interest in Teleworking arrangements and 28% (169 respondents) were interested in ‘reduced National Commission for the Promotion of Equality 200 204 (216 respondents) showed an interest in Teleworking arrangements and 28% (169 respondents) were interested in ‘reduced hours’ working arrangements.
However, on a negative note, 29% (172 respondents) of the total respondents indicated that none of these proposed incentives/ measures would interest them or encourage them to enter/ re-enter paid employment.

This was more evident in the older 35 – 59 years age cohort (36%) than in the younger cohort (19%).

Table 5.11 below illustrates these findings.


As this Table illustrates multiple responses, the total number of responses exceeds 600 counts and the indicated percentage findings relate to the individual (and not comparative) assessment of each ‘measure/incentive’.

hours’ working arrangements.

However, on a negative note, 29% (172 respondents) of the total respondents indicated that none of these proposed incentives/ measures would interest them or encourage them to enter/ re-enter paid employment.
This was more evident in the older 35 – 59 yrs age cohort (36%) than in the younger cohort (19%).

Table 5.11 below illustrates these findings.

As this Figure illustrates multiple responses, the total number of responses exceeds 600 counts and the indicated percentage (and not comparative) assessment of each ‘measure/incentive’.
TABLE 5.11 – Respondents’ Interest in these Measures/ Incentives individual findings relate the to TABLE 5.11 – Respondents’ Interest in These Measures/ Incentives Counts Break % Respondents Total 15 - 34 yrs 35 - 59 yrs Total 600 245 355 Extension of school hours to tally w ith w orking hours (through after-school play activities) Extension of m aternity leave - w ith the extra w eeks being unpaid or subsidized by governm ent 74 12.3% 37 15.1% 37 10.4% 99 16.5% 56 22.9% 43 12.1% Possibility to w ork in a flexible m anner 244 40.7% 119 48.6% 73 29.8% 125 35.2% 90 25.4% 163 27.2% Tax credits or financial benefits in the first 5 years for inactive w om en w ho return to w ork Tax credits or financial benefits for em ployers w ho introduce flexible w ork arrangem ents Educational cam paigns to change the cultural gender stereotypes in Malta (i.e.
husband as breadw inner, w om an as m other / housew ife) The setting up of childcare centres at the place of w ork or close to the place of w ork Childcare centres in each locality attached to prim ary / secondary schools 88 14.7% Childcare subsidized by the governm ent 92 15.3% The setting up of m ore governm ental facilities for elderly people / people w ith disability Childcare centres having an extended range of services and opening hours Introducing longer shop and office hours / Sunday shopping Reduced hours w eek Telew orking None of the above Maternity Leave Unlocking the Female Potential - Research Report 201 205 Maternity Leave The survey respondents were asked to voice their opinion on whether maternity leave should be extended or not.
As expected, a high 63% (379 respondents) gave a positive response, 19% (116 respondents) indicated that this measure does not affect them or they do not have an opinion, while 17.5% (105 respondents) replied in the negative.

29% (110 respondents) of the 379 respondents who agree with the maternity leave extension claimed that this should be extended to six months while 27% (102 respondents) feel that it should be extended to one year.
More than 63% (239 respondents) of the same 379 interviewees pointed out that the extension in the maternity leave should be paid in full.

Furthermore, 78% (186 respondents) agreed that they would consider making use of this maternity leave extension even if they are only partially paid for this leave extension.
5.5.2 ACTIVITY II – An ‘Inactive Population skills study’ Activity II comprised two distinct quantitative research studies: one study was carried out with 600 inactive females, separate from the 600 inactive females, who participated in the foregoing Activity I study, and another 600-count research study was conducted with both ‘public sector’, micro, small, medium and large ‘private sector’ employers hailing from Malta and Gozo.
The study with the inactive female cohort was conducted by way of face-to-face interviews and the study with the employers was conducted by way of telephone interviews.

Given that both studies aimed at addressing the research objectives of Activity II, the research findings of both studies will be presented together.

The object of this is to present, where possible, comparative findings – from the inactive female’s perspective and the local employer’s perspective.
The sets of skills comprised in both research instruments were drawn up by the Research Consultant, adapted from various sources, namely, ‘skills profile’ study questionnaires used locally and from international research papers and based on own experience on the subject matter.

The salient findings emerging from these two quantitative research studies are noted below.
I. Respondent Profile: Inactive Females and Local Employers Profile of Inactive Females A total of 603 inactive females were interviewed for the purpose of this study.

These interviews were conducted by means of a 30-minute face-to-face interview.

The interviews were conducted with females hailing from two age categories, namely, between 15 and 34 years and between 35 and 59 years old.
The study also ensured a good representation of inactive women hailing from all of Malta’s six official geographical regions.

Some 20.1% (121 respondents) hailed from Gozo, 49 respondents aged 15 - 34 years and 72 respondents aged 35 - 59 years.

The findings showed that the majority (57% - 345 respondents) of the females interviewed hold a secondary level of education and 64% (386 respondents) of the whole 603-count cohort respondents were married.
Based on the main income earner’s occupation of their respective household, 46% (279 respondents) of the respondents fell in the socio-economic C1C2 category, 29% (176 respondents) fell in the DE category, while 24.5% (148 respondents) fell in the AB classification.
202 National Commission for the Promotion of Equality Caring Responsibilities A high 64% (387 respondents) of the inactive females indicated that they currently have child caring responsibilities, while 32% (195 respondents) said that they have no caring responsibilities.

41% (100 respondents) of the younger (15 - 34 years) cohort and some 80% (287 respondents) of the older (35 – 59 years) cohort are mothers.
Most of these inactive mother respondents have between one to two children, largely aged 13 years and over.

7.1% (43 respondents) indicated that they have dependent-adult caring responsibilities; 2% (5 respondents) of the younger age group cohort and 10.7% (38 respondents) of the older age group cohort.

Some respondents indicated that they had both child and dependent-adult caring responsibilities.
Past Employment With regards to the inactive interviewees’ last employment, 38% (228 respondents) of them stated that they have been out of paid employment for more than 10 years while 25% (150 respondents) stated that they have never worked.

It is worthy of mention that the respondents who have been out of employment for a high number of years are of an older age while the ones who have never worked are mainly of a younger age.
Of the 453 respondents who were gainfully employed in the past, 33% (151 respondents) stated that they held a Plant and Machine Operator/ Assembler position and 25% (112 respondents) held a Service/ Market and Sales Worker position.

As to be expected, almost 40% (176) of the same respondents pointed out that they used to be employed in the Manufacturing sector.
A total of 194 respondents (43%) stated that they held their last employment for more than five years and the high majority indicated that they were employed on full-time basis.

Profile of Employers The object of this research study targeting local employers aimed at capturing the views and opinions of employers on the skills of inactive women and their ‘employability’ potential.

A total of 603 completed interviews were conducted with private and public employers, who employ, at least, one employee.
This study was conducted by way of 10-minute CATI (computer-aided telephone interviews).

The interviewed companies represented nine business sectors, namely, Manufacturing, Financial, Business and Community Services, Retail and Wholesale, Real Estate and Construction, Hospitality and Tourism, Transport and Communications, Health, Social Work and Care work, Education and Public Service.

More than 57% (346 employers) of the interviewed companies were micro, i.e.
employing between 1-9 employees; the ‘self-employed without employees’ sector was not included in the study.

25% (150 employers) were small enterprises, employing between 10-49 employees, while 18% (107 employers) are medium to large enterprises, employing over 50 employees and over.

More than 87% (526 employers) of the whole employer cohort hailed from the private sector.

5.6% (34 respondents) employers hailed from Gozo.


Employment of Inactive Females The findings show that in the last five years, 26% (155 employers) of the whole employer cohort recruited inactive females who were inactive (i.e.

not in paid employment) for five years and over.

The Health, Social Work and Care Work sector was the sector with the highest score of female employees, who were previously inactive, totaling 52.5% (21 employers) from the 40 interviewed employers engaged in this sector.
This was followed by the Education sector and the Public Service sector where 39% (14 employers from 36 respondents) and 36.5% (19 employers from 52 respondents) respectively also claimed that they employed females who were inactive for five years and over.

Unlocking the Female Potential - Research Report 203 The research findings also reveal that the employees who were previously inactive for five years and over are largely recruited by employers who employ more than 11 employees.
Moreover, the results illustrate that the companies which recruited most ‘previously inactive’ women, possess a higher female to male workforce ratio.

Another interesting finding is that the previously inactive employees are engaged with employers, who offer family-friendly measures.

Figures 5.2, 5.3, 5.4 and Table 5.12 below illustrate more detailed findings on the employment of inactive females in Malta.


Figures 5.2, 5.3, 5.4 and Table 5.12 below illustrate more detailed findings on the employment of inactive females in Malta.
FIGURE 5.2 - Companies Employing Inactive (for 5+ years) Females in the Last 5 Years – by FIGURE 5.2 - Companies Employing Inactive (for 5+ years) Females in the Last 5 Years – Business Sector (in %) by Business Sector (in %s) FIGURE 5.2 - Companies Employing Inactive (for 5+ years) Females in the Last 5 Years – 90 by Business Sector (in %s) 80 90 70 80 60 70 50 40 30 20 10 0 60 50 40 30 20 10 & l a i c n a n F i y t i n u m m o C & l a i c n a n F i y t i n u m m o C s e c i v r e S & l i a t e R e l a s e l o h e l W a s e l o h W & l i a t e R & e t a t s E & ; I m m T o C C m m o C ; & y t i l a t i & p s y o t i H l a t i p s o Yes H m s i r u o T m s i r u o T No Yes Don't know No l a i c o S e r a C / / l a i c o S h t l a e H / k e r o r a W C / FIGURE 5.3 – Companies Employing Inactive (for 5+ years) Females in the Last 5 Years – by Number of Employees (in %s) Don't know 80 FIGURE 5.3 – Companies Employing Inactive (for 5+ years) Females in the Last 5 Years – by FIGURE 5.3 – Companies Employing Inactive (for 5+ years) Females in the Last 5 Years – Number of Employees (in %) by Number of Employees (in %s) 70 80 60 70 50 60 40 50 30 40 20 30 10 20 0 10 0 s e e y o p m e l 5 - 1 s e e y o p m e l 5 - 1 l s e e y o p m e s e e y o p m e 0 1 6 - l 0 1 - 6 l s e e y o p m e s 0 e 5 e y - o 1 l 1 p m e 0 Yes 5 - 1 1 No Don't know Yes l s e e y o p m e s e e y o 1 p 5 m e 0 0 1 - l 0 0 1 - 1 5 l s e e y o p m e + 0 0 1 l s e e y o p m e + 0 0 1 No TABLE 5.12 – Companies Recruiting Inactive (for 5+ years) Females in the Last 5 Years – By Male : Female Ratio Workforce Don't know TABLE 5.12 – Companies Recruiting Inactive (for 5+ years) Females in the Last 5 Years – By Male : Female Ratio
 Workforce 204 National Commission for the Promotion of Equality 208 208 TABLE 5.12 – Companies Recruiting Inactive (for 5+ years) Females in the Last 5 Years – By Male : Female Ratio Workforce Total Yes No Counts Analysis % Respondents Total Male 10% - Fem ale 90% Counts Analysis % Respondents Male 20% - Fem ale 80% Total Male 30% - Fem ale 70% Male 10% - Fem ale 90% Male 40% - Fem ale 60% Male 20% - Fem ale 80% Male 50% - Fem ale 50% Male 30% - Fem ale 70% Male 60% - Fem ale 40% Male 40% - Fem ale 60% Male 70% - Fem ale 30% Male 50% - Fem ale 50% Male 80% - Fem ale 20% Male 60% - Fem ale 40% Male 90% - Fem ale 10% Male 70% - Fem ale 30% 100% Male Male 80% - Fem ale 20% 100% Fem ale Male 90% - Fem ale 10% Don't know 100% Male 100% Fem ale Refused Don't know 257 28 Total 14 257 13 28 19 14 39 13 33 19 22 39 21 33 37 22 16 21 4 37 11 16 4 - 11 Don't know 46 17.9% 4 14.3% Don't know - 5 - 13.5% 5 4 45.5% 25.0% - - - - 5 45.5% 94 36.6% 17 60.7% Yes - - 9 42.9% 3 3 75.0% 8.1% 3 27.3% - - 3 75.0% - - 117 45.5% 7 25.0% No - 25.0% - 3 27.3% 3 27.3% FIGURE 5.4 – Companies Employing Inactive (for 5+ years) Females in the Last 5 Years – By Offering of Family-friendly Measures (in %s) Refused - - - - - - - 70 60 FIGURE 5.4 – Companies Employing Inactive (for 5+ years) Females in the Last 5 Years FIGURE 5.4 – Companies Employing Inactive (for 5+ years) Females in the Last 5 Years – – By Offering of Family-friendly Measures (in %) By Offering of Family-friendly Measures (in %s) 50 70 40 60 30 50 40 20 30 10 20 0 10 0 s e Y
 s e Y w o n k t ' n o D w o n k t ' n o D o N Reduced hours o N Flexi time Teleworking Reduced hours Career breaks Flexi time None of the above Teleworking Other Career breaks None of the above Other 209 209 Unlocking the Female Potential - Research Report 205 II.
Level of Education of Inactive Females Level of Education The research findings show that a very high majority (74% - 444 respondents) of the inactive women interviewed possess an Ordinary level standard of education or lower.

Same findings also show that inactive females of a younger age tend to possess a higher level of education than the older inactive women.
In fact, while more than 22% (55 respondents) of the younger females possess an Advanced level/ VET Diploma, only 8% (27 respondents) of the older respondents (35+ years) hold the equivalent qualification.

Table 5.13 illustrates more detail on the highest level of education reached by inactive females.
The 155 employers, who indicated that they recruited inactive females during the past five years, were asked to specify, based on their experience on interviewing and recruiting inactive women, the level of education of the latter.
More than 43% (67 employers) of the employer respondents communicated that these women possessed an Ordinary level standard of education, 32% (49 employers) stated that they possessed a school leaving certificate and 23% (36 employers) pointed out that these females held an Advanced level/ VET Diploma standard of education.

II.

Level of Education of Inactive Females Training The inactive female survey respondents were asked whether they were currently attending a course or training.
A rather worrying 72% (435 respondents) gave a negative response while a low 8.5% (51 respondents) explained that even though they were not attending any training at the time of the survey they were planning to do so.

On the other hand, 22% (123 respondents) mentioned that they were currently furthering their education through courses or training.

Figure 5.5 below Level of Education illustrates these results in more detail.
The research findings show that a very high majority (74% - 444 respondents) of the inactive women interviewed possess an Ordinary level standard of education or lower.

Same findings also show that inactive females of a younger age tend to possess a higher level of education than the older inactive women.
In fact, while more than 22% (55 respondents) of the younger females possess an Advanced level/ VET Diploma, only 8% (27 respondents) of the older respondents (35+ years) hold the equivalent qualification.
TABLE 5.13 – Highest Level of Education Reached by Inactive Females TABLE 5.13 – Highest Level of Education Reached by Inactive Females Counts Break % Respondents Total None School-leaving certificate O levels A levels / VET Diplom a Undergraduate Diplom a / Certificate / VET Higher Diplom a Bachelor's degree Masters degree Doctorate (PhD) Other Total 15 - 34 yrs 35 - 59 yrs The 155 employers, who indicated that they recruited inactive females during the past five years, were asked to specify, based on their experience on interviewing and recruiting inactive women, the level of education of the latter.
More than 43% (67 employers) of the employer respondents communicated that 206 these women possessed an Ordinary level standard of education, 32% (49 employers) stated that they possessed a school leaving certificate and 23% (36 employers) pointed out that these females held an Advanced level/ VET Diploma standard of education.

National Commission for the Promotion of Equality Training The inactive female survey respondents were asked whether they were currently attending a course or training.
A rather worrying 72% (435 respondents) gave a negative response while a low 8.5% (51 respondents) explained that even though they were not attending any training at the time of the survey they were planning to do so.

On the other hand, 22% (123 respondents) mentioned that they were currently furthering their education through courses or training.

Figure 5.5 below illustrates these results in more detail.
FIGURE 5.5 – Respondent Currently Taking a Course or Training (in %s) 210 FIGURE 5.5 – Respondent Currently Taking a Course or Training (in %) 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 s r y 4 3 - 5 1 s r y 9 5 - 5 3 No No, but I intend to start a course / training Yes, a course at University Yes, a course at another post-secondary educational institution Yes, a course at ETC Yes, vocational courses Other course / training A very encouraging finding is that 72% (112 employers) of the 155 employers who recruited inactive women in the last five years, stated that these females are also furthering their studies through training and courses.
The 123 interviewed inactive females, who stated that they are currently undertaking training, 73% (90 A very encouraging finding is that 72% (112 employers) of the 155 employers who recruited respondents) of these indicated that they are attending training on full-time basis.
Moreover, the majority (60% - 103 respondents) of the 172 respondents who are either currently undergoing or planning to inactive women in the last five years, stated that these females are also furthering their studies undergo training, indicated that the objective for furthering their studies is specifically to improve their job through training and courses.

prospects.
prospects.

This finding is clearly very encouraging as it shows that inactive females who genuinely wish to enter the labour market are doing their utmost to enhance their employability potential.

In addition to From the 123 interviewed inactive females, who stated that they are currently undertaking this, more than 55% (95 respondents) mentioned that they are attending courses/training for their own training, 73% (90 respondents) indicated that they are attending training on full-time basis.
personal development and 41% (70 respondents) claimed that they are doing this to improve their Moreover, the majority (60% - 103 respondents) of the 172 respondents who are either currently personal skills and widen their knowledge, in general.

undergoing or planning to undergo training, indicated that the objective for furthering their Conversely, the two salient reasons why the vast majority (435 females) of the inactive female studies is specifically to improve their job prospects.
This finding is clearly very encouraging as it respondents for not currently undertaking any training relate to not having time to attend any courses or shows that inactive females who genuinely wish to enter the labour market are doing their utmost training (47% - 204 respondents) and to simply not being interested or motivated to do so (41.1% - 179 to enhance their employability potential.

In addition to this, more than 55% (95 respondents) respondents).
Table 5.14 below highlights these results in more detail.

mentioned that they are attending courses/training for their own personal development and 41% (70 respondents) claimed that they are doing this to improve their personal skills and widen their knowledge, in general.
TABLE 5.14 – Reasons For Not Attending Training Conversely, the two salient reasons why the vast majority (435 females) of the inactive female respondents for not currently undertaking any training relate to not having time to attend any courses or training (47% - 204 respondents) and to simply not being interested or motivated to do so (41.1% - 179 respondents).

Table 5.14 below highlights these results in more detail.
All 603 inactive female survey respondents were also asked whether they have ever taken any computer training.

More than 39% (236 respondents) claimed that they have never taken such training.

Another 20% (123 respondents) stated that, even though they have not attended any formal computer course, they have learnt computer skills alone at home.

Almost 19% (112 respondents) indicated that they took a course either at University or at a private educational institution.
However, 75% (452 respondents) of the respondents claimed that they do not possess an ECDL certificate.
211 Unlocking the Female Potential - Research Report 207 TABLE 5.14 – Reasons For Not Attending Training Counts Break % Respondents Total I am not interested / not m otivated Studying is for the young ones I w as never one to study / I am not good in studying There are no courses that interest m e The courses I w as interested in did not start I can't afford a course / training Total 15 - 34 yrs 35 - 59 yrs I don't have tim e for courses / training 204 46.9% 58 47.9% 146 46.5% I don't think there are any benefits in taking up a course / training The place w here the course is conducted is not convenient The tim es of the lessons / lectures are not convenient 13 3.0% 7 1.6% 11 2.5% 4 3.3% 2 1.7% 5 4.1% Other 49 11.3% 21 17.4% 9 2.9% 5 1.6% 6 1.9% 28 8.9% All 603 inactive female survey respondents were also asked whether they have ever taken any computer training.
More than 39% (236 respondents) claimed that they have never taken such training.

Another 20% (123 respondents) stated that, even though they have not attended any formal computer course, they have learnt computer skills alone at home.

Almost 19% (112 respondents) indicated that they took a course either at University or at a private educational institution.

However, 75% (452 respondents) of the respondents claimed that they do not possess an ECDL certificate.

III.

skills of Inactive Females III.


Skills of Inactive Females Language skills With regards to inactive females’ language skills, the majority of the 603 survey respondents consider themselves as proficient users of both Maltese and English.

So much so, more than 75% consider themselves as proficient in the use of Maltese while 60% feel that they are fluent users of the English language.
Language Skills With regards to inactive females’ language skills, the majority of the 603 survey respondents consider themselves as proficient users of both Maltese and English.

So much so, more than 75% consider Local employers’ perceptions on the language skills of inactive women were slightly different.
64% themselves as proficient in the use of Maltese while 60% feel that they are fluent users of the English of the 155 employers, who recruited inactive women during the last five years, felt that these language.

females are proficient in Maltese, while a lower 49% of these employers believe that these females are proficient in English.

Local employers’ perceptions on the language skills of inactive women were slightly different.
64% of the 155 employers, who recruited inactive women during the last five years, felt that these females are As for other languages, the findings show that inactive females are not very proficient.

While only proficient in Maltese, while a lower 49% of these employers believe that these females are proficient in a 22% of the inactive female respondents stated that they are proficient in the Italian language, English.

an even lower 10% of the employers believe that this is the case.
Tables 5.15 and 5.16 illustrate the inactive female respondents’ and employers’ perceptions on the language skills of inactive females in Malta.

As for other languages, the findings show that inactive females are not very proficient.

While only a 22% of the inactive female respondents stated that they are proficient in the Italian language, an even lower 212 208 National Commission for the Promotion of Equality 10% of the employers believe that this is the case.
Tables 5.15 and 5.16 illustrate the inactive female respondents’ and employers’ perceptions on the language skills of inactive females in Malta.
TABLE 5.15 – Language Skills of Inactive Females – As Perceived by Inactive Females TABLE 5.15 – Language Skills of Inactive Females – As Perceived by Inactive Females Counts Analysis % Respondents Maltese - Listening Maltese - Speaking Maltese - Reading Maltese - Writing English - Listening English - Speaking English - Reading English - Writing Italian - Listening Italian - Speaking Italian - Reading Italian - Writing Another foreign language 1 - Listening Another foreign language 1 - Speaking Another foreign language 1 - Reading Another foreign language 1 - Writing Another foreign language 2 - Listening Another foreign language 2 - Speaking Another foreign language 2 - Reading Another foreign language 2 - Writing Total Basic User Independent User Proficient User Don't know / Not applicable TABLE 5.16 – Language Skills of Inactive Females – As Perceived by Local Employers Unlocking the Female Potential - Research Report 209 213 TABLE 5.16 – Language Skills of Inactive Females – As Perceived by Local Employers Counts Analysis % Respondents Maltese - Listening Maltese - Speaking Maltese - Reading Maltese - Writing English - Listening English - Speaking English - Reading English - Writing Italian - Listening Italian - Speaking
 Italian - Reading Italian - Writing Another foreign language 1 - Listening Another foreign language 1 - Speaking Another foreign language 1 - Reading Another foreign language 1 - Writing Another foreign language 2 - Listening Another foreign language 2 - Speaking Another foreign language 2 - Reading Another foreign language 2 - Writing Total Basic user Independent user Proficient user Don't know / Not applicable Personal Skills The perceptions of local employers and of the inactive female respondents on the personal skills of inactive females tallied.
The findings show that responsibility, communication and reliability are the three leading skills/qualities which characterize inactive women.

On the other hand, number crunching and calculations, creativity and artistic skills scored the lowest ratings both by employers and the inactive female respondents.
It is worthy of mention here that, similar to the perceptions on inactive women’s language skills, local employers’ perceptions on inactive females’ ‘personal skills’ were somewhat lower than those of the inactive female respondents themselves.

Critical Skills 210 National Commission for the Promotion of Equality 214 Personal skills The perceptions of local employers and of the inactive female respondents on the personal skills of inactive females tallied.
The findings show that responsibility, communication and reliability are the three leading skills/qualities which characterize inactive women.

On the other hand, number crunching and calculations, creativity and artistic skills scored the lowest ratings both by employers and the inactive female respondents.
It is worthy of mention here that, similar to the perceptions on inactive women’s language skills, local employers’ perceptions on inactive females’ ‘personal skills’ were somewhat lower than those of the inactive female respondents themselves.

Critical skills The results hailing from the inactive females study and employers study both show that the critical skills which inactive females possess most comprise teamwork, time management, customer handling and problem solving.
On the other hand, the weakest skills characterising inactive females comprise project management, negotiating, financial management and entrepreneurial skills.

Once again, when comparing the perceptions responses of the employers with those of the inactive female respondents on the critical skills characterising inactive females, the perceptions of employers were somewhat lower than those of the inactive female respondents.
This with the exception of the ‘customer handling’ skill where 72% (111 respondents) of employers who employed inactive women in the last 5 years, perceived that inactive females generally possess this skill, while a lower 64% (387 respondents) of the inactive female respondents stated that they possess this skill.
The results hailing from the inactive females study and employers study both show that the critical skills which inactive females possess most comprise teamwork, time management, customer handling and problem solving.

On the other hand, the weakest skills characterising inactive females comprise project management, negotiating, financial management and entrepreneurial skills.
Once again, when comparing the perceptions responses of the employers with those of the inactive female respondents on the critical skills characterising inactive females, the perceptions of employers were somewhat lower than that of the inactive female respondents.
This with the exception of the ‘customer handling’ skill where 72% (111 respondents) of employers who employed inactive women in the last 5 years, perceived that inactive females generally possess this skill, while a lower 64% (387 respondents) of the inactive female respondents stated that they possess this skill.

ICT skills The research findings illustrate that inactive females possess fairly good ICT skills.

Both the inactive female and employer studies depict this finding.
Inactive females possess good to very good skills in the use of email and search on the internet, a lesser degree of competency in the use of word processing and spreadsheets packages and not at all good in graphic design applications.

Tables 5.17 and 5.18 below illustrate more details on the inactive female respondents’ and employers’ perceptions on inactive females’ competency in ICT skills.

The research findings illustrate that inactive females possess fairly good ICT skills.
Both the inactive female and employer studies depict this finding.

Inactive females possess good to very good skills in the use of email and search on the internet, a lesser degree of competency in the use of word processing and spreadsheets packages and not at all good in graphic design applications.

Tables 5.17 and 5.18 below illustrate more details on the inactive female respondents’ and employers’ perceptions on inactive females’ competency in ICT skills.
ICT Skills TABLE 5.17 – The Rating of Inactive Females’ ICT Skills – Inactive Females’ Perceptions TABLE 5.17 – The Rating of Inactive Females’ ICT Skills – Inactive Females’ Perceptions Counts Analysis % Respondents Search on the Internet E-mail Word Processing Packages Spreadsheets Packages Graphic design applications (e.g.
Photoshop) / Programming / Web editing Total Not good at all Not good Neither good nor bad Good Very good Don't know / Not applicable TABLE 5.18 – The Rating of Inactive Females’ ICT Skills – Employers’ Perceptions Total Not good at all Not good Neither good nor bad Good Very good Don't know / Not applicable Counts Analysis % Respondents Search on the Internet E-mail 155 155 6 3.9% 4 2.6% 11 7.1% 12 7.7% Word Processing Packages Unlocking the Female Potential - Research Report Spreadsheets Packages 3 1.9% 7 4.5% 155 155 17 11.0% 31 20.0% 211 Graphic design applications (e.g.
Photoshop) / Programming / Web editing The results hailing from the inactive females study and employers study both show that the critical skills which inactive females possess most comprise teamwork, time management, customer handling and problem solving.
On the other hand, the weakest skills characterising inactive females comprise project management, negotiating, financial management and entrepreneurial skills.

Once again, when comparing the perceptions responses of the employers with those of the inactive female respondents on the critical skills characterising inactive females, the perceptions of employers were somewhat lower than that of the inactive female respondents.
This with the exception of the ‘customer handling’ skill where 72% (111 respondents) of employers who employed inactive women in the last 5 years, perceived that inactive females generally possess this skill, while a lower 64% (387 respondents) of the inactive female respondents stated that they possess this skill.

ICT Skills The research findings illustrate that inactive females possess fairly good ICT skills.

Both the inactive female and employer studies depict this finding.
Inactive females possess good to very good skills in the use of email and search on the internet, a lesser degree of competency in the use of word processing and spreadsheets packages and not at all good in graphic design applications.

Tables 5.17 and 5.18 below illustrate more details on the inactive female respondents’ and employers’ perceptions on inactive females’ competency in ICT skills.
TABLE 5.17 – The Rating of Inactive Females’ ICT Skills – Inactive Females’ Perceptions Total Not good at all Not good Good Very good Neither good nor bad Don't know / Not applicable Counts Analysis % Respondents Search on the Internet E-mail Word Processing Packages Spreadsheets Packages Graphic design applications (e.g.
Photoshop) / Programming / Web editing TABLE 5.18 – The Rating of Inactive Females’ ICT Skills – Employers’ Perceptions TABLE 5.18 – The Rating of Inactive Females’ ICT Skills – Employers’ Perceptions Counts Analysis % Respondents Search on the Internet E-mail Word Processing Packages Spreadsheets Packages Graphic design applications (e.g.
Photoshop) / Programming / Web editing Total Not good at all Not good Neither good nor bad Good Very good Don't know / Not applicable IV.

Employee Skills Required by Employers IV.


Employee skills Required by Employers In order to obtain a better picture of the skills required by the employers and to identify the skills required by the inactive female population to render the latter more employable, it is opportune to first identify the business sectors which inactive females wish to be employed in.


Figure 4.29 illustrates this assessment Figure 5.6 below clearly illustrates that the Health, Social Work and Care Work business sector emanating from the inactive female survey responses.
is the most popular and sought after sector for potential employment by inactive females.

Figure 5.6 below clearly illustrates that the Health, Social Work and Care Work business sector is the This business sector was preferred by more than 19% (117 respondents) of the aggregate 603 most popular and sought after sector for potential employment by inactive females.

This business sector inactive female respondents interviewed.
The second sought after sector with a score of 14% (83 was preferred by more than 19% (117 respondents) of the aggregate 603 inactive female respondents respondents) was the Education sector, followed by 13% (79 respondents) of the respondents who interviewed.
The second sought after sector with a score of 14% (83 respondents) came the Education sector, followed by 13% (79 respondents) of the respondents who expressed their interest to seek expressed their interest to seek employment in the Wholesale and Retail trade sector.

The inactive employment in the Wholesale and Retail trade sector.
The inactive female respondents’ fourth and fifth female respondents’ fourth and fifth preferred business sectors for potential employment were preferred business sectors for potential employment were the Public Administration sector and the Hotels the Public Administration sector and the Hotels and Restaurants sector which attained 10.4% (63 and Restaurants sector which attained 10.4% (63 respondents) and 10% (60 respondents) of preferences respondents) and 10% (60 respondents) of preferences respectively.
respectively.

On the other hand, a rather worrying finding shows that a somewhat high 30% (179 respondents) of the inactive female respondents either do not know what business sector they wish to work in or, worse still, there is no sector they see themselves working in.
FIGURE 5.6 – Inactive Females’ Preferred Business Sectors for Employment (in %s) FIGURE 5.6 – Inactive Females’ Preferred Business Sectors for Employment (in %s) 25 20 15 10 5 0 Practical Skills s r y 4 3 - 5 1 s r y 9 5 - 5 3 Construction, Mining & Quarrying Real Estate, Renting & Business Activities Manufacturing; Agriculture, Hunting & Forestry; Electricity, Gas & Water Supply Public Administration Wholesale & Retail Trade, Repairs Hotels & Restaurants Transport, Storage & Communication Financial Intermediation Education Health & Social Work None Don't know All 603 Employer respondents were asked to specify which practical skills are mostly required from their employees in their line of business/ business sector.
The research findings show that the two most requested skills by employers are job experience and teamwork, followed by social skills.

A significant 44% (265 respondents) of the employers indicated that job experience and teamwork are equally National Commission for the Promotion of Equality 212 important, while 42% (254 respondents) indicated that social skills are also very important skills for employees in their line of business.
216 On the other hand, a rather worrying finding shows that a somewhat high 30% (179 respondents) of the inactive female respondents either do not know what business sector they wish to work in or, worse still, there is no sector they see themselves working in.

Practical skills All 603 Employer respondents were asked to specify which practical skills are mostly required from their employees in their line of business/ business sector.
The research findings show that the two most requested skills by employers are job experience and teamwork, followed by social skills.

A significant 44% (265 respondents) of the employers indicated that job experience and teamwork are equally important, while 42% (254 respondents) indicated that social skills are also very important skills for employees in their line of business.

The same research question was asked to the inactive female respondents.
The findings show that this cohort is fully aware of the practical skills most requested by employers as the three skills mentioned by the inactive female respondents were job experience, teamwork and computer and ICT skills.
When comparatively analysing the data collected from both studies, it is worthy of mention that while 81% (126 employers) of the employers who recruited inactive females in the last five years, indicated that although these inactive females possessed good to very good teamwork skills, unfortunately a high percentage of these inactive women did not possess the required job experience.
In fact, a worrying 25% (150 respondents) of the inactive female respondents indicated that they have never worked in their lives and yet another 38% (228 respondents) stated that they have been out of paid employment for more than 10 years.

Table 5.19 and Figure 5.7 below depict the findings for the employers’ perceptions and the inactive female respondents’ perceptions of the practical skills required by employee at the local workplaces.
As this question captured ‘multiple responses’ from the respondents of both surveys, the total number of responses in both Figures below exceeds 600 counts.

Personal skills More than half (53% - 320 employers) of the employer respondents indicated ‘honesty’ as the most important personal skill required by employees at their workplace.

This was followed by 49% (294 employers) of the respondents who indicated ‘reliability/ taking work seriously’ as another important personal skill required by employees.
Moreover, 45% (274 employers) indicated that ‘courtesy/ politeness’ by the employees at the workplace are also essential.

Table 5.20 below illustrates in detail the personal skills required by employees at Malta’s workplaces.

When the inactive female respondents were asked the same question, similar responses to those of employers were registered.
However, the inactive female respondents also mentioned ‘punctuality’ as an essential personal skill required by employees at the workplace, together with ‘honesty’ and ‘reliability/ taking work seriously’.

Table 5.21 depicts more details on this finding.

Once again, as this question captured ‘multiple responses’ from the respondents of both surveys, the total number of responses in both Tables below exceeds 600 counts.
Unlocking the Female Potential - Research Report 213 The same research question was asked to the inactive female respondents.

The findings show that this cohort is fully aware of the practical skills most requested by employers as the three skills mentioned by the inactive female respondents were job experience, teamwork and computer and ICT skills.
When comparatively analyzing the data collected from both studies, it is worthy of mention that while 81% (126 employers) of the employers who recruited inactive females in the last five years, indicated that although these inactive females possessed good to very good teamwork skills, unfortunately a high percentage of these inactive women did not possess the required job experience.
In fact, a worrying 25% (150 respondents) of the inactive female respondents indicated that they have never worked in their lives and yet another 38% (228 respondents) stated that they have been out of paid employment for more than 10 years.

Table 5.19 and Figure 5.7 below depict the findings for the employers’ perceptions and the inactive female respondents’ perceptions of the practical skills required by employee at the local workplaces.
As this question captured ‘multiple responses’ from the respondents of both surveys, the total number of responses in both Figures below exceeds 600 counts.
TABLE 5.19 – Employee Practical Skills Required by Employers – By Business Sector - Employers’ Perceptions TABLE 5.19 – Employee Practical Skills Required by Employers – By Business Sector - Employers’ Perceptions Financial & Com m unity Services Health / Social Work / Care Work Transport and Com m ; ICT Real Estate & Construction Hospitality & Tourism Retail & Wholesale Manufacturing Counts Break % Respondents Total Driving skills Job experience Team w ork Ability to w ork under pressure Attention to detail Presentation skills Technical skills specific to the job (operational skills) Social skills (team w ork, interaction w ith others) Com m unication skills (verbal, w ritten) Typing skills Managerial / Leadership skills Com puter and IT skills Language skills Artistic skills Creativity and innovation skills Other skills Total - - - - 4 10.0% 17 42.5% Education Public Service 36 5 13.9% 15 41.7% 11 30.6% 14 38.9% 9 25.0% 13
- - 4 7.7% 12 23.1% FIGURE 5.7 – Employee Practical Skills Required for Employers – Inactive Females’ Perceptions – (in %s) FIGURE 5.7 – Employee Practical Skills Required for Employers – Inactive Females’ Perceptions – (in %) 217 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 s r y 4 3 - 5 1 Driving skills Job experience Teamwork Ability to work under pressure Attention to detail Presentation skills s r y 9 5 - 5 3 Communication skills (verbal, written) Typing skills Managerial / Leadership skills Computer and IT skills Language skills Artistic skills Technical skills specific to the job (operational skills) Creativity and innovation skills Social skills (teamwork, interaction with others) Other Personal Skills More than half (53% - 320 employers) of the employer respondents indicated ‘honesty’ as the most important personal skill required by employees at their workplace.
This was followed by 49% (294 employers) of the respondents who indicated ‘reliability/ taking work seriously’ as another important personal skill required by employees.

Moreover, 45% (274 employers) indicated that ‘courtesy/ politeness’ by the employees at the workplace are also essential.

Table 5.20 below illustrates in detail the personal skills required by employees at Malta’ workplaces.
214 When the inactive female respondents were asked the same question, similar responses to those of employers were registered.

However, the inactive female respondents also mentioned ‘punctuality’ as an essential personal skill required by employees at the workplace, together with ‘honesty’ and ‘reliability/ taking work seriously’.

Table 5.21 depicts more details on this finding.


National Commission for the Promotion of Equality Once again, as this question captured ‘multiple responses’ from the respondents of both surveys, the total number of responses in both Figures below exceeds 600 counts.
TABLE 5.20 – Employee Personal Skills Required by Employers – by Business Sector - Employers’ Perceptions 218 TABLE 5.20 – Employee Personal Skills Required by Employers – by Business Sector - Employers’ Perceptions Counts Break % Respondents Total Honesty Reliability / Taking w ork seriously Young age Ability to w ork under pressure Assertiveness Am bition Punctuality Courtesy / Politeness Productivity Obeying orders Willingness to learn Ability to w ork independently / w ithout supervision Maturity Sm art appearance Taking initiative / being self-m otivated Other Total 15 - 34 yrs 35 - 59 yrs Specific Technical Skills TABLE 5.21 – Employee Personal Skills Required by Employers – Inactive Females’ Perceptions The employer respondents were asked whether specific technical skills are required by employees in their line of business/ business sector.
The research findings reveal that 45% (270 employers) of the respondents indicated that employees engaged in their line of business need to possess specific technical skills.

When asked whether they have any specific technical skills, only a mere 17% (105 respondents) of the inactive female respondents indicated that they possess a specific technical skill.

Figure 5.8 and Table 5.22 depict these findings in more detail.
Health / Social Work / Care Work Counts Break % Respondents Financial & Com m unity Services Transport and Com m ; ICT Real Estate & Construction Hospitality & Tourism Retail & Wholesale Manufacturing Education Total Public Service Total 603 50 86 109 98 75 57 40 36 52 Honesty Specific technical skills, as indicated by the employer respondents, are mostly required in the Financial, 28 53.8% Business and Community Services sector, in the Transport, Communications and ICT sector and in the 16 Reliability / Taking Health, Social Work and Care Work sector.
30.8% w ork seriously Young age 60 10.0% 11 22.0% 6 7.0% 4 3.7% 20 20.4% 8 10.7% 4 7.0% 6 15.0% 1 2.8% 158 26.2% The 105 inactive female respondents who indicated that they do possess a specific technical skill, were 15 Ability to w ork asked to specify the skills.
The younger inactive females indicated that they possess technical skills in the 28.8% under pressure field of beauty and hairdressing, art and creativity, and, media and graphic design, while the older inactive 6 Assertiveness Am bition 149 24.7% - - Punctuality Courtesy / Politeness Productivity Obeying orders Willingness to learn Ability to w ork independently / w ithout supervision Maturity Sm art appearance Taking initiative / being self-m otivated Other TABLE 5.21 – Employee Personal Skills Required by Employers – Inactive Females’ Perceptions Unlocking the Female Potential - Research Report 215 219 specific Technical skills The employer respondents were asked whether specific technical skills are required by employees in their line of business/ business sector.
The research findings reveal that 45% (270 employers) of the respondents indicated that employees engaged in their line of business need to possess specific technical skills.

When asked whether they have any specific technical skills, only a mere 17% (105 respondents) of the inactive female respondents indicated that they possess a specific technical skill.

Figure 5.8 and Table 5.22 depict these findings in more detail.
Specific technical skills, as indicated by the employer respondents, are mostly required in the Financial, Business and Community Services sector, in the Transport, Communications and ICT sector and in the Health, Social Work and Care Work sector.

The 105 inactive female respondents who indicated that they do possess a specific technical skill, were asked to specify the skills.
The younger inactive females indicated that they possess technical skills in the field of beauty and hairdressing, art and creativity, and, media and graphic design, while the older inactive females indicated that they possess sewing and crafts technical skills.

The 270 employer respondents who indicated that their line of business required technical skills, highlighted IT and computer software skills, mechanical skills and engineering skills as the most required employee technical skills.
Analyzing the technical skills required by local employers and those possessed by inactive females, an evident technical skills mismatch emerges.
V. Employment Potential for Inactive Individuals As ‘previous relevant work experience’ seems to be an essential skill required by employers, the employer respondents were asked whether the employment opportunities that arose within their company during these last five years could have also been appropriate for inactive individuals seeking employment (who in their vast majority are female).

Some 38% (229 employers) of females indicated that they possess sewing and crafts technical skills.
The 270 employer respondents the employers replied in the negative.

These companies are largely engaged in the Real Estate who indicated that their line of business required technical skills, highlighted IT and computer software skills, mechanical skills and engineering skills as the most required employee technical skills.

Analyzing the technical skills required by local employers and those possessed by inactive females, an evident technical skills mismatch emerges.
FIGURE 5.8 – Employee Specific Technical Skills by Employers –By Business Sector - Employers’ FIGURE 5.8 – Employee Specific Technical Skills by Employers – Perceptions (in %s) By Business Sector - Employers’ Perceptions (in %s) 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 g n i r u t c a f u n a M & l a i c n a n F i y t i n u m m o C s e c i v r e S & l i a t e R e l a s e l o h W & e t a t s E l a e R n o i t c u r t s n o C & y t i l a t i p s o H m s i r u o T No Yes d n a t r o p s n a r T T C I ; m m o C l a i c o S e r a C / / TABLE 5.22 – Employee Specific Technical Skills – Inactive Females 216 National Commission for the Promotion of Equality Counts Break % Respondents Total 15 - 34 yrs 35 - 59 yrs 603 498 82.6% 105 17.4% 247 192 77.7% 55 22.3% 356 306 86.0% 50 14.0% Total No Yes V. Employment Potential for Inactive Individuals As ‘previous relevant work experience’ seems to be an essential skill required by employers, the employer respondents were asked whether the employment opportunities that arose within their company during these last five years could have also been appropriate for inactive individuals seeking employment (who in their vast majority are female).
Some 38% (229 employers) of the employers replied in the negative.

These companies are largely engaged in the Real Estate and Construction Sector and the Manufacturing sector.

On the other hand, another 35% (213 respondents) of the employers indicated that most of their job vacancies were appropriate for inactive individuals seeking employment.

These employers hailed largely from the Hospitality and Tourism sector and the Public Service sector.
Moreover, another 27% (161 employers) claimed that only some of their job vacancies were appropriate for inactive individuals.

These latter employers hailed from the Health, Social Work and Care Work sector and the Financial, Business and Community Services sector.

221 females indicated that they possess sewing and crafts technical skills.
The 270 employer respondents who indicated that their line of business required technical skills, highlighted IT and computer software skills, mechanical skills and engineering skills as the most required employee technical skills.

Analyzing the technical skills required by local employers and those possessed by inactive females, an evident technical skills mismatch emerges.
FIGURE 5.8 – Employee Specific Technical Skills by Employers – By Business Sector - Employers’ Perceptions (in %s) 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 g n i r u t c a f u n a M & l a i c n a n F i y t i n u m m o C s e c i v r e S & l i a t e R e l a s e l o h W & e t a t s E l a e R n o i t c u r t s n o C & y t i l a t i p s o H m s i r u o T No Yes d n a t r o p s n a r T T C I ; m m o C / / TABLE 5.22 – Employee Specific Technical Skills – Inactive Females TABLE 5.22 – Employee Specific Technical Skills – Inactive Females Counts Break % Respondents Total No Yes Total 15 - 34 yrs 35 - 59 yrs 603 498 82.6% 105 17.4% 247 192 77.7% 55 22.3% 356 306 86.0% 50 14.0% V. Employment Potential for Inactive Individuals As ‘previous relevant work experience’ seems to be an essential skill required by employers, the employer and Construction Sector and the Manufacturing sector.
On the other hand, another 35% (213 respondents were asked whether the employment opportunities that arose within their company during respondents) of the employers indicated that most of their job vacancies were appropriate for these last five years could have also been appropriate for inactive individuals seeking employment (who in inactive individuals seeking employment.

These employers hailed largely from the Hospitality and their vast majority are female).
Some 38% (229 employers) of the employers replied in the negative.

Tourism sector and the Public Service sector.

Moreover, another 27% (161 employers) claimed These companies are largely engaged in the Real Estate and Construction Sector and the Manufacturing that only some of their job vacancies were appropriate for inactive individuals.

These latter sector.


On the other hand, another 35% (213 respondents) of the employers indicated that most of their job vacancies were appropriate for inactive individuals seeking employment.

These employers hailed employers hailed from the Health, Social Work and Care Work sector and the Financial, Business largely from the Hospitality and Tourism sector and the Public Service sector.

Moreover, another 27% and Community Services sector.
(161 employers) claimed that only some of their job vacancies were appropriate for inactive individuals.

These latter employers hailed from the Health, Social Work and Care Work sector and the Financial, It is worth noting that the employer respondents who indicated that none of the job opportunities Business and Community Services sector.
within their company could have been appropriate for inactive individuals are largely those companies which did not employ any inactive individuals (largely female) within the last five years.

On the other hand, those employers who stated that most of their job opportunities within their company were appropriate for inactive individuals (females), have actually recruited such females within these last five years.

Figure 5.9 and Table 5.23 below illustrate these findings.
It is worth noting that the employer respondents who indicated that none of the job opportunities within their company could have been appropriate for inactive individuals are largely those companies which did not employ any inactive individuals (largely female) within the last five years.
On the other hand, those employers who stated that most of their job opportunities within their company were appropriate for inactive individuals (females), have actually recruited such females within these last five years.

Figure 5.9 and Table 5.23 below illustrate these findings.
221 FIGURE 5.9 – Possible Job Opportunities for Inactive Individuals Within the last Five Years – By Business Sector (in %s) FIGURE 5.9 – Possible Job Opportunities for Inactive Individuals Within the last Five Years – By Business Sector (in %s) 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 g n i r u t c a f u n a M & l a i c n a n F i y t i n u m m o C s e c i v r e S & l i a t e R e l a s e l o h W & e t a t s E l a e R n o i t c u r t s n o C & y t i l a t i p s o H m s i r u o T Most Some None d n a t r o p s n a r T T C I ; m m o C l a i c o S e r a C / / TABLE 5.23 – Possible Job Opportunities for Inactive Individuals Within the last Five Years – By Employment of Inactive Individuals (Females) Within the last Five years Counts Break % Respondents Total Unlocking the Female Potential - Research Report Most Som e None Total Yes No Don't know 603 213 35.3% 161 26.7% 229 38.0% 155 99 217 63.9% 48 31.0% 8 5.2% 382 83 21.7% 85 22.3% 214 56.0% 66 31 47.0% 28 42.4% 7 10.6% When the employer respondents were asked to indicate the most difficult job opportunities to fill, a somewhat high 32% (195 employers) stated that they did not know or did not have any ‘difficult’ job opportunities to fill.
This finding emerged across all the 9 business sectors.

An interesting finding is that the highest number of employers (15% - 92 responses) encounter difficulty in engaging appropriate employees in operational (in services) positions.

Second came ‘skilled workers’ with some 12% (75 employers) of the employer respondents, who indicated that they find it difficult to fill job opportunities for such workers.
Moreover another interesting finding is that “salespersons”, “elementary workers/ unskilled workers” and “operational/manufacturing” scored a relatively high 8.5% (51 responses), 8% (48 responses) and 7.3% (44 responses) respectively.
These latter jobs, including “operational/in service” 222 It is worth noting that the employer respondents who indicated that none of the job opportunities within their company could have been appropriate for inactive individuals are largely those companies which did not employ any inactive individuals (largely female) within the last five years.
On the other hand, those employers who stated that most of their job opportunities within their company were appropriate for inactive individuals (females), have actually recruited such females within these last five years.

Figure 5.9 and Table 5.23 below illustrate these findings.
FIGURE 5.9 – Possible Job Opportunities for Inactive Individuals Within the last Five Years – By Business Sector (in %s) 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 g n i r u t c a f u n a M & l a i c n a n F i y t i n u m m o C s e c i v r e S & l i a t e R e l a s e l o h W & e t a t s E l a e R n o i t c u r t s n o C & y t i l a t i p s o H m s i r u o T Most Some d n a t r o p s n a r T T C I ; m m o C / / None TABLE 5.23 – Possible Job Opportunities for Inactive Individuals Within the last Five Years – By Employment of Inactive Individuals (Females) Within the last Five years TABLE 5.23 – Possible Job Opportunities for Inactive Individuals Within the last Five Years – By Employment of Inactive Individuals (Females) Within the last Five years Counts Break % Respondents Total Most Som e None Total Yes No Don't know 603 213 35.3% 161 26.7% 229 38.0% 155 99 63.9% 48 31.0% 8 5.2% 382 83 21.7% 85 22.3% 214 56.0% 66 31 47.0% 28 42.4% 7 10.6% When the employer respondents were asked to indicate the most difficult job opportunities to fill, a somewhat high 32% (195 employers) stated that they did not know or did not have any ‘difficult’ job opportunities to fill.
This finding emerged across all the 9 business sectors.

An interesting finding is that the highest number of employers (15% - 92 responses) encounter difficulty in engaging appropriate When the employer respondents were asked to indicate the most difficult job opportunities to employees in operational (in services) positions.
Second came ‘skilled workers’ with some 12% (75 fill, a somewhat high 32% (195 employers) stated that they did not know or did not have any employers) of the employer respondents, who indicated that they find it difficult to fill job opportunities for ‘difficult’ job opportunities to fill.

This finding emerged across all the 9 business sectors.

An such workers.
An such workers.

Moreover another interesting finding is that “salespersons”, “elementary workers/ unskilled interesting finding is that the highest number of employers (15% - 92 responses) encounter workers” and “operational/manufacturing” scored a relatively high 8.5% (51 responses), 8% (48 difficulty in engaging appropriate employees in operational (in services) positions.

Second came responses) and 7.3% (44 responses) respectively.
These latter jobs, including “operational/in service” ‘skilled workers’ with some 12% (75 employers) of the employer respondents, who indicated that they find it difficult to fill job opportunities for such workers.

Moreover another interesting finding is that “salespersons”, “elementary workers/ unskilled workers” and “operational/manufacturing” scored a relatively high 8.5% (51 responses), 8% (48 responses) and 7.3% (44 responses) respectively.
These latter jobs, including “operational/in service” positions, which are largely ‘unskilled’ in nature are perceived to be more difficult to fill by local employers than the more specialised and/ or skilled positions, like “technicians”, “managerial/ line managers”, “senior management” positions which scored 6.8% (41 responses), 6.1% (37 responses) and 4.5% (27 responses) respectively.

222 A more detailed illustration of these findings, by business sector, are indicated in Table 5.24 below.
As this research question captured ‘multiple responses’ from employer respondents, the total number of responses below exceeds 600 counts.

These research findings concur with information obtained from the Employment & Training Corporation (ETC), depicted in Table 5.25 below, will shows that the most sought after and advertised job positions across these same 9 business sectors are largely positions, which do not demand highly specialised technical skills and high qualifications.
Gender and Recruitment An encouraging 64% (387 respondents) of interviewed employers stated that gender is not taken into consideration when the company is recruiting new employees.

On the other hand, 28% (169 employers) indicated that, when recruiting, gender is taken into consideration for certain job positions only.

This finding emerged in the Real Estate and Construction sector and in the Wholesale and Retail sector.
When the latter 169 employers were asked to specify the reason/s why they consider gender an issue when recruiting individuals, some employers indicated that when a job requires physical strength, male applicants are preferred.
Conversely, other employers explained that they prefer 218 National Commission for the Promotion of Equality Total Operational (in m anufacturing) Operational (in services) Counts Break % Respondents Clerical / Adm inistrative (back Total office) Managerial (Line Operational (in m anagem ent) m anufacturing) Operational (in Senior Managem ent services) Secretarial / Front Clerical / Office Adm inistrative (back office) Skilled w orkers Managerial (Line m anagem ent) Technicians Senior Managem ent Salespersons Secretarial / Front Independent Office Associates / Freelancers / Professionals Skilled w orkers Crafts and related trades w orkers Technicians Elem entary occupations / Salespersons Unskilled w orkers Independent Don't know Associates / Freelancers / Professionals Crafts and related trades w orkers Elem entary occupations / Unskilled w orkers Don't know positions, which are largely ‘unskilled’ in nature are perceived to be more difficult to fill by local employers than the more specialised and/ or skilled positions, like “technicians”, “managerial/ line managers”, “senior management” positions which scored 6.8% (41 responses), 6.1% (37 responses) and 4.5% (27 responses) respectively.
positions, which are largely ‘unskilled’ in nature are perceived to be more difficult to fill by local employers than the more specialised and/ or skilled positions, like “technicians”, “managerial/ line managers”, “senior A more detailed illustration of these findings, by business sector, are indicated in Table 5.24 below.
As management” positions which scored 6.8% (41 responses), 6.1% (37 responses) and 4.5% (27 this research question captured ‘multiple responses’ from employer respondents, the total number of responses) respectively.

responses below exceeds 600 counts.

A more detailed illustration of these findings, by business sector, are indicated in Table 5.24 below.
As These research findings concur with information obtained from the Employment & Training Corporation (ETC), depicted in Table 5.25 below, will shows that the most sought after and advertised job positions this research question captured ‘multiple responses’ from employer respondents, the total number of across these same 9 business sectors are largely positions, which do not demand highly specialised responses below exceeds 600 counts.

technical skills and high qualifications.
TABLE 5.24 – Most Difficult Job Opportunities to Find Appropriate Employees – By Business Sector These research findings concur with information obtained from the Employment & Training Corporation TABLE 5.24 – Most Difficult Job Opportunities to Find Appropriate Employees – By Business Sector (ETC), depicted in Table 5.25 below, will shows that the most sought after and advertised job positions Counts across these same 9 business sectors are largely positions, which do not demand highly specialised Break % Respondents technical skills and high qualifications.
Health / Social Work / Care Work Financial & Com m unity Services Transport and Com m ; ICT Real Estate & Construction Hospitality & Tourism Retail & Wholesale Manufacturing Public Service Education Total TABLE 5.24 – Most Difficult Job Opportunities to Find Appropriate Employees – By Business Sector 603 44 7.3% 92 15.3% Total 86 1 1.2% 50 15 30.0% 3 6.0% Manufacturing 98 18 18.4% 109 5 4.6% 6 5.5% 40 - - 36 - - 52 - - 75 2 2.7% 23 30.7% 2 2.7% 57 3 5.3% 12 21.1% 3 5.3% Hospitality & Tourism 11 27.5% Transport and Com m ; ICT 2 5.0% 6 Health / Social 16.7% Work / Care Work 1 2.8% 57 40 5 9.6% Education 10 19.2% 36 Public Service - - 10 20.0% 9 5 18.0% 10.0% 2 5 4.0% 10.0% 24 48.0% - - 16 Financial & 18.6% Com m unity Services 6 7.0% 86 Retail & Wholesale 9 8.3% 109 10 10.2% Real Estate & Construction - - - - 3 5.3% 18 31.6% 1 2.5% 1 2.5% 1 2.5% 13 32.5% 3 7.5% 1 2.5% 3 7.5% - - - - 4 2 11.1% 3.8% 1 2.8% - - 4 11.1% - - 1 2.8% 11 27.5% 3 8.3% 2 5.0% - - - - - - 4 11.1% 1 2.5% 13 32.5% 3 7.5% 1
 2.5% 2 3.8% - - 3 5.8% 6 16.7% 5 9.6% 1 2.8% 1 1.9% 3 8.3% 2 3.8% - - - - 1 2.8% - - - - - - 19 52.8% 3 7.5% 26 50.0% 4 11.1% 52 - - 5 9.6% 10 19.2% 2 3.8% 3 5.8% 5 9.6% 1 1.9% 2 3.8% - - 2 3.8% - - TABLE 5.25 – The Most Advertised Job Vacancies in ETC’s Website / Recruitment Facilities Between May 2010 – May 2011 - By Business Sector 9 18.0% 7 6.4% 5 5.1% - - - - - - 23 3.8% - - - - 3 3.5% 3 5.3% 1 2.5% 48 8.0% 10 25.0% 18 31.6% 11 14.7% 26 50.0% 30 34.9% 19 52.8% Retail & Wholesale Real Estate & Construction Financial, Business & Community Hospitality & Tourism Service 2 Financial, Business & Community 4.0% Service 195 32.3% Customer Care/ telephone operator 30 1 8 Cleaner/ room attendant 40.0% 1.0% 7.3% Cleaner Sales person 22 35 24 22.4% 32.1% 48.0% Delivery person Retail & Wholesale TABLE 5.25 – The Most Advertised Job Vacancies in ETC’s Website / Recruitment Sales person, promoter Construction, concrete shutterer TABLE 5.25 – The Most Advertised Job Vacancies in ETC’s Website / Recruitment Facilities Between May Facilities Between May 2010 – May 2011 - By Business Sector Electrician, building Real Estate & Construction 2010 – May 2011 - By Business Sector Labourer, building construction Customer Care/ telephone operator Cleaner / room attendant Cleaner/ room attendant Waiter, waitress Cleaner Sales person Delivery person Sales person, promoter Construction, concrete shutterer Electrician, building Labourer, building construction Cleaner / room attendant Waiter, waitress Chef/ Sous or de Partie’ Salesperson, travel Clerk, accounting and bookkeeping Computer professional Storekeeper Nurse, state registered (SRN) Instructor/ other associated professional Clerk, general duties Executive, administrative officer Manager Teacher, primary education Facilitator (education environment) Care worker/ children Health & Social Work and Care Work Transport, Communications & ICT Hospitality & Tourism Public Administration Education 223 223 Source: Employment & Training
 Corporation – Labour Market Information (ETC, 2011).


Gender and Recruitment An encouraging 64% (387 respondents) of interviewed employers stated that gender is not taken into consideration when the company is recruiting new employees.

On the other hand, 28% (169 employers) indicated that, when recruiting, gender is taken into consideration for certain job positions only.

This finding emerged in the Real Estate and Construction sector and in the Wholesale and Retail sector.
When the latter 169 employers were asked to specify the reason/s why they consider gender an issue when recruiting individuals, some employers indicated that when a job requires physical strength, male applicants are preferred.

Conversely, other employers explained that they prefer female employees when the job opportunity requires good customer interface and/ or good organizational skills.

Table 5.26 illustrates these findings.


Unlocking the Female Potential - Research Report 219 TABLE 5.26 – Gender taken into consideration in Recruitment Process – By Business Sector Counts Break % Respondents Total Yes, for certain positions (e.g.

m anagerial) Yes, for certain jobs (e.g.
builders, prim ary teachers) No, there is no difference Don't know / Don't answ er Total Manufacturing Financial & Com m unity Services Retail & Real Estate & Hospitality & Transport and Wholesale Construction Tourism Com m ; ICT Health / Social Work / Care Education Public Service - - 20 26.7% 54 72.0% 1 1.3% 57 - - - - 11 19.3% 46 80.7% Work 40 2 5.0% 15 37.5% 22 55.0% 1 2.5% 36 2.8% 8.3% 32 88.9% 1 3 - - 52 - - 2 3.8% 49 94.2% 1 1.9% VI.
Training Required by Inactive Females Computer and ICT related training is the most recommended training by the employer respondents for inactive females, who are seeking paid employment.

In fact, some 36% (216 employers) of all the 603 interviewed employers suggested such training.

Moreover, 31% (185 respondents) of the employers suggested that inactive females should seek job-specific training to acquire specific technical skills.

This will increase their chances of finding employment.
Social skills training was also recommended by 20% (118 respondents) of the employers.

These findings substantiate previous findings where social skills and computer skills emerged as two of the most required ‘employee skills’ by local employers.

Furthermore, technical skills resulted as the most lacking skills among inactive females, were a staggering 83% (498 respondents) of inactive women indicated that they do not possess any such skills.
224 Transport, Communications & ICT Clerk, accounting and bookkeeping Health & Social Work and Care Work Nurse, state registered (SRN) Chef/ Sous or de Partie’ Salesperson, travel Computer professional Storekeeper Instructor/ other associated professional Clerk, general duties Executive, administrative officer Manager Teacher, primary education Facilitator (education environment) Care worker/ children Education Public Administration Gender and Recruitment Source: Employment & Training Corporation – Labour Market Information (ETC, 2011).
An encouraging 64% (387 respondents) of interviewed employers stated that gender is not taken into consideration when the company is recruiting new employees.

On the other hand, 28% (169 employers) indicated that, when recruiting, gender is taken into consideration for certain job positions only.

This finding emerged in the Real Estate and Construction sector and in the Wholesale and Retail sector.
When the latter 169 employers were asked to specify the reason/s why they consider gender an issue when recruiting individuals, some employers indicated that when a job requires physical strength, male applicants are preferred.

Conversely, other employers explained that they prefer female employees when the job opportunity requires good customer interface and/ or good organizational skills.

Table 5.26 illustrates these findings.


TABLE 5.26 – Gender taken into consideration in Recruitment Process – By Business Sector TABLE 5.26 – Gender taken into consideration in Recruitment Process – By Business Sector Counts Break % Respondents Total Yes, for certain positions (e.g.

m anagerial) Yes, for certain jobs (e.g.
builders, prim ary teachers) No, there is no difference Don't know / Don't answ er Total Manufacturing Financial & Com m unity Services Retail & Wholesale Real Estate & Construction Hospitality & Tourism Transport and Com m ; ICT Health / Social Work / Care Work Education Public Service - - 20 26.7% 54 72.0% 1 1.3% 57 - - 11 19.3% 46 80.7% - - 40 2 5.0% 15 37.5% 22 55.0% 1 2.5% 36 1 2.8% 3 8.3% 32 88.9% - - 52 - - 2 3.8% 49 94.2% 1 1.9% VI.
Training Required by Inactive Females female employees when the job opportunity requires good customer interface and/ or good organizational skills.

Table 5.26 illustrates these findings.

Computer and ICT related training is the most recommended training by the employer respondents for inactive females, who are seeking paid employment.

In fact, some 36% (216 employers) of all the 603 interviewed employers suggested such training.
Moreover, 31% (185 respondents) of the employers suggested that inactive females should seek job-specific training to acquire specific technical skills.

This will increase their chances of finding employment.

Social skills training was also recommended by 20% (118 respondents) of the employers.

These findings substantiate previous findings where social skills and computer skills emerged as two of the most required ‘employee skills’ by local employers.
Furthermore, technical skills resulted as the most lacking skills among inactive females, were a staggering 83% (498 respondents) of inactive women indicated that they do not possess any such skills.

VI.

Training Required by Inactive Females Computer and ICT related training is the most recommended training by the employer respondents for inactive females, who are seeking paid employment.

In fact, some 36% (216 employers) of all the 603 interviewed employers suggested such training.
Moreover, 31% (185 respondents) of the employers suggested that inactive females should seek job-specific training to acquire specific technical skills.

This will increase their chances of finding employment.

Social skills training was also recommended by 20% (118 respondents) of the employers.

Table 5.27 illustrates these findings in details.


224 These findings substantiate previous findings where social skills and computer skills emerged as two of the most required ‘employee skills’ by local employers.

Furthermore, technical skills resulted as the most lacking skills among inactive females, where a staggering 83% (498 respondents) of inactive women indicated that they do not possess any such skills.
TABLE 5.27 – Training required by Inactive Females to Find Employment – By Business Sector - Employers’ Perceptions TABLE 5.27 – Training required by Inactive Females to Find Employment – By Business Sector - Employers’ Perceptions Financial & Com m unity Services Health / Social Work / Care Work Transport and Com m ; ICT Real Estate & Construction Hospitality & Tourism Retail & Wholesale Manufacturing Education Total Counts Break % Respondents Total Job-specific training (technical skills) Generic w ork skills (assertiveness, custom er care, tim e m anagem ent) Social skills (team w ork, interaction w ith colleagues, com m unication) Com puter and ICT skills Managem ent and entrepreneurial skills General training about the changes in the w orld of w ork / Retraining None Other Don't know 603 185 30.7% 108 17.9% 118 19.6% 216 35.8% 16 2.7% 115 19.1% 46 7.6% 136 22.6% 44 7.3% 50 17 34.0% 7 14.0% 6 12.0% 9 18.0% - - - - 15 41.7% 3 8.3% Public Service 52 20 38.5% 13 25.0% 20 38.5% 31 59.6% - - 16 30.8% - - 7 13.5% 1 1.9% The inactive female respondents were also asked to suggest any training or courses which may help them enhance their skills and find paid employment.
Similar to what the employers recommended, the inactive female respondents stated that computer training is essential.

Others commented that there should be more training on childcare and parental skills.

Moreover, some suggested that courses offered by government should be made available in all localities and that more courses in general should be offered.
5.6 Conclusion 220 National Commission for the Promotion of Equality Clearly, a number of interesting findings and conclusions emerge from the three studies comprised in these two Activities.

These are presented in Chapter 2 of this Report, together with some policy considerations addressing the situation of inactive women in Malta.

6.
6.

RESEARCH ON GOZITAN WOMEN IN EMPLOYMENT 6.1 Research Objectives 6.1.1 Overriding Research Objective The overriding objective of this project aimed at exploring and understanding the factors affecting Gozitan women, in order to identify their perceptions and needs in the area of paid employment.
6.1.2 Project Specific Objectives The specific research objectives of Activity I comprise of the following: To explore and identify: 225 The inactive female respondents were also asked to suggest any training or courses which may help them enhance their skills and find paid employment.

Similar to what the employers recommended, the inactive female respondents stated that computer training is essential.

Others commented that there should be more training on childcare and parental skills.
Moreover, some suggested that courses offered by government should be made available in all localities and that more courses in general should be offered.

5.6 Conclusion Clearly, a number of interesting findings and conclusions emerge from the three studies comprised in these two Activities.

These are presented in Chapter 2 of this Report, together with some policy considerations addressing the situation of inactive women in Malta.

Unlocking the Female Potential - Research Report 221 6.
REsEARCH ON GOZITAN wOMEN IN EMPLOYMENT 6.1 Research Objectives 6.1.1 Overriding Research Objective The overriding objective of this project aimed at exploring and understanding the factors affecting Gozitan women, in order to identify their perceptions and needs in the area of paid employment.
6.1.2 Project specific Objectives The specific research objectives of Activity I comprise of the following: • To explore and identify the main reasons and perceptions as to why Gozitan women participate in the labour market.

• To explore and identify the differences (if any) between the main reasons and perceptions of Gozitan women who participate in the labour market and the main reasons and perceptions of Maltese women who participate in the labour market.
• To compare the needs and difficulties faced by Gozitan and Maltese women in employment, and analyse in relation to the female participation in the labour market in Malta and Gozo.

• To explore and identify the differences in job availability and availability of family-friendly measures and other support structures between Malta and Gozo and analyse in relation to the female participation in the labour market in Malta and Gozo.
• To develop a tailored needs assessment plan for employed Maltese and Gozitan women.

• To explore and identify the societal perception of women’s engagement as viewed by the Gozitan society, by determining how Gozitan employed women’s family, friends and colleagues perceive and behave towards them.

• To explore and identify the perceptions of Gozitan women and provide a general overview of the societal perception of women’s engagement in employment as viewed by Gozitan society.
6.2 Gozitan women in Employment - A Review of Recent Literature Introduction Gozo (including Comino) had a total population of 31,432 in 2008, of which 15,806 were females (NSO 2008b).

In 2005 (NSO 2008a), the female (15+) working age population of Gozo consisted of 13,088.

Out of these, 9,396 persons were inactive, signifying that only 3,342 were actually employed while 350 were seeking employment.
This implies that the activity rate is merely 28.2% while those actually in employment are only 25.5% of the females who are of working age.

(The latest detailed employment figures are those taken from the 2005 Census of Population and Housing.

Although some employment related figures are available for May 2010, these are not provided in detailed form).

In economic terms this signifies a loss in terms of potential labour (Leaker 2009).
There are various reasons why women prefer not to be active and these will be discussed below.

However, the focus of this paper is on the active population, with more attention being given to the employed female cohort, while some issues surrounding the unemployed and inactive will also be dealt with.
Research has shown that low female employment is often associated with social norms and traditions that focus more on the male as the main breadwinner of the family, especially in certain traditional regions such as North Africa and the Middle East, where women may face “constraints by social institutions such as laws, norms, codes of conduct and traditions” (ILO 2009: KILM13).
However, other issues may also be at hand, such as policies which are not family-friendly, or the unavailability of support services such as child care centres or flexible working hours.

In other cases, the situation may be due to the unavailability of enough jobs to cater for both men and women in that particular economy.
222 National Commission for the Promotion of Equality The main research objective of this project is to “understand the factors affecting Gozitan women, in order to identify their perception and needs vis-à-vis employment”.

This needs to be done by first identifying the main reasons why these women participate in the labour market, and compare them with those of Maltese women.
Another comparison will then be made between these two cohorts regarding the difficulties faced, and the jobs and support structures available on the two islands.

This information should provide the basis for a needs assessment plan for working females in Malta and Gozo.

Finally, another perspective on the issue will be given by analysing the views of Gozitan society, family, friends, colleagues and main stakeholders on female labour market participation.
This section is divided into three main parts, apart from the brief introduction presented above.

The first part presents the literature dealing with perceptions about work and the value given to work in general and to working females in particular, according to different cultures.

The second one presents an overview of studies conducted related to how working females are viewed by society.
The third part provides data on employment in Gozo and discusses comparisons with European countries and where available with other small island communities.

Perceptions about work The value attached to work varies across countries.

The World Values Surveys provide data on perceptions about work, family and outlook on life in general, amongst other areas.

Respondents are residents who are eighteen years and older.

The latest available data is the dataset for 2005- 2008.
Two datasets were used for the different types of statements and questions analysed below, the latest (2005-2008) and an earlier one (2000-2004).

A total number of 57 countries were used in the analysis.

Malta does not feature as one of these countries in the latest dataset.

Several questions were chosen from the surveys to show how work is viewed by different cultures.

The first question asked if jobs were scarce, should men have more right to a job than women.
In agreement with this statement were 36.2% of the 78,442 respondents, whereas 48.1% disagreed with it, while 15.7% neither agreed nor disagreed.

There were several countries where agreement was higher than disagreement and this included mainly developing countries in Asia, Africa and the Middle East (South Korea, India, China, Taiwan, Indonesia, Malaysia, Vietnam, Turkey, Georgia, Jordan, Iran, Iraq, Egypt, Morocco, Ghana, Burkina Faso and Mali).
The second question dealt with the reasons for which a person chooses a job when one is looking for work.

Four possible answers were provided.

The majority, 35.7% of 74,168 respondents replied that the main reason is to have a good income.

Over one third of the respondents (34.4%) looked for a safe job without risk.

Almost one fifth (19.7%) sought an important job, while the remaining (10.3%) chose to work with people they liked.
Most developing countries were more in favour of the first answer, while the answers in developed countries focused more on risk-free and important jobs.

Another query asked respondents whether one needed a job in order to develop talents.

Most respondents (75% out of 64,430) agreed, only 11.4% disagreed while 13.7% were non-committal.
Asked if they found it humiliating to receive money without actually working for it, the majority (59.9% out of 65,895 respondents) agreed, while 22.8% disagreed and 17.3% did not commit themselves either way.

There were some surprising high levels of disagreement in some countries, especially those considered as established welfare states.

‘People who do not work turn lazy’ was the next statement, which found agreement by 73.5% of 64,780 respondents.
Only 14.5% disagreed while 12% neither agreed nor disagreed.

‘Work is a duty towards society’ elicited agreement from 75.8% (out of 65,396 respondents), with 10.6% disagreeing and 13.6% not siding with anyone.

Unlocking the Female Potential - Research Report 223 Asked whether men made better business executives than women, the majority (60.8% out of 73,185 respondents) disagreed, with the remaining 39.2% agreeing.
In certain developing countries the gap between the two groups was very small and in others those agreeing predominated.

‘A child needs a home with father and mother’ – 86.4% tended to agree while 13.6% disagreed.

The highest disagreement of 52.7% was in Sweden.

The statement, ‘University is more important for a boy than a girl’ found agreement with only 21.6% while the remaining 78.4% disagreed suggesting that education is considered as important for both sexes in many countries.
Another set of questions was directly linked with work.

The first asked, ‘how important is work in your life?’ Those that considered it ‘very important’ amounted to 63.2%, those ‘rather important’ 28%, those ‘not very’ 6.1% and ‘not at all’ only 2.7%.

This shows that for the majority (91.2%) work remains central.

Other questions or statements dealt with working mothers.
One statement said ‘a working mother can establish just as warm and secure a relationship with her children as a mother who does not work’.

The majority, 72.4% agreed with this while 27.6% disagreed.

A lower percentage (60.6%) of Maltese agreed with this.

‘Being a housewife is just as fulfilling as working for pay’ obtained 61.3% in agreement while 38.7% disagreed.

The figure for Maltese who agreed was higher at 86.6%.
The statement ‘pre-school children suffer with working mothers’ brought an overall more conservative reply with 59.5% agreeing, while 40.5% disagreed.

In the case of Malta the figure of those who agreed shot up to 87.5%.

The statement ‘a job is alright but what most women really want is a home and children’ brought agreement from 62.6% of the respondents, while the remaining disagreed.

In Malta those who agreed were 69.6%.


Asked if fathers were well suited to care for children, most respondents (74.9%) agreed.

In Malta the figure was of 63.2%.

‘Having a job is the best way for a woman to be independent’ solicited agreement from 74.9% of the respondents, whilst in Malta this figure was much lower at 44.6%.

Asked whether both husband and wife should contribute to the family income, most respondents agreed (82.3%), whilst the figure for Malta was marginally lower at 73.4%.
This last section, for which data was available for Malta (data relating mostly to 1999 and 2000), shows that the Maltese are more conservative in their approach towards working women, especially if these women have family commitments.

A study by Baldacchino (2003) shows that family responsibilities are the main cause for non- employment.
However, women also indicated that a women’s place is taking care of her family, there is little encouragement at home to find paid employment and some women have no need to work.

Such studies continue to depict a conservative attitude towards work and home environments in Malta.

women and work Any entrance into the labour force involves making choices, and these decisions are influenced by both psychological and environmental factors.
(Lee 1997, p.93) Attitudes towards women in society, dating from the feminist movements of the 1960s have seen some significant changes.

During the 1980s and 1990s, studies on attitudes towards working women in Western society have shown that there has been increasing liberalism and acceptance of more equality between men and women, even in the workplace (Allan and Coltron 1996).
Nonetheless, distinctions remain, for example, gender roles in certain countries are still evident and women tend to inhabit more the world of traditional jobs such as teachers, nurses and secretaries (Mott 1998).

However, in other developed countries, this distinction is less stark 224 National Commission for the Promotion of Equality and advancements in careers do not appear to be gender-based.
Yet women continue to face problems in the world of work (Day-Hookoomsing 2002) such as pay-gaps and sex segregation of occupations.

The main problems surrounding working women may however be based on stereotyping and culture-based attitudes, especially those dominated by a patriarchal and/or strong religious value systems.

Attitudes towards women who work generally reflect social conceptions about gender.

The following paragraphs sustain this argument in Malta and other countries worldwide.
This appears to be evident in Malta in a study conducted amongst female managers (Cortis and Cassar 2005).

One of the authors’ conclusions indicates that “there is a significant difference between attitudes of males and females regarding women as managers” (p.158).
While females themselves had high self-esteem about their jobs and careers, the male attitude is more negative, indicating that it is not internal conditions such as home responsibilities but rather external factors such as attitudes and structural barriers, which inhibit women managers in Malta.

Stereotyping remains strong in the Maltese society and confirms Abela’s (1991) findings in this regard more than a decade earlier.
However, such attitudes and stereotyping towards women at work are not unique to Malta as studies on other countries further below confirm.

Nonetheless Malta remains particularly conspicuous compared to other European countries.

A French study by De Henau et al (2007) studied work and maternity in Europe and the effect of working conditions and government policies on working females.
The study confirms that Malta stands out because the employment rate of females (aged between 25 and 49) is the lowest at 56.7% when the woman has no children and this figure continued to decrease to 32.5% in the case of one child, and again decreases by another ten percentage points when more dependent (less than 15 years) children are present in the family.
Malta continues to stand out in the study as the gender employment gap is the highest in Europe, 30.3% in the case of a childless relationship, which increases to 61.9% when there are three children or more.
Interesting conclusions were drawn from the study, however the most significant (quoted verbatim below and translated loosely in the following sentences) was that childcare centres are the most efficient guarantee for the employment of parents, and that public policies should increase the figures established by the European Council in Barcelona (i.e.

33% for children aged three years or younger, and 90% for children between three and the compulsory school age by the end of 2010).
Furthermore, after maternity leave, a place to welcome young babies should also be provided for.
Les systèmes d’accueil d’enfants sont le moyen le plus efficace pour garantir l’accès au travail des parents, l’offre publique devrait donc s’élargir et les taux de couverture devraient être supérieurs aux cibles fixées par l’Europe au Conseil de Barcelone (selon lesquelles les structures de garde devraient accueillir 33% au moins des enfants de moins de trios ans et au moins 90% des enfants ayant entre 3 ans et l’âge de la scolarité obligatoire d’ici 2010).
En outre, une place pour accueillir l’enfant devrait être garantie dès la fin du conge de maternité.

(De Henau et al.

2007, p. 85) Following socio-cultural theories such as Vygotsky (1978, 1986) and Hofstede (1983), Ng and Burke (2004), reaffirm that history, culture and other societal processes, continue to contribute towards cultural values regarding equality on the workplace.
The researchers studied 120 employees in a large financial institution in Canada, which employs a multi-ethnic pool of employees and thus offers a multi-cultural environment.

Results indicate that non-Caucasians and non-North American employees held cultural values which showed less support for equality, reflecting cultural attitudes of their home environments.
Unlocking the Female Potential - Research Report 225 A study by Heineck (2004) found a positive correlation between religion and traditional attitudes, which was to be expected.

Furthermore, there is a negative correlation between these and female labour market participation indicating that religion influences attitudes towards working females.

This study covered three European countries, Germany, Ireland and the UK.
Yogulu and Wood (2008) investigated how peers view women leadership effectiveness in Malaysia and Australia.

Findings indicate that such evaluations “may have had little to do with an objective appraisal of the female managers’ capability, but rather with a strongly held cultural belief about the appropriate role of women in society, and in organisations in particular” (p.600), with Malaysians not being considered as effective as their Australian counterparts.
Mallon and Cassell (1999) in a study conducted amongst female managers in a particular organization in the North of England, conclude that “fundamental changes in attitudes have not followed changes in working practices” (p.150) and although positive action can be taken by relevant authorities, in order to be effective, changes need to occur in the way people view working women and especially those focused on advancements in careers.
Another study by Straub (2007) used a comparative analysis among 14 European countries to investigate whether work-family policies do in reality lead to more career advancements for women.

The findings indicate that, …offering work family policies alone does not necessarily change informal social practices and traditional corporate values…….European companies still need to review their organisational cultures in order to make these practices a successful tool for advancing women’s careers.
(ibid, p.299) Fortin (2005) looked at women in 25 OECD countries and the impact of gender role attitudes on the female labour market.

Data was used from the World Values Surveys analysed above.

Findings indicate that ideas about women as homemakers are persistent over time, mainly because they tend to be formed when still young and because they are likely to be linked to religious conceptions of the role of women in society.
This creates an internal conflict for women referred to as “woman’s guilt”, which can contribute to less women participating in the labour market and thus a less egalitarian outcome.
Lo (2002) conducted a study among married female professionals in Hong Kong and the findings indicate that “the traditional nature of the Asian family, compounded by long working hours and the well known tyranny of Hong Kong’s school system (Cheung, 2000), might easily lead to a lifestyle characterised by exhaustion and little or no family time” (Lo 2002, p.384).
These women would prefer changes in the human resources policies which would provide for flexible hours in order to decrease the conflict arising from trying to balance their work and family lives, especially as the workload of family responsibilities is not shared by the husband because of the traditional setting of society.

Woodward (2007) also investigates the work-life balance of female managers in British universities.
One strategy used is to formulate boundaries between work and non-work life, although this is easier for women with no dependent children.

In his study of women in an international consultancy firm, Kumra (2010) sets out to dispute Hakim’s (2000) contention that career advancement of women depends on their own choices and commitment.

Kumra’s study, however, reveals that there are structural barriers for women which are not apparent for men.
These barriers include: the model of success which see women finding difficulty complying with such demands of the model; sponsorship and networking which are both needed for one to advance in an organisation and which may be more difficult for women to develop, because “they were either based on a male model of success or were processes women experienced as less personally comfortable” (ibid, p.234).

The study was conducted in the United Kingdom.


226 National Commission for the Promotion of Equality An interesting study by Corby and Stanworth (2009) investigated the reasons for women’s employment and what drives them in their jobs.

The study conducted in the South East of the UK, found that many women do not appear to make strategic job choices but rather take jobs that are available at the time.

Women also understand that they face structural constraints within an organisation.
In full knowledge of the negatives (less pay, chances for promotions, exclusion, sexism, unfair practices) and positives (part-time, flexible hours, work-life balance), many women compromise.

Therefore the authors offer Simon’s (1957) concept of satisficing, indicating that women may not optimise their job possibilities but it is good enough for them, allowing them to tolerate the negatives since the positives were found to be accommodating.
A longitudinal study by Simon and Landis (1989) looked at several polls conducted between the 1930s and the 1980s and investigated men’s and women’s attitudes towards the role of women in society.

The two American authors have taken an extensive analysis of the development in attitudes towards women under various conditions: working outside the home; women’s rate of pay; equal employment opportunities; career advancements; division of labour at home; ideal number of children; and divorce.
The fifty-year period has shown some significant changes in attitudes and opinions, which would indicate that in the long term such attitudes did change in the USA.

On the other hand several studies show that certain cultural attitudes continue to be present in the Western world.

Nonetheless, they are starker in developing countries with more traditional distinctions in the roles to be adopted by men and women in society.
For example, in a study on Egyptian women, Mostafa (2003) concludes that while females themselves have a more supportive and liberal attitude towards working women, the cultural patriarchal setting will continue to pose barriers to the advancement of women in society.

This is particularly strong since no difference in attitude was evident between diverse age-groups, meaning that the younger generation continues to embrace the same beliefs as the older groups.
This implies that change is more likely to be slower in these countries.

A study by Jamali et al.

(2005) looked at constraints facing women managers in Jordan.

Results show that these women face the same limitations as other women in other countries.

However, “the main differences revolve around the strongly felt salience of cultural values and expectations constraining women to traditional roles and a more accentuated sense of patriarchy” (p.581).
On the other hand, a study amongst women in Bangladesh revealed that religion has no impact on a woman’s entrepreneurial development, although other factors such as family responsibility, capital and knowledge have an influence (Hossain et al.

2009).

Research conducted by the OECD looked at the importance of policy in determining whether a woman prefers to work or not.

Other factors apart from policy distortions, influencing activity, are market failures.
Tax incentives to split income – and thus work hours – between spouses can influence the choice of married women between inactivity and part-time participation.

On the other hand, the availability of affordable childcare and parental leave can affect both the choice between inactivity and activity, and the choice between part-time and full-time participation.
(Jaumotte 2004, p.69) Bergemann and Van den Berg (2007) studied active labour market policies and their effect on female employment outcomes in European countries.

Overall, they found a positive relationship especially where activity is still weak.

Such policies include skill-training programs, monitoring and sanctions, job search assistance, and employment subsidies.
However, Mallon and Cassell Unlocking the Female Potential - Research Report 227 (1999) argue that such policies should not be imposed but rather in consultation with those involved in the process.

All studies reviewed have highlighted a number of salient reasons justifying women’s decision to engage in the labour market or to refrain from it and have also thrown light on women’s expectations from work engagements.
The top motive for inactivity, part-time jobs or lack of advancement in careers is partially related to family conditions.

Policy can, to a certain extent, mitigate to eliminate several obstacles in this regard.

Other complications may be more culturally- oriented and a mentality change would thus be required.

Overall, the significance of more female participation in the workplace has continued to increase in importance for two main reasons.
One, inactivity is essentially an unused resource and thus a lost economic potential, and second the ageing of the population, leading to bigger pension outlays, urgently needs a bigger labour supply to increase the contributions towards such payments in the future.

6.3 background statistical data on Employment Gozo Female Labour Market The following section provides some data on the situation in the Maltese islands, and particularly in Gozo, even if official data remains lacking in detail.
Data shown above has already revealed that the activity rate of Gozitan females is very low.

The comparative analysis of female activity rates in European countries (Table 6.1 below) shows that the lowest rate is for Turkey with 24.2%.

However the situation of a low activity rate is not unique to Gozo; in fact, “women have higher rates of economic inactivity than men.

This is a common feature of labour markets” (ILO 2009).
Labour force inactivity rates for men of prime working-age (aged 25 to 54 years) are relatively uniform across countries.

For prime working-age women, however, (data) clearly demonstrates the variation of inactivity rates across countries.
(ILO 2009: KILM 13) A 2005 study by the European Central bank shows that, “a significantly higher proportion of female workers in Europe prefer inactivity and a significantly lower percentage prefer full-time, over part-time employment, than in the US, with considerable variation across EU countries.” (Buddelmeyer et al.

2005:4) The study also discovered that inactive females are more likely to remain inactive or take up a part-time job rather than engage in a transition from inactivity to a full-time job.
The activity rates for females (shown in Table 6.1) differ across European countries.

Some Mediterranean countries (Greece, Italy, Malta, FYR Macedonia, and Turkey) together with Hungary, have activity rates under 50%.

The EU27 average is 58.6% while the highest record belongs to Iceland at 76.5%.

The 18 year period for which data is available, indicates that most countries have seen increases in female activity, except Sweden, Romania and the Czech Republic (which saw slight decreases).
A comparison with other small EU states indicates that the female employment to population ratio has not advanced very much for Malta.

The rate was 27% in 1970 (according to data from the government development plans) and this remained static for thirty years with a slight increase in recent years.

Other countries have seen more significant increases.
228 National Commission for the Promotion of Equality Gozo Female Labour Market The following section provides some data on the situation in the Maltese islands, and particularly in Gozo, even if official data remains lacking in detail.

Data shown above have already revealed that the activity rate of Gozitan females is very low.

The comparative analysis of female activity rates in European countries (Table 6.1 below) shows that the lowest rate is for Turkey with 24.2%.
However the situation of a low activity rate is not unique to Gozo, in fact, “women have higher rates of economic inactivity than men.

This is a common feature of labour markets”.

(ILO 2009).

Labour force inactivity rates for men of prime working-age (aged 25 to 54 years) are relatively uniform across countries.

For prime working-age women, however, (data) clearly demonstrates the variation of inactivity rates across countries.
(ILO 2009: KILM 13) A 2005 study by the European Central bank shows that, “a significantly higher proportion of female workers in Europe prefer inactivity and a significantly lower percentage prefer full-time, over part-time employment, than in the US, with considerable variation across EU countries.” (Buddelmeyer et al.

2005:4) The study also discovered that inactive females are more likely to remain inactive or take up a part-time job rather than engage in a transition from inactivity to a full-time job.
TABLE 6.1 - Female Activity Rates (15 – 64 age group) For Selected TABLE 6.1 - Female Activity Rates (15 – 64 age group) For Selected European Countries, for 1992, 2000, European Countries, for 1992, 2000, 2009 2009 Country European Union 27 Austria Belgium Bulgaria Czech Republic Cyprus Denmark Estonia Finland France Germany Greece Hungary Ireland Italy Latvia Lithuania Luxembourg Malta Netherlands Poland Portugal Romania Slovakia Slovenia Spain Switzerland Sweden UK Croatia FYR Macedonia The activity rates for females (shown in Table 6.2) differ across European countries.
Some Turkey Mediterranean countries (Greece, Italy, Malta, FYR Macedonia, and Turkey) together with Hungary, Iceland have activity rates under 50%.

The EU27 average is 58.6% while the highest record belongs to Norway Iceland at 76.5%.

The 18 year period for which data is available, indicates that most countries have Switzerland seen increases in female activity, except Sweden, Romania and the Czech Republic (which saw slight decreases).
- - - - 73.6 69.3 1992 - - 44.3 - - - 69.7 - 63.7 51.4 55.9 36.2 - 37.1 - - - 45.7 - 51.8 - 55.9 - - - 31.5 - 73.1 60.8 - - - - - - Source: Eurostat (accessed 26 October 2010) 232 69.3 73.8 Source: Eurostat (accessed 26 October 2010) A comparison with other small EU states indicates that the female employment to population ratio has The activity rates for females (shown in Table 6.2) differ across European countries.
Some not advanced very much for Malta.

The rate was 27% in 1970 (according to data from the government Mediterranean countries (Greece, Italy, Malta, FYR Macedonia, and Turkey) together with Hungary, development plans) and this remained static for thirty years with a slight increase in recent years.

have activity rates under 50%.

The EU27 average is 58.6% while the highest record belongs to Other countries have seen more significant increases.

Iceland at 76.5%.
Iceland at 76.5%.

The 18 year period for which data is available, indicates that most countries have TABLE 6.2 - Female Employment to Population Ratio for Selected Smaller EU States (various years) TABLE 6.2 - Female Employment to Population Ratio for Selected Smaller EU States (various years) seen increases in female activity, except Sweden, Romania and the Czech Republic (which saw slight Country decreases).
2010 2000 2008 1995 2004 1980’s (earliest year available) n/a 31.3 44.3 n/a n/a 27.3 63.1 1980’s (earliest year available) n/a 31.3 44.3 n/a n/a 27.3 63.1 A comparison with other small EU states indicates that the female employment to population ratio has Malta not advanced very much for Malta.

The rate was 27% in 1970 (according to data from the government Luxembourg Cyprus development plans) and this remained static for thirty years with a slight increase in recent years.
Latvia Other countries have seen more significant increases.

Estonia Ireland Sweden TABLE 6.2 - Female Employment to Population Ratio for Selected Smaller EU States (various years) Country Source: ILO 2011 Source: ILO 2011 Malta Distinctions are also evident in Malta, if one were to analyse activity by region.
Figures taken from the Luxembourg Census of Population (2005) show that Gozo and Comino have the lowest number of employed Cyprus people at 40.6%.

(see Table 6.3).

Figures are not available by gender.

Table 5 shows that the total Latvia number of people employed in Gozo amounted only to 10,385, while more (14,247) were inactive.

Estonia However, Table 5 also indicates that 6,459 (45% of 14,247) are actually over 60 years and the trend is Ireland that females outlive males.
Therefore there is increased probability that this fact is then reflected in the Sweden higher level of female inactivity.

 TABLE 6.3 – Employment Status by Region (2005) Source: ILO 2011 Region South Harbour Distinctions are also evident in Malta, if one were to analyse activity by region.
Figures taken from the North Harbour Census of Population (2005) show that Gozo and Comino have the lowest number of employed South Eastern people at 40.6%.

(see Table 6.3).

Figures are not available by gender.

Table 5 shows that the total Unlocking the Female Potential - Research Report Western North number of people employed in Gozo amounted only to 10,385, while more (14,247) were inactive.
Gozo and Comino However, Table 5 also indicates that 6,459 (45% of 14,247) are actually over 60 years and the trend is Source: NSO 2008 that females outlive males.

Therefore there is increased probability that this fact is then reflected in the Unemployed 4.6 3.2 3.4 2.4 2.4 3.7 Employed 41.7 45.8 48.1 48.2 49.6 40.6 Inactive 53.7 51.0 48.5 49.4 48.0 55.7 229 higher level of female inactivity.
The high level of inactivity in the first age group (in Table 6.4 below) reflects the fact that youths are most probably still in educational institutions and therefore this is normal and similar to other countries (for example the Northern Ireland study conducted by Rogers in 2009 finds this figure to be 75%).

TABLE 6.3 – Employment Status by Region (2005) Inactivity also is expected to be high after the retirement age of 61 and the data confirm this.
The Employed Unemployed Inactive relatively high figure in the 50-59 age-group indicates a situation where early retirement could be the cause of this.

As expected the rates are lower in the ages between 20 and 50 which are the peak Region South Harbour North Harbour South Eastern years for a working individual.
48.1 Western North Gozo and Comino 41.7 45.8 48.2 49.6 40.6 4.6 3.2 3.4 2.4 2.4 3.7 Source: NSO 2008 53.7 51.0 48.5 49.4 48.0 55.7 The high level of inactivity in the first age group (in Table 6.4 below) reflects the fact that youths are most probably still in educational institutions and therefore this is normal and similar to other countries (for example the Northern Ireland study conducted by Rogers in 2009 finds this figure to be 75%).
Inactivity also is expected to be high after the retirement age of 61 and the data confirm this.

The relatively high figure in the 50-59 age-group indicates a situation where early retirement could be the cause of this.

As expected the rates are lower in the ages between 20 and 50 which are the peak years for a working individual.

233 233 Switzerland - 69.3 73.8 Source: Eurostat (accessed 26 October 2010) The activity rates for females (shown in Table 6.2) differ across European countries.
Some Mediterranean countries (Greece, Italy, Malta, FYR Macedonia, and Turkey) together with Hungary, have activity rates under 50%.

The EU27 average is 58.6% while the highest record belongs to Iceland at 76.5%.

The 18 year period for which data is available, indicates that most countries have Distinctions are also evident in Malta, if one were to analyse activity by region.
Figures taken from seen increases in female activity, except Sweden, Romania and the Czech Republic (which saw slight the Census of Population (2005) show that Gozo and Comino have the lowest number of employed decreases).

people at 40.6%.

(see Table 6.3).

Figures are not available by gender.


Table 6.4 below shows that A comparison with other small EU states indicates that the female employment to population ratio has the total number of people employed in Gozo amounted only to 10,385, while more (14,247) were not advanced very much for Malta.

The rate was 27% in 1970 (according to data from the government inactive.
However, Table 6.4 also indicates that 6,459 (45% of 14,247) are actually over 60 years development plans) and this remained static for thirty years with a slight increase in recent years.

and the trend is that females outlive males.

Therefore there is increased probability that this fact Other countries have seen more significant increases.

is then reflected in the higher level of female inactivity.
TABLE 6.2 - Female Employment to Population Ratio for Selected Smaller EU States (various years) Country 2008 2004 1995 2000 The high level of inactivity in the first age group (in Table 6.4 below) reflects the fact that youths are most probably still in educational institutions and therefore this is normal and similar to other countries (for example the Northern Ireland study conducted by Rogers in 2009 finds this figure 28.0 Malta 40.2 Luxembourg to be 75%).
Inactivity also is expected to be high after the retirement age of 61 and the data 46.0 Cyprus confirm this.

The relatively high figure in the 50-59 age-group indicates a situation where early 42.1 Latvia retirement could be the cause of this.

As expected the rates are lower in the ages between 20 and 45.4 Estonia 45.2 Ireland 50, which are the peak years for a working individual.
54.9 Sweden 1980’s (earliest year available) n/a 31.3 44.3 n/a n/a Source: ILO 2011 According to latest available statistics (July 2011) the total number of females in Gozo registering for a job under both Part 1 and Part 2 amounted to 241 (219 under Part 1 and 22 under Part Distinctions are also evident in Malta, if one were to analyse activity by region.
Figures taken from the 2).

Table 6.5 shows these by age group.

The largest portion is in the over 30 category, perhaps Census of Population (2005) show that Gozo and Comino have the lowest number of employed reflecting returning females after motherhood.

people at 40.6%.

(see Table 6.3).

Figures are not available by gender.

Table 5 shows that the total number of people employed in Gozo amounted only to 10,385, while more (14,247) were inactive.
However, Table 5 also indicates that 6,459 (45% of 14,247) are actually over 60 years and the trend is that females outlive males.

Therefore there is increased probability that this fact is then reflected in the higher level of female inactivity.
TABLE 6.3 – Employment Status by Region (2005) TABLE 6.3 – Employment Status by Region (2005) Region South Harbour North Harbour South Eastern Western North Gozo and Comino Employed 41.7 45.8 48.1 48.2 49.6 40.6 Unemployed 4.6 3.2 3.4 2.4 2.4 3.7 Inactive 53.7 51.0 48.5 49.4 48.0 55.7 Source: NSO 2008 Source: NSO 2008 The high level of inactivity in the first age group (in Table 6.4 below) reflects the fact that youths are most probably still in educational institutions and therefore this is normal and similar to other countries (for example the Northern Ireland study conducted by Rogers in 2009 finds this figure to be 75%).
TABLE 6.4 – Economic Activity and Inactivity in Gozo (2005) TABLE 6.4 – Economic Activity and Inactivity in Gozo (2005) Inactivity also is expected to be high after the retirement age of 61 and the data confirm this.

The relatively high figure in the 50-59 age-group indicates a situation where early retirement could be the cause of this.

As expected the rates are lower in the ages between 20 and 50 which are the peak years for a working individual.
Unemployed Age-group Employed Inactive Total 15 – 19 20 – 29 30 – 39 40 – 49 50 – 59 60 – 69 70 + Total Of which females 2283 3954 3566 4631 4445 3172 3522 25,573 381 2773 2514 2682 1804 200 31 10,385 223 328 154 162 70 4 - 941 1679 853 898 1787 2571 2968 3491 14,247 13,088 3,342 350 9,396 Source: NSO 2008 233 According to latest available statistics (July 2011) the total number of females in Gozo registering for a job under both Part 1 and Part 2 amounted to 241 (219 under Part 1 and 22 under Part 2).
Table 6.5 shows these by age group.

The largest portion is in the over 30 category, perhaps reflecting returning females after motherhood.

TABLE 6.5 - Females Registered Unemployed in Gozo, July 2011 Source: NSO 2008 Under 20 20 – 24 25 – 29 30 – 44 Over 45 Total Part 1 23 30 33 230 80 53 219 National Commission for the Promotion of Equality Part 2 1 3 3 8 7 22 Source: NSO Press Release 162/2011 – Registered unemployed July 2011.
6.4 Research Methodology 6.4.1 Research Methodology In order to achieve the research objectives of this research as set out in Section 5.1 above, the research methodology adopted comprised the following: A thorough review of recent international and local literature and official international and national surveys conducted by recognised statistics bodies, i.e.

Eurostat, European Union, National Statistics Office, Malta, Employment & Training Corporation, Malta, etc.
A qualitative research exercise involving a three-tier research study.

The objective of this thorough qualitative research phase was to obtain an ‘in-depth’ understanding of the issues affecting Gozitan and Maltese employed females and to study their attitudes, aspirations and perceptions with regards to their role as working women/mothers in relation to their family commitments and caring responsibilities.
The qualitative research also analysed the views and opinions of Gozitan society on the working woman in Gozo.

The qualitative stage also served as a platform which provided the context for the quantitative studies and insights on the salient issues and research areas that needed to be included in the subsequent quantitative stage.
The three tiers comprised: 234 TABLE 6.4 – Economic Activity and Inactivity in Gozo (2005) Age-group Total Employed Unemployed Inactive 15 – 19 20 – 29 30 – 39 40 – 49 50 – 59 60 – 69 70 + Total Of which females 2283 3954 3566 4631 4445 3172 3522 25,573 13,088 381 2773 2514 2682 1804 200 31 10,385 3,342 223 328 154 162 70 4 - 941 350 Source: NSO 2008 1679 853 898 1787 2571 2968 3491 14,247 9,396 According to latest available statistics (July 2011) the total number of females in Gozo registering for a job under both Part 1 and Part 2 amounted to 241 (219 under Part 1 and 22 under Part 2).
Table 6.5 shows these by age group.

The largest portion is in the over 30 category, perhaps reflecting returning females after motherhood.

TABLE 6.5 - Females Registered Unemployed in Gozo, July 2011 TABLE 6.5 - Females Registered Unemployed in Gozo, July 2011 Under 20 20 – 24 25 – 29 30 – 44 Over 45 Total Part 1 23 30 33 80 53 219 Part 2 1 3 3 8 7 22 Source: NSO Press Release 162/2011 – Registered unemployed July 2011.

Source: NSO Press Release 162/2011 – Registered unemployed July 2011.
6.4 Research Methodology 6.4 Research Methodology 6.4.1 Research Methodology In order to achieve the research objectives of this research as set out in Section 5.1 above, the research methodology adopted comprised the following: 6.4.1 Research Methodology In order to achieve the research objectives of this research as set out in Section 6.1 above, the research methodology adopted comprised the following: • A thorough review of recent international and local literature and official international and A thorough review of recent international and local literature and official international and national national surveys conducted by recognised statistics bodies, i.e.
Eurostat, European Union, surveys conducted by recognised statistics bodies, i.e.

Eurostat, European Union, National National Statistics Office, Malta, Employment & Training Corporation, Malta, etc.

Statistics Office, Malta, Employment & Training Corporation, Malta, etc.

• A qualitative research exercise involving a three-tier research study.

The objective of this A qualitative research exercise involving a three-tier research study.
The objective of this thorough qualitative research phase was to obtain an ‘in-depth’ understanding of the issues thorough qualitative research phase was to obtain an ‘in-depth’ understanding of the issues affecting Gozitan and Maltese employed females and to study their attitudes, aspirations and affecting Gozitan and Maltese employed females and to study their attitudes, aspirations and perceptions with regards to their role as working women/mothers in relation to their family perceptions with regards to their role as working women/mothers in relation to their family commitments and caring responsibilities.
The qualitative research also analysed the views and commitments and caring responsibilities.

The qualitative research also analysed the views and opinions of Gozitan society on the working woman in Gozo.

The qualitative stage also served as a opinions of Gozitan society on the working woman in Gozo.
The qualitative stage also served as platform which provided the context for the quantitative studies and insights on the salient issues a platform which provided the context for the quantitative studies and insights on the salient and research areas that needed to be included in the subsequent quantitative stage.

The three issues and research areas that needed to be included in the subsequent quantitative stage.
The tiers comprised: three tiers comprised: - Tier One: one-to-one personal interviews with 20 key stakeholders (Gozo Ministry, senior 234 government officials; representatives from women associations, trade union and employees’ representatives.

From Gozo: Business Representatives, Church Representatives and Gozitan Professionals).

- Tier Two: one-to-one personal interviews with 10 Maltese and Gozitan females in paid employment.
- Tier Three: 8 focus group sessions (three focus groups with Maltese employed females; two focus groups with Gozitan employed females, working in Gozo; one focus group with Gozitan employed females, working in Malta and two focus groups with Gozitan households) were held.
The choice of participants for the focus groups was based on pre-established focus group respondent profiles in order to attain a balanced attendance of female participants, whose age varied from 18 to 60 years, single to married, parents or non-parents.
Focus group respondents were all currently in employment, on full-time or part-time basis, or had the facility of working reduced hours, flexi-time or work from home; hailing from the public and private sector, and having a work designation varying from blue-collar to managerial.

Respondents for the focus groups with ‘Gozitan Households’ was composed of a mix of parents, spouses and children, 16 years and over, of employed and inactive Gozitan females.
The perceptions, attitudes and views of the Key Stakeholders and interview/focus group respondents were examined on the following research areas: • Reasons why Gozitan and Maltese Women work • Needs and difficulties faced by Gozitan and Maltese Females in Employment • Type of Employment Gozitan Females are engaged in • Gozitan and Maltese Working Females and Career Development • Gozitan Societal Perception towards Gozitan Females in Employment.
Unlocking the Female Potential - Research Report 231 • A quantitative research exercise was then conducted.

A two-tier quantitative research study was conducted.

- Tier One: A quantitative research study with 1,000 women in paid employment; 500 hailed from Gozo and 500 hailed from Malta.

This 1,000-count frame ensures statistically significant findings at a confidence level of 95% at a confidence interval of +/-3.

The research approach adopted was by way of a 30-minute face-to-face interview.
The 1,000-count sample frame was divided in two age categories: 15 to 29 years and 30 to 59 years.

The Gozitan female cohort hailed from various towns/villages across Gozo and the Maltese female cohort hailed from Malta’s five geographical regions, with an equal survey respondent representation of each region.

The 1,000-count cohort was characterised by varying levels of education, socio- economic status, marital status and caring responsibilities.
All Gozitan employed females interviewed reside in Gozo; some worked in Gozo and others in Malta.

Only one working female (Maltese and Gozitan) per household was allowed to participate in this study.

- Tier Two: In tandem, another quantitative research study was conducted with 500 (502 actually conducted) Gozitan households.

This 500-count frame ensures statistically significant findings at a confidence level of 95% at a confidence interval of +/-4.
All Gozitan female individuals who participated in this study were not in paid employment.

A total of 100 interviews were conducted for each of the following 5 age group cohorts: 18 - 29 years, 30 - 39 years, 40 - 49 years, 50 - 59 years and 60+ years.

A total of 211 Gozitan male individuals and 291 Gozitan female individuals participated in this research study.

Only one individual per household was allowed to participate in this study.
The research approach adopted for this study was CATI (computer-aided telephone interviews), each of a 10-minute duration.

Only one respondent per Gozitan household was allowed to participate in this study.

6.4.2 shortcomings of the Research study Throughout the whole course of the research study, no significant obstacles were encountered.
However, what may be worthy of mention is that when in the ‘Gozitan households’ study, the survey respondents were asked to comment on whether Gozitan society’s perception on women in employment changed over the last 5 – 10 years, the younger survey respondents’ (aged 18 – 20 years) recollections dating back 5 – 10 years may not be too clear.
However, given that this young respondent cohort only accounted for a very small percentage of the aggregate survey sample, this did not affect the validity of the research findings in any way.

6.5 Qualitative Research - salient Findings The role of the robust qualitative study conducted for this Project was to uncover salient views, perceptions and issues relating to Gozitan and Maltese females in paid employment, as well as to identify important research areas for the quantitative phase of the study.
The semi-structured interview / focus group moderator discussion guide research instruments produced were designed to elicit the views of key stakeholders, Gozitan and Maltese employed females and Gozitan society from a variety of perspectives.
Clearly, the research findings identified at this qualitative research phase elicited a number of salient issues and patterns, which were then, in turn, addressed in the quantitative phase with a larger sample of Gozitan and Maltese employed females and Gozitan households.

These issues and research areas are presented below.

The main reason why women work was perceived both by Maltese and Gozitan females in employment as being related to one’s necessity of earning money.
Work was also a means for the woman to integrate socially, develop personally, keep abreast of current happenings, and take better care of her appearance.

A non-working woman was described as a woman who would merely exist and not live.

Through employment, the woman was perceived as contributing primarily: towards her own self by achieving a sense of fulfilment through the job she would be doing, and towards society.

Following a career, as the main reason why women work, was mentioned by the very few.
This was more likely to be the motivation for the younger generation and single women 232 National Commission for the Promotion of Equality rather than for women with small children.

The age of the woman highly determines her necessity to work.

Whether the female is Maltese or Gozitan, a woman goes through different stages in her life, which influence her reasons for working.
Whilst the Maltese Respondents contended that, in the last ten years, the perception of the Maltese Islands has changed drastically vis-à-vis the female going out to work, the Gozitan Respondents perceived that some changes were happening in the Gozitan society albeit at a slow pace, and not as drastic as in Malta.

The mentality was changing: whereas it had been more static before, now it was more open to learning, not necessarily in Gozo where courses were limited, but in Malta where options were varied.
The change in mentality has not necessarily altered the institutional set-up of Gozo but the way people think about work.

It was claimed that in Gozo the situation of job prospects has not changed, but the way people think about work has changed.

The limitations of the island remain, and one has to factor this in when analysing the work environment.

Respondents perceived that in Malta there are proportionately more women working, in comparison to Gozo, because there are more opportunities there.
For the Gozitan woman to decide to take up employment comes also the decision to go to Malta, as there are practically no available jobs in Gozo, not even for the younger generation.

It was expressed that changes in employment in Gozo are inexistent, with the general employment prospects for both males and females being described as ‘stagnant’.

This eventuality has led many Gozitan women to prefer to take care of their children and perhaps find a part-time job instead.
The perception of Gozitan respondents ran parallel to that of Maltese Respondents with regards to the needs and difficulties faced by females in employment: they were all in agreement that women in general face difficulties in juggling life between family and a job.

These difficulties tend to vary according to one’s place and hours of work, and the work-life balance measures available thereof.
The confined labour market, the limited number of work opportunities available on the sister island, and transport between the two islands were highlighted as the major difficulties that are encountered by all Gozitans, even during their studying phase.

The fact that the private sector in Gozo, with the exception of a few, is mainly formed by self- employed and/or small business employing less than 5 employees, was highlighted by the Gozo Ministry as an additional difficulty Gozitan females have to face.
While in Malta women have various opportunities to work for relatively bigger firms, with the possibility to enjoy better conditions (not only in financial terms), the situation in Gozo is different.

This is also reflected in the job mobility of employees, which is much lower in Gozo where the employers enjoy a captive labour market.

As a result, the employee cannot move from one job to another to seek better conditions, as the job creation in Gozo is much lower compared to Malta.
Maltese and Gozitan women work both in the private and in the public sector.

In Gozo, jobs in the private sector were generally classified as the lower level type of work engagement in hotels, shops and restaurants.

The source of income of working females is mainly through gainful employment, however it was contended that the situation of informal work among females may even be rampant in Gozo.
Notwithstanding, the incidence of informal work amongst the Maltese female workers was not defined as being inexistent, especially where this involves and concerns an activity related to certain sectors or industry, e.g.

the cleaning industry.

Working females who become mothers do not usually keep on working full-time but take advantage of the reduced hour family friendly measure, especially if they are employed in the public sector.
Babysitting carried out by grandmothers is the type of childcare support which is most used by the Maltese and Gozitan working females who are also ‘mothers’.

However, it was also noted that this custom of babysitting carried out by grandmothers is also changing, particularly in Malta, as now Unlocking the Female Potential - Research Report 233 more grandmothers are staying in or returning to employment, with more working females opting to use the service of childcare centres instead.
The societal perceptions of both islands have changed, with the cultural change in Gozo taking a longer time to materialise.

It was stated that society is accepting the importance of females in employment, this being considered more as a financial need rather than to follow a career.

Society has accepted women in different jobs, even those earlier considered as the domain of men.
However, such an acceptance was not based on ideals linked with women in career but rather the practical issue that family finances demanded additional revenue.

Society has not radically changed in such a way as to demand equality between man and woman in the household arrangement as well, and in fact women continued to carry most of the burden of the housework.

This only reinforced the idea that, in reality, women worked to earn money and not to follow some grand career path.
Although there was an element of satisfaction in work, the main incentive was money.

However, as more women furthered their studies and got good jobs, this might change in the future.

Nevertheless, for the moment, if the woman stopped working, then the standard of living of the family would suffer or the husband would have to undertake additional work to sustain that standard.
6.6 Quantitative Research – salient Findings This section highlights the salient findings which emerged from the two separate and distinct quantitative research studies.

One study was conducted with Maltese and Gozitan females, currently in paid employment.

This study aimed at identifying the differences between Maltese and Gozitan females as to the reasons behind being in employment, the difficulties encountered, and the availability of family friendly measures at their place of work.
This study was conducted by way of face-to-face interviews.

The second study was conducted with Gozitan households hailing from the various towns/villages of Gozo and aimed at exploring and understanding how Gozitan society perceives employed Gozitan females.

Any female individuals who participated in this second survey were not in paid employment at the time of the survey.

This latter study was conducted by way of telephone interviews.
These two studies are largely addressing the same research areas of the whole research project, but from different perspectives, that of the Maltese/Gozitan female in paid employment and that of the Gozitan society.

To this end, for the salient research areas, the research findings of both studies will be presented together; the object of this is to facilitate the comparative findings of these two perspectives.

The salient findings emerging from these two quantitative research studies are noted below.
I. Respondent Profile A. survey with Maltese and Gozitan women in Paid Employment Age, Geographical region and Place of Employment A total of 1,000 females were interviewed for this quantitative study, 500 Gozitan females residing in Gozo and 500 Maltese females residing in Malta.

For each of the Gozitan and Maltese 500-count cohorts, there was a total of 200 respondents who fall in the 15 - 29 years group and 300 respondents who hailed from the 30 - 59 years group.
To ensure good representation 234 National Commission for the Promotion of Equality of respondents for each age group, 100 working females hailing from each of the following age groups were interviewed (for both the Maltese and Gozitan cohorts): 15 - 19 years, 20 - 29 years, 30 - 39 years, 40 - 49 years and 50 - 59 years, for both the Maltese and Gozitan cohorts.
Moreover, representation of Malta’s five geographical regions was also ensured, as some 100 working females hailing from each region participated in this study.

The 500 Gozitan females hailed from Gozo’s various towns and villages.

For presentation (and clarity) purposes, throughout the whole report, these five age group cohorts will be presented in two cohorts, namely, 15–29 years and 30-59 years for both Malta and Gozo.

Only one individual per household was allowed to participate in this study.
A high majority, 90% (270 respondents) of older-age-group cohort of the Gozitan female respondents work in Gozo, while the rest work in Malta.

While a lower 58.5% (17 respondents) of the lower-age-group Gozitan cohort work in Gozo and the rest (41.5% - 83 respondents) work in Malta.

More than 35% (40 respondents) of those Gozitans employed in Malta, indicated they have a residence in Malta, which most own.
Of the total number of Gozitan females (113 respondents) who work in Malta, some 65% (73 respondents) stated that they commute between the two islands on a daily basis.

Level of Education, Marital status, socio-Economic status and Caring Responsibilities Almost all 1,000 employed females hold at least a secondary level of education and the majority of them are married.
Almost 44% (439 respondents) of the Respondents’ households hold a C1C2 socio-economic status, 31% (310 respondents) hold an AB status and 20% (202 respondents) are DE.

The respondents’ socio-economic status was determined on the occupation of their respective household’s main income earner.

More than half of all the Gozitan and Maltese survey respondents’ households consist of between 3 – 4 family members.
Moreover, more than half of the same respondents (51% - 513 respondents) indicated that they have children and more than 46% (462 respondents) specified that they currently have caring responsibilities with the high majority of these having children (as opposed to dependent adults).

Almost 46% (193 respondents) of those having child caring responsibilities have two children to take care of and more than half of them (53% - 222 respondents) have children who are over 13 years of age.
Employment of Respondents Almost half of the respondents (49.5% - 495 respondents) specified that they currently hold a ‘service worker/ shop and sales Worker’ position, while 23% (229 respondents) currently hold the post of ‘professional’.

More details are depicted in Table 6.6.

More than 31% (313 respondents) mentioned that they are employed in the Retail and Wholesale sector.
This was followed by more than 18% (182 respondents) who stated that they are employed in the Education sector and by 16% (160 respondents) who are employed in the Health and Social Work and Tourism and Travel sector, respectively.

The research findings show that more Maltese females than Gozitan females occupy a position in the Retail and Wholesale sector while more Gozitans than Maltese occupy a position in the Education sector.
The majority (69% - 693 respondents) of all Gozitan and Maltese respondents are employed with the private sector.

Some 37% (374 respondents) of the total respondents are employed on a full-time basis and work office hours.

Another 31% (310 respondents) work full-time and work either shop hours, shift hours or on a reduced-hours basis.
32% (315 respondents) of the total respondents are employed on a part-time basis, namely, on part-time, casual work, part-time flexible hours and part-time teleworking, the majority of whom work between 10 – 25 hours a week.

Unlocking the Female Potential - Research Report 235 respondents’ socio-economic status was determined on the occupation of their respective household’s main income earner.
More than half of all the Gozitan and Maltese survey respondents’ households consist of between 3 – 4 family members.

Moreover, more than half of the same respondents (51% - 513 respondents) indicated that they have children and more than 46% (462 respondents) specified that they currently have caring responsibilities with the high majority of these having children (as opposed to dependent adults).
Almost 46% (193 respondents) of those having child caring responsibilities have two children to take care of and more than half of them (53% - 222 respondents) have children who are over 13 years of age.

Employment of Respondents Almost half of the respondents (49.5% - 495 respondents) specified that they currently hold a ‘service worker/ shop and sales Worker’ position while 23% (229 respondents) currently hold the post of ‘professional’.

More details are depicted in Table 6.6 below.
TABLE 6.6 – Positions/Occupations Held by Gozitan and Maltese Women in Employment TABLE 6.6 – Positions/Occupations Held by Gozitan and Maltese Women in Employment Counts Break % Respondents Total Elem entary Occupation Plant & Machine Operator/ Assem bler Craft & Related Trades Worker Skilled Agricultural & Fishery Worker Service Worker/ Shop & Sales Worker Clerk Technician/ Associate Professional Professional Legislator/ Senior Offficial/ Manager Arm ed Forces Refused Total Gozitan - 15 - 29 yrs Maltese - 15 - 29 yrs Gozitan - 30 - 59 yrs Maltese - 30 - 59 yrs - - 114 57.0% 9 4.5% 4 2.0% 52 26.0% 1 0.5% - - - - 199 20 10.1% 3 1.5% 1 0.5% - - 97 48.7% 27 13.6% 6 3.0% 41 20.6% 4 2.0% - - - - 300 20 6.7% 4 1.3% 6 2.0% 2 0.7% 144 48.0% 40 13.3% 6 2.0% 65 21.7% 13 4.3% - - - - 301 27 9.0% 2 0.7% 1 0.3% 3 1.0% 140 46.5% 29 9.6% 9 3.0% 71 23.6% 15 5.0% 2 0.7% 2 0.7% More than 31% (313 respondents) mentioned that they are employed in the Retail and Wholesale sector.
This was followed by more than 18% (182 respondents) who stated that they are employed in the Almost 56% (556 respondents) of the whole survey cohort mentioned that their employer does Education sector and by 16% (160 respondents) who are employed in the Health and Social Work and not offer flexible hours to the employees, while a high 90% (904 respondents) communicated Tourism and Travel sector, respectively.
The research findings show that more Maltese females than that their employer does not offer the possibility of teleworking, and an even higher 94% (939 Gozitan females occupy a position in the Retail and Wholesale sector while more Gozitans than Maltese occupy a position in the Education sector.

respondents) said that no childcare facilities are offered at their place of work.
On a more positive note, more than 70% (704 respondents) indicated that at their workplace, the possibility of reduced hours/ part-time employment is offered to employees.

The majority (69% - 693 respondents) of all Gozitan and Maltese respondents are employed with the private sector.

Some 37% (374 respondents) of the total respondents are employed on a full-time basis and work office hours.
Another 31% (310 respondents) work full-time and work either shop hours, shift A rather high 47% (466 respondents) claimed that they earn less than €10,000 a year, while hours or on a reduced-hours basis.

32% (315 respondents) of the total respondents are employed on a 23.5% (235 respondents) specified that they earn between €10,000 and €15,000 annually.
Almost part-time basis, namely, on part-time, casual work, part-time flexible hours and part-time teleworking, the 53% (527 respondents) of the whole survey cohort communicated that their wage is less than majority of whom work between 10 – 25 hours a week.

that of their household’s main income earner (i.e.

who may be the husband, partner, father, mother etc).
9.3% (93 respondents) of the total respondents indicated that their salary is about the same as their household’s main income earner and only 3.7% (37 respondents) of the total cohort indicated that their salary is higher than that of their household’s main income earner; 28 of these respondents are Maltese and the remaining 9 are Gozitan.

This research question was not applicable for 286 (28.6%) respondents as these are either single, live alone, separated or are their household’s main income earner.
239 b. survey with Gozitan Households Age, Gender, Level of Education, Marital status and socio-Economic Classification For the purpose of this quantitative research study, 500 Gozitan households (502 actually conducted) were contacted and one person within each household was interviewed.

All Gozitan female individuals who participated in this study were not in paid employment.
A total of 100 interviews were conducted for each of the following 5 age group cohorts: 18 - 29 years, 30 - 39 years, 40 - 49 years, 50 - 59 years and 60 - 69 years.

A total of 211 Gozitan male individuals and 291 Gozitan female individuals participated in this research study.

Only one individual per household was allowed to participate in this study.

236 National Commission for the Promotion of Equality More than 65% (327) of the respondents interviewed are married while 29% (146) are single.
42% (211) possess a secondary level of education, 21% (107) are of a primary level of education, 20% (98 respondents) hold a tertiary/ post-graduate education level and 16% (79 respondents) possess a post-secondary level of education.

1.4% (7 respondents) have no formal education.


More than 36% (175 respondents) communicated that the income of the main income earner of their respective household is provided by the state, 14% (67 respondents) indicated that their household’s main income earner is a ‘service worker/ shop and sales Worker’ and 11% (52 respondents) stated that their household’s main income earner is a ‘professional’.
Almost half (48% - 243 respondents) of the households contacted hold a DE socio-economic status, 35% (176 respondents) hold a C1C2 status, while 12.5% (63 respondents) hail from an AB status.
Role in The Household and Employed Females in The Household A total of 256 respondents (51%) communicated that their role in the household is that of father or mother, 100 respondents (20%) stated that they are the son or daughter and 92 respondents (18%) are the husband, wife or partner (no children living in household).

More than 40% (203 respondents) pointed out that in the past, female members within their household used to be employed but currently are not.
Another 30% (150 respondents) indicated that there are female members within the household who are currently in employment and 30% (150 respondents) mentioned that there are either no females living in their household (7%) or no females have ever been employed (23%).

Table 6.7 below highlights this finding II.


Reasons why women work As was already widely observed in the qualitative research phase of this research project, it emerges that the main reason why women choose to work is because of financial needs, more specifically, to be able to earn money to contribute towards the needs of the family and maintain a decent standard of living.
In fact, as Table 6.8 below illustrates, this reason was mentioned by a significant 71% (710 respondents) of the aggregate 1,000 respondents as their main reason for being in paid employment.

An interesting finding emerged in that the necessity of earning money to sustain oneself financially and independently from the husband/ partner as the main reason for working, was indicated by more than 17% (172 respondents) of the survey respondents.
The Gozitan households survey also confirmed this ‘financial need’ findings, where a higher percentage 88% (442) indicated that Gozitan females choose to work because there is a financial TABLE 6.7 – Employed Females in the Household Counts Break % Respondents Total Fem ales in household never in em ploym ent No fem ale m em ber in the household Currently Em ployed Fem ales Past Em ployed Fem ales 502 117 23.3% 33 6.6% 150 29.9% 203 40.4% II.
Reasons Why Women Work Unlocking the Female Potential - Research Report 237 As was already widely observed in the qualitative research phase of this research project, it emerges that the main reason why women choose to work is because there is for financial needs, more specifically, to be able to earn money to contribute towards the needs of the family and maintain a decent standard of living.
In fact, as Table 6.8 below illustrates, this reason was mentioned by a significant 71% (710 respondents) of the aggregate 1,000 respondents as their main reason for being in paid employment.

An interesting finding emerged in that the necessity of earning money to sustain oneself financially and independently from the husband/ partner as the main reason for working, was indicated by more than 17% (172 respondents) of the survey respondents.
The Gozitan households survey also confirmed this ‘financial need’ findings, where a higher percentage 88% (442) indicated that Gozitan females choose to work because there is a financial necessity within the families to maintain a decent standard of living.

Interestingly, only a few of Gozitan respondents mentioned that the main reason why females are going out to work is to be financially independent from their husband/ partner.

Table 6.9 below highlights this finding.


When comparing the reasons for working of the Gozitan female respondents against those of their Maltese counterparts, it is worth mentioning that no differences emerge in the replies given.

However, one might notice that younger female respondents give more importance to financial independence from husband/ partner than the older respondents.
TABLE 6.8 – The Main Reason For Being in Paid Employment – Employed Females 241 necessity within the families to maintain a decent standard of living.

Interestingly, only a few of Gozitan respondents mentioned that the main reason why females are going out to work is to be financially independent from their husband/ partner.

Table 6.9 below highlights this finding.


When comparing the reasons for working of the Gozitan female respondents against those of their Maltese counterparts, it is worth mentioning that no differences emerge in the replies given.

However, one might notice that younger female respondents give more importance to financial independence from husband/ partner than the older respondents.
Research findings from the qualitative research phase of this project continued to be substantiated when the employed females survey respondents were asked on whether they believed that a woman’s reason to work changes according to the different stages in her life.

In fact, a staggering 91% (910 respondents) of all the survey respondents agreed that a woman’s reasons for being in employment change at the different stages throughout her life.
This was mentioned by all respondents irrespective of whether they are Gozitan, Maltese, old or young.

This is illustrated in Figure 6.1 below.

More than 92% (922 respondents) of the employed females communicated that they consider their employment as either important or very important.

This was mentioned by all the respondents irrespective of whether they are Gozitan, Maltese, old or young.
The same 1,000 employed female survey respondents were then asked to indicate how they feel about their employment.

The findings show that 46% (458 respondents) consider employment simply as having a job, 35% (352 respondents) specified that they consider their employment both as having a job but also to advance and pursue a career.
Sadly, only a low 18% (179 TABLE 6.8 – The Main Reason For Being in Paid Employment – Employed Females Counts Break % Respondents Total Gozitan - 15 - 29 yrs Maltese - 15 - 29 yrs Gozitan - 30 - 59 yrs Maltese - 30 - 59 yrs Total 1000 200 199 300 301 The necessity of earning m oney to contribute tow ards the needs of the fam ily and m aintain a decent standard of living The necessity of earning m oney to sustain herself financially and independently from the husband/ partner To integrate socially and keep abreast of current happenings To interact w ith others To develop personally and take better care of herself To follow a career To achieve a sense of fulfillm ent through the job she w ould be perform ing Other Don't know - - 123 61.8% 46 23.1% 7 3.5% 4 2.0% 4 2.0% 5 2.5% 3 1.5% 7 3.5% - - 239 79.7% 43 14.3% 1 0.3% 3 1.0% 2 0.7% 6 2.0% 2 0.7% 4 1.3% - - 231 76.7% 27 9.0% 4 1.3% 8 2.7% 4 1.3% 7 2.3% 7 2.3% 12 4.0% 1 0.3% TABLE 6.9 – The Main Reason For Being in Paid Employment – Gozitan Households Counts Break % Respondents Currently Em ployed Fem ales Never Em ployed Fem ales Past Em ployed Fem ales National Commission for the Promotion of Equality 238 Total Total 502 149 150 203 The necessity of earning m oney to contribute tow ards the needs of the fam ily and m aintain a decent standard of living To acquire financial independence To follow a career and attain job satisfaction To fill in the day especially after children are of school age Other Don't know 28 5.6% 18 3.6% 3 0.6% 11 2.2% - - 442 88.0% 129 86.6% 133 88.7% 12 8.1% 2.0% 0.7% 2.7% 3 1 4 - - 4.7% 4.7% 1.3% 0.7% 7 7 2 1 - - 180 88.7% 4.4% 3.9% 3.0% 9 8 - - 6 - - 242 Total Gozitan - 15 - 29 yrs Maltese - 15 - 29 yrs Gozitan - 30 - 59 yrs Maltese - 30 - 59 yrs Total 1000 200 199 300 301 Counts Break % Respondents The necessity of earning m oney to contribute tow ards the needs of the fam ily and m aintain a decent
 standard of living The necessity of earning m oney to sustain herself financially and independently from the husband/ partner To integrate socially and keep abreast of current happenings To interact w ith others To develop personally and take better care of herself To follow a career To achieve a sense of fulfillm ent through the job she w ould be perform ing Other Don't know - - 123 61.8% 46 23.1% 3.5% 2.0% 2.0% 2.5% 7 4 4 5 3 1.5% 7 3.5% - - 239 79.7% 43 14.3% 0.3% 1.0% 0.7% 2.0% 1 3 2 6 2 0.7% 4 1.3% - - 231 76.7% 27 9.0% 1.3% 2.7% 1.3% 2.3% 4 8 4 7 7 2.3% 12 4.0% 1 0.3% TABLE 6.9 – The Main Reason For Being in Paid Employment – Gozitan Households TABLE 6.9 – The Main Reason For Being in Paid Employment – Gozitan Households Counts Break % Respondents Currently Em ployed Fem ales Never Em ployed Fem ales Past Em ployed Fem ales Total Total 502 149 150 203 The necessity of earning m oney to contribute tow ards the needs of the fam ily and m aintain a decent standard of living To acquire financial independence To follow a career and attain job satisfaction To fill in the day especially after children are of school age Other Don't know 442 88.0% 129 86.6% 133 88.7% 180 88.7% 28 5.6% 18 3.6% 3 0.6% 11 2.2% - - 12 8.1% 3 2.0% 1 0.7% 4 2.7% - - 7 4.7% 7 4.7% 2 1.3% 1 0.7% - - 9 4.4% 8 3.9% - - 6 3.0% - - 242 respondents) indicated that they perceive their employment as an opportunity to advance and pursue a career.
An interesting finding is that more young, employed, Gozitan females perceive their job as a career than their Maltese counterparts.

Also, females of a younger age are more inclined towards pursuing a career than older females.

These findings were also reconfirmed by the Gozitan households survey.

Tables 6.10 and 6.11 illustrate these findings.

Research findings from the qualitative research phase of this project continued to be substantiated when III.
Needs and difficulties Encountered by Gozitan and Maltese Employed Females the employed females survey respondents were asked on whether they believed that a woman’s reason No differences in the difficulties faced by Gozitan and Maltese female employees emerge.

In fact, to work changes according to the different stages in her life.
In fact, a staggering 91% (910 respondents) of all the survey respondents agreed that woman’s reasons for being in employment change at the a rather high 64% (640 respondents) of all employed females stated that the salient difficulty different stages throughout her life.

This was mentioned by all respondents irrespective of whether they they face is how to juggle their family and work commitments.

This difficulty was voiced by both are Gozitan, Maltese, old or young.
This is illustrated in Figure 6.1 below.
FIGURE 6.1 – Women’s Reasons to Work Change at Different Stages Throughout Their Life - Employed Females FIGURE 6.1 – Women’s Reasons to Work Change at Different Stages Throughout Their Life - Employed Females 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 s r y 9 2 - 5 1 - n a t i z o G s r y 9 5 - 0 3 - n a t i z o G s r y 9 2 - 5 1 - e s e t l a M Yes No Don't know Refused s r y 9 5 - 0 3 - e s e t l a M More than 92% (922 respondents) of the employed females communicated that they consider their employment as either important or very important.
This was mentioned by all the respondents irrespective of whether they are Gozitan, Maltese, old or young.

Unlocking the Female Potential - Research Report 239 The same 1,000 employed female survey respondents were then asked to indicate how they feel about their employment.

The findings show that 46% (458 respondents) consider employment simply as having a job, 35% (352 respondents) specified that they consider their employment both as having a job but also to advance and pursue a career.
Sadly, only a low 18% (179 respondents) indicated that they perceive their employment as an opportunity to advance and pursue a career.

An interesting finding is that more young, employed, Gozitan females perceive their job as a career than their Maltese counterparts.

Also, females of a younger age are more inclined towards pursuing a career than older females.

These findings were also reconfirmed by the Gozitan households survey.

Tables 6.10 and 6.11 illustrate these findings.


TABLE 6.10 – Perceptions of ‘The Job’ – Employed Females 243 Gozitan and Maltese survey respondents, but was more prominent among the survey respondents, aged 30 - 59 years bracket.

Sadly, the lack of support by husband/ partner was also mentioned, primarily by Maltese respondents, as being a salient difficulty.

Among the Gozitan employed female survey respondents, the restricted labour market in Gozo was also perceived as a salient difficulty.
This finding is illustrated in Table 6.12 below.

When the Gozitan household respondents were asked to indicate which, in their opinion, are the main difficulties encountered by Gozitan employed females, a different finding emerged.

According to some 29% (145 respondents) of Gozitan households, the restricted labour market in Gozo was perceived as the salient difficulty these women encounter.
This was mentioned by Gozitan households, irrespective of whether members within their respective household currently work, never worked or had worked in the past.

Table 6.13 depicts these findings.


Moreover, as perceived by Gozitan households, the difficulty of juggling life between family and work commitments scored 18.3% (92 respondents), leaving Gozo to seek job openings in Malta scored 8.2% (41 respondents) and the difficulty of commuting daily between the two islands scored 6.8% (34 respondents) as salient difficulties encountered by Gozitan working females.
When both Gozitan and Maltese female employed survey respondents hailing from the public and private sector were probed on whether they encounter any difficulties with regards to gender inequality in attaining job promotions at their place of work, the majority of the respondents replied in the negative.

Furthermore, no differences emerged in the responses hailing from Maltese and Gozitan respondents.

These findings are illustrated in Figures 6.2 and 6.3.
TABLE 6.10 – Perceptions of ‘The Job’ – Employed Females Counts Break % Respondents Total Gozitan - 15 - 29 yrs Maltese - 15 - 29 yrs Gozitan - 30 - 59 yrs Maltese - 30 - 59 yrs Total Counts Break % Respondents Having a job Total Developing and advancing in a Having a job Career Developing and Both advancing in a Career Don't know Both Don't know 1000 Total 458 45.8% 1000 179 17.9% 458 45.8% 179 17.9% 352 35.2% 11 1.1% 352 35.2% 200 199 300 301 Gozitan - 15 - 29 yrs Maltese - 15 - 29 yrs Gozitan - 30 - 59 yrs Maltese - 30 - 59 yrs TABLE 6.11 – Perceptions of ‘The Job’ – Gozitan Households 1.0% 3 1.5% 4 1.3% 1 0.5% Counts TABLE 6.11 – Perceptions of ‘The Job’ – Gozitan Households Break % Respondents Counts Break % Total Respondents Fem ales - 18 - 39 yrs Males - 18 - 39 yrs 114 Total Total 502 86 TABLE 6.11 – Perceptions of ‘The Job’ – Gozitan Households Fem ales - 18 - 39 yrs Males - 18 - 39 yrs Fem ales - 40 - 69 yrs Males - 40 - 69 yrs Fem ales - 40 - 69 yrs Males - 40 - 69 yrs 205 97 Total Having a Job Having a Job Developing and advancing in a Developing and Career advancing in a Career Both Both Don't know Don't know Refused Refused 502 188 37.5% 86 23 26.7% 188 37.5% 76 15.1% 76 15.1% 197 39.2% 197 39.2% 41 8.2% 41 8.2% - - - - 23 26.7% 13 15.1% 46 53.5% 13 15.1% 46 53.5% 4 4.7% 4 4.7% - - - - 47 41.2% 23 20.2% 41 36.0% 3 2.6% - - 114 47 41.2% 23 20.2% 41 36.0% 3 2.6% - - 73 35.6% 26 12.7% 81 39.5% 25 12.2% - - 205 73 35.6% 26 12.7% 81 39.5% 25 12.2% - - 45 46.4% 14 14.4% 29 29.9% 9 9.3% - - 97 45 46.4% 14 14.4% 29 29.9% 9 9.3% - - III.
Needs and Difficulties Encountered by Gozitan and Maltese Employed Females III.

Needs and Difficulties Encountered by Gozitan and Maltese Employed Females No differences in the difficulties faced by Gozitan and Maltese female employees emerge.

In fact, a No differences in the difficulties faced by Gozitan and Maltese female employees emerge.
In fact, a 240 rather high 64% (640 respondents) of all employed females stated that the salient difficulty they face is rather high 64% (640 respondents) of all employed females stated that the salient difficulty they face is how to juggle their family and work commitments.

This difficulty was voiced by both Gozitan and Maltese how to juggle their family and work commitments.
This difficulty was voiced by both Gozitan and Maltese survey respondents, but was more prominent among the survey respondents, aged 30 - 59 years bracket.

survey respondents, but was more prominent among the survey respondents, aged 30 - 59 years bracket.
National Commission for the Promotion of Equality Sadly, the lack of support by husband/ partner was also mentioned, primarily by Maltese respondents, as Sadly, the lack of support by husband/ partner was also mentioned, primarily by Maltese respondents, as being a salient difficulty.

Among the Gozitan employed female survey respondents, the restricted labour being a salient difficulty.
Among the Gozitan employed female survey respondents, the restricted labour market in Gozo was also perceived as a salient difficulty.

This finding is illustrated in Table 6.12 below.

market in Gozo was also perceived as a salient difficulty.

This finding is illustrated in Table 6.12 below.
TABLE 6.12 – Main difficulty Encountered by Employed Females TABLE 6.12 – Main difficulty Encountered by Employed Females 244 244 TABLE 6.12 – Main difficulty Encountered by Employed Females Counts Break % Respondents Total The difficulty of juggling life betw een a fam ily and a job The lack of support by husband / partner The difficulty of availing oneself of flexi-tim e, reduced hours or telew orking Taking a career break m ight affect job prom otion The restricted labour m arket in Gozo Lim itation in the prospect of changing jobs in Gozo The restricted labour m arket in Malta Lim itations in prospects of changing jobs in Malta Lack of opportunities in job advancem ent Leaving Gozo to seek job openings in Malta Leaving Gozo to follow educational opportunities in Malta The difficulty of com m uting even on a daily basis from Gozo to Malta The inadequate transport system s w hich prolong the com m uting tim e Gozitans m iss out on fam ily em otional support w hen being aw ay from the fam ily Additional expenses: rent / living expenses w hen in Malta The lack of extended fam ily support w hen children are born The unavailability of affordable childcare centres in Malta The unavailability of childcare centres in Gozo The unavailability of after- school activities Other Don't know Total Gozitan - 15 - 29 yrs Maltese - 15 - 29 yrs Gozitan - 30 - 59 yrs Maltese - 30 - 59 yrs - - 112 11.2% 11 1.1% 200 105 52.5% 10 5.0% 6 3.0% 3 1.5% 29 14.5% 2 1.0% - - - - 2 1.0% 8 4.0% 1 0.5% 6 3.0% 3 1.5% 1 0.5% 2 1.0% - - - - 9 4.5% - - 13 6.5% - - 199 115 57.8% 11 5.5% 7 3.5% 5 2.5% - - - - 7 3.5% 1 0.5% 1 0.5% - - - - - - - - - - - - 2 1.0% 5 2.5% - - - - 40 20.1% 5 2.5% 300 222 74.0% 6 2.0% 4 1.3% 2 0.7% 19 6.3% 6 2.0% - - - - 1 0.3% 6 2.0% 1 0.3% 1 0.3% - - 1 0.3% - - - - - - 17 5.7% - - 12 4.0% 2 0.7% 301 198 65.8% 24 8.0% 10 3.3% 2 0.7% - - - - 3 1.0% - - 2 0.7% - - - - - - - - - - - -
 5 1.7% 6 2.0% - - - - 47 15.6% 4 1.3% When the Gozitan household respondents were asked to indicate which, in their opinion, are the main difficulties encountered by Gozitan employed females, a different finding emerged.
According to some 29% (145 respondents) of Gozitan households, the restricted labour market in Gozo was perceived as the IV.

Addressing the Needs of Gozitan and Maltese Employed Females salient difficulty these women encounter.

This was mentioned by Gozitan households, irrespective of 245 Gozitan Employed Females The research findings confirm what the salient needs of Gozitan employed women are.
There was a clear consensus among respondents, totalling a high 92% (460 respondents) of all Gozitan survey respondents, who agreed that, in Gozo, there is need for the following measures that would help ease the difficulties currently encountered by Gozitan working women: • Availability of affordable childcare centres; • Improvement in the possibility of availing of family-friendly measures in the private and public sector; • Provision of day-care centres for the elderly; • Organisation of more training and educational courses on the island; • Improvement of public transport in Gozo with the introduction of new route services.
Unlocking the Female Potential - Research Report 241 whether members within their respective household currently work, never worked or had worked in the past.

Table 6.13 depicts these findings.


Moreover, as perceived by Gozitan households, the difficulty of juggling life between family and work commitments scored 18.3% (92 respondents), leaving Gozo to seek job openings in Malta scored 8.2% (41 respondents) and the difficulty of commuting daily between the two islands scored 6.8% (34 respondents) as salient difficulties encountered by Gozitan working females.
TABLE 6.13 – Difficulties Encountered by Gozitan Employed Females - As Perceived by Gozitan TABLE 6.13 – Difficulties Encountered by Gozitan Employed Females - As Perceived by Gozitan Counts Break % Respondents Total The restricted labour m arket in Gozo Lim itation in the prospect of changing jobs in Gozo Lack of opportunities in job advancem ent Em ployers tend to prefer to em ploy a m ale rather than a fem ale especially in higher paid jobs Leaving Gozo to seek job openings in Malta The difficulty of com m uting even on a daily basis from Gozo to Malta The inadequate transport system s w hich prolong the com m uting tim e The difficulty of juggling life betw een a fam ily and a job The m aternity phase com plicates a w om an's life in term s of em ploym ent opportunities The difficulty of availing oneself of flexi-tim e, reduced hours or telew orking Taking a career break m ight affect job prom otion The unavailability of childcare centres in Gozo The lack of after-school activities The lack of support by husband / partner Other Don't know Total Never Em ployed Fem ales Currently Em ployed Fem ales Past Em ployed Fem ales 149 48 32.2% 6 4.0% 6 4.0% 2 1.3% 11 7.4% 8 5.4% - - 26 17.4% 1 0.7% - - - - 12 8.1% - - 2 1.3% 16 10.7% 11 7.4% 150 39 26.0% 7 4.7% 15 10.0% - - 17 11.3% 12 8.0% 2 1.3% 24 16.0% 1 0.7% 4 2.7% - - - - 5 2.5% 29 14.3% 9 4.4% 246 242 National Commission for the Promotion of Equality When both Gozitan and Maltese female employed survey respondents hailing from the public and private sector were probed on whether they encounter any difficulties with regards to gender inequality in attaining job promotions at their place of work, the majority of the respondents replied in the negative.
Furthermore, no differences emerged in the responses hailing from Maltese and Gozitan respondents.

These findings are illustrated in Figures 6.2 and 6.3 below.

When both Gozitan and Maltese female employed survey respondents hailing from the public and private sector were probed on whether they encounter any difficulties with regards to gender inequality in attaining job promotions at their place of work, the majority of the respondents replied in the negative.
Furthermore, no differences emerged in the responses hailing from Maltese and Gozitan respondents.

These findings are illustrated in Figures 6.2 and 6.3 below.
FIGURE 6.2 – Degree of Gender Equality Re: Job Promotions in The Public Sector FIGURE 6.2 – Degree of Gender Equality Re: Job Promotions in The Public Sector FIGURE 6.2 – Degree of Gender Equality Re: Job Promotions in The Public Sector 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 s r y 9 2 - 5 1 - n a t i z o G s r y 9 2 - 5 1 - n a t i z o G s r y 9 2 - 5 1 - e s e t l a M s r y 9 2 - 5 1 - e s e t l a M s r y 9 5 - 0 3 - n a t i z o G s r y 9 5 - 0 3 - n a t i z o G s r y 9 5 - 0 3 - e s e t l a M s r y 9 5 - 0 3 - e s e t l a M Yes, gender is an issue Yes, gender is an issue No, there is gender equality No, there is gender equality Don't know Refused Don't know Refused FIGURE 6.3 – Degree of Gender Equality Re: Job Promotions in The Private Sector FIGURE 6.3 – Degree of Gender Equality Re: Job Promotions in The Private Sector FIGURE 6.3 – Degree of Gender Equality Re: Job Promotions in The Private Sector 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 s r y 9 2 - 5 1 - n a t i z o G s r y 9 2 - 5 1 - n a t i z o G s r y 9 2 - 5 1 - e s e t l a M s r y 9 2 - 5 1 - e s e t l a M s r y 9 5 - 0 3 - n a t i z o G s r y 9 5 - 0 3 - n a t i z o G s r y 9 5 - 0 3 - e s e t l a M s r y 9 5 - 0 3 - e s e t l a M Yes, gender is an issue Yes, gender is an issue No, there is gender equality No, there is gender equality Don't know Don't know Refused Refused Table 6.14 shows these findings in more detail.
IV.

Addressing the Needs of Gozitan and Maltese Employed Females IV.

Addressing the Needs of Gozitan and Maltese Employed Females Maltese Employed Females Maltese female working respondents were mainly in agreement with Gozitan respondents.
A high 90% (450) of Maltese respondents, indicated the need for the following measures, that would help ease the difficulties currently encountered by Maltese working women: • More affordable childcare centres; • An improvement in the possibility of availing of family-friendly measures in both the public and 247 247 private sectors; • More day-care centres to cater for the caring of the elderly; • A skills-gap analysis linking education to future job requirements; • An improvement in the public transport system with the introduction of new route services.
NB.

This survey was carried out before the introduction of the new Arriva public transport system.

More details on these findings are depicted in Table 6.15 below.
Unlocking the Female Potential - Research Report 243 TABLE 6.14 – Agreement with Proposals of Assistance/Support Structures To Assist Employed Females – Gozitan Females Counts Analysis % Respondents Total Com pletely disagree Disagree Neither agree nor disagree Agree Com pletely agree Don't know Refused / NA The availability of employment opportunities in Gozo itself A link w ith the mainland Gozo should be marketed as a tourist destination separately from Malta The promotion of health tourism and agro-tourism for Gozo The availability of affordable child care centres in Gozo The introduction of after school activities (ballet, religious classes, football, private lessons, etc) Improvement in the possibility of availing of family friendly measures (flexible hours, reduced hours) in the Public Sector (presently allow ed at the discretion of the Director) Improvement in the possibility of availing of family friendly measures (flexible hours, reduced hours) in the Private Sector 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 The organization of telew orking 500 The setting up of a system w hereby a pool of reserves replace w orkers on flexi-time and reduced hours The opening of day care centres in Gozo to cater for the caring of older family members A skills gap analysis linking education to future job requirements The organisation of training and educational courses for Gozo having different criteria specific to Gozo's needs The improvement of public transport in Gozo, this to include the introduction of new route services Priority boarding for Gozitans on the Gozo Channel ferries The granting of flexibility to Gozitans employed in Malta to leave early for the ferry - - - - 4 0.8% 7 1.4% 2 0.4% 4
10 2.0% 10 2.0% - - - - 4 0.8% 7 1.4% 2 0.4% 4 0.8% 1 0.2% 9 1.8% 14 2.8% 180 36.0% 280 56.0% 14 2.8% 2 0.4% - - 3 0.6% 3 0.6% 1 0.2% 1 0.2% 1 0.2% 5 1.0% 16 3.2% 12 2.4% 8 1.6% 14 2.8% 4 0.8% 2 0.4% - - - - Maltese Employed Females Maltese female working respondents were mainly in agreement with Gozitan respondents.
A high 90% (450) of Maltese respondents, indicated the need for the following measures, that would help ease the difficulties currently encountered by Maltese working women: When comparing the needs of the Gozitan working females with those of their Maltese counterparts, the research findings clearly illustrated that these two working female cohorts have the same needs and require the same type of assistance/support structures.
Moreover, Gozitan working females observed that in Gozo there is a dire need for more availability of training and educational courses to be organised on the island.

249 Worthy of mention is the proposal of extending school hours by introducing after-school activities.

Although a high 75% (375 respondents) of Maltese employed females agreed with this proposal, 14% (71 respondents) seem to be still undecided.
Gozitan working females seem more keen on this proposal as some 81% (406 respondents) of these claimed they either agree or completely agree with this proposal.
244 National Commission for the Promotion of Equality Moreover, with reference to the more Gozo-related proposals, namely, the development of a link between the two islands, the promotion of health tourism and agro-tourism for Gozo and the marketing of Gozo as a separate holiday destination from Malta received a lesser degree of support (when compared to other support structure proposals) from the Gozitan working female population interviewed.
As Table 6.16 below shows that when the study explored the views and opinions of the Gozitan households on the same support structure/measures proposals posed to the Gozitan working female population, very similar results in both studies emerged.

This continues to substantiate what the real needs of Gozitan working female population are.
34% (344 respondents) of the aggregate working female population agreed that furthering education and attending training is what assists women to develop and advance most in their career.

This was, in fact, observed largely by the Gozitan employed females.
Following, 26% (264 respondents) of all survey respondents stated that the career opportunities available on the market assist the working women to further develop their career, while 14% (144 respondents) of all respondents indicated that it depends on the woman’s initiative and ambition to advance her career.

These findings are highlighted in Table 6.17 below.
Both employed female (Gozitan and Maltese) survey respondents and Gozitan household respondents were asked to suggest measures which may assist in addressing the needs and TABLE 6.15 – Agreement with Proposals of Assistance/Support Structures To Assist Employed Females – Maltese females Counts Analysis % Respondents Total Com pletely disagree Disagree Neither agree not disagree Agree Com pletely agree Don't Know Refused / NA The availability of additional and affordable child care centres in Malta The introduction of after school activities (ballet, religious classes, football, private lessons, etc) Improvement in the possibility of availing of family friendly measures (flexible hours, reduced hours) in the Public Sector (presently availed of at management's discretion) Improvement in the possibility of availing of family friendly measures (flexible hours, reduced hours) in the Private Sector 500 500 500 500 The organization of telew orking 500 The setting up of a system w hereby a pool of reserves replace w orkers on flexi-time and reduced hours The opening of more day care centres in Malta to cater for the caring of the elderly A skills gap analysis linking education to future job requirements The improvement of public transport in Malta, this to include the introduction of new route services - - 1 0.2% 5 1.0% 3 0.6% - - - - - - - - - - 2 0.4% - - - - - - 6 1.2% As Table 6.16 below shows that when the study explored the views and opinions of the Gozitan households on the same support structure/measures proposals posed to the Gozitan working female Unlocking the Female Potential - Research Report population, very similar results in both studies emerged.
This continues to substantiate what the real needs of Gozitan working female population are.

245 TABLE 6.16 – Agreement with Proposals of Assistance/ Support Structures To Assist Employed Females – Gozitan Households 251 difficulties of employed females in Malta and Gozo.

The salient recommendations mentioned in both studies are depicted in Table 6.18 below.
Availability of Family-Friendly Measures in Gozo and Malta Out of the 1,000 employed Gozitan and Maltese females interviewed, 51.3% (513 respondents) are mothers; of these, 255 respondents are Gozitan and 258 respondents are Maltese.

The findings show that motherhood seems to come at a later age in life, both in Malta and Gozo as only 8% (16 respondents) and 9% (18 respondents) of Gozitan and Maltese mothers respectively hail from the lower age cohort.
TABLE 6.16 – Agreement with Proposals of Assistance/Support Structures To Assist Employed Females – Gozitan Households Counts Analysis % Respondents a) The availability of employment opportunities in Gozo itself b) A link (any type) w ith the mainland c) Gozo should be marketed as a tourist destination separately from Malta d) The promotion of health tourism and agro-tourism for Gozo e) The availability of affordable child care centres in Gozo f) The introduction of after school activities (ballet, religious classes, football, private lessons, etc) g) Improvement in the possibility of availing of family friendly measures (flexible hours, reduced hours) in the Public Sector (presently allow ed at the discretion of the Director) h) Improvement in the possibility of availing of family friendly measures (flexible hours, reduced hours) in the Private Sector i) The organization of telew orking j) The setting up of a system w hereby a pool of reserves replace w orkers on flexi-time and reduced hours k) The opening of day care centres in Gozo to cater for the caring of older family members l) A 'skills gap analysis' linking education to future job requirements m) The organization of training and educational courses for Gozo using different criteria specific to Gozo's needs n) The improvement of public transport in Gozo, this to include the introduction of new route services o) Priority boarding for Gozitans on the Gozo Channel ferries p) The granting of flexibility to Gozitans w orking in Malta to leave the w orkplace early for the ferry Total Com pletely disagree Disagree Neither agree nor disagree Agree Com pletely agree Don't know Refused / NA 502 502 502 502 502 502 502 502 502 502 502 502 502 502 502 502 21 4.2% 15 3.0% 5 1.0% 1 0.2% - - 10 2.0% - - - - - - - - 1 0.2% - - - - 3
- - - - - - 1 0.2% - - - - - - - - 1 0.2% 2 0.4% 2 0.4% 1 0.2% 3 0.6% 2 0.4% 1 0.2% 1 0.2% 252 246 National Commission for the Promotion of Equality When asked how motherhood had affected or is affecting their employment, a significant 36% (183 respondents) said that they had stopped working.
This was mainly observed by the Maltese female respondents.

Only 22% (115 respondents) of the mothers indicated that they had continued working on a full-time basis and this was largely observed to be prevalent among Gozitan respondents.

Also, another 19% (98 respondents) of the mother respondents indicated that when they became mothers, they were not in employment.

These figures are shown in Table 6.19 below.


Of the 199 Gozitan and Maltese mother respondents who opted to keep on working either on a full-time basis, on part-time basis, on reduced hours or on flexi-hours arrangements, once they became mothers, a very high 71% (140 respondents) stated that while they were at work their grandparents babysat their children.

This child-minding arrangement finding emerged for both Gozitan and Maltese mothers’ situations.
Worthy of mention is that some 8% and 2% of this respondent cohort indicated that their childcare responsibilities are shared between both parents and the father became a house husband, respectively.

An important and worrying finding is that a significantly low 10% (19 respondents) of these mothers made use of the services of a childcare centre and this child-minding arrangement was largely used by Maltese mothers, while Gozitans were more likely to use family for babysitting.
This finding is illustrated in Table 6.20.

V. societal Perceptions on women in Paid Employment A total of 884 respondents (88%) of the aggregate 1,000 working female respondents communicated that they believe that societal perceptions towards working women have changed considerably and substantially in the last ten years.

There was no distinction based on residency or age since all respondents shared this opinion.
This was also confirmed by an also positive 85% (426 respondents) of the Gozitan household respondents who agreed that society perceptions on working women had changed considerably and substantially over the last 10 years.

This was stated by both Gozitan household male and 34% (344 respondents) of the aggregate working female population agreed that furthering education and attending training is what assists women to develop and advance most in their career.
This was, in fact, observed largely by the Gozitan employed females.

Following, 26% (264 respondents) of all survey respondents stated that the career opportunities available on the market assist the working women to further develop their career, while 14% (144 respondents) of all respondents indicated that it depends on the woman’s initiative and ambition to advance her career.

These findings are highlighted in Table 6.17 below.
TABLE 6.17 – Assisting the Employed Female to Develop and Advance In Her Career – Employed Females TABLE 6.17 – Q41.
Assisting the Employed Female to Develop and Advance In Her Career – Employed Females Counts Break % Respondents Total The opportunities available on the m arket Further education and training The introduction of fem ale em ployee quotas Superior officers w ho encourage their em ployees to engage in further studies Her initiative and am bition The support received from the husband / partner or the fam ily Not having caring responsibilities Other Don't know Total Gozitan - 15 - 29 yrs Maltese - 15 - 29 yrs Gozitan - 30 - 59 yrs Maltese - 30 - 59 yrs Both employed female (Gozitan and Maltese) survey respondents and Gozitan household respondents were asked to suggest measures which may assist in addressing the needs and difficulties of employed 247 females in Malta and Gozo.
The salient recommendations mentioned in both studies are depicted in Table 6.18 below.
Unlocking the Female Potential - Research Report TABLE 6.18 – Proposed Measures to Address The Needs of Working Women In Malta and Gozo Gozitan Respondents Possibility to work flexible hours Possibility of more tele-working arrangements A link between Malta and Gozo to ease commuting An improvement in public transport More affordable and safer childcare centres More job opportunities in Gozo.
Maltese Respondents More affordable childcare centres Childcare centres in all localities Possibility to work flexible hours 253 34% (344 respondents) of the aggregate working female population agreed that furthering education and attending training is what assists women to develop and advance most in their career.

This was, in fact, observed largely by the Gozitan employed females.
Following, 26% (264 respondents) of all survey respondents stated that the career opportunities available on the market assist the working women to further develop their career, while 14% (144 respondents) of all respondents indicated that it depends on the woman’s initiative and ambition to advance her career.

These findings are highlighted in Table 6.17 below.

TABLE 6.17 – Q41.
Assisting the Employed Female to Develop and Advance In Her Career – Employed Females Total Gozitan - 15 - 29 yrs Maltese - 15 - 29 yrs Gozitan - 30 - 59 yrs Maltese - 30 - 59 yrs Counts Break % Respondents Total The opportunities available on the m arket Further education and training 1000 264 26.4% 344 34.4% The introduction of fem ale em ployee quotas female members, irrespective of age.
However, it is worthy of mention that some of the Gozitan household male members hailing from the older age group and the household female members who have never been employed, tended more to observe that societal perceptions had remained the same.

More detailed findings on this research area may be found in Figures 6.4 and 6.5.
Superior officers w ho encourage their em ployees to engage in further studies 18 1.8% 1 0.5% 4 2.0% 7 2.3% 6 2.0% 26 13.0% 30 15.1% 38 12.7% 50 16.6% Her initiative and am bition 144 14.4% The support received from the husband / partner or the fam ily 104 10.4% According to 78% (777 respondents) of the whole employed female respondents, nowadays it has become the norm for females to be in paid employment.
This opinion was shared by working female respondents hailing from both Gozo and Malta, irrespective of age.

However only 1.8% of the respondents acknowledge that it is acceptable for a female to earn more than her husband \ partner.

Table 6.21 shows these findings.


Not having caring responsibilities 30 10.0% 37 12.3% 53 5.3% 13 6.5% 5 2.5% 18 9.0% 19 9.5% 28 2.8% 8 4.0% 4 2.0% 28 9.3% 7 2.3% 8 2.7% 8 2.7% Other 27 2.7% 4 2.0% 6 3.0% 4 1.3% 13 4.3% Don't know When analyzing how Gozitan society perceives working women, an encouraging 62% (313 Both employed female (Gozitan and Maltese) survey respondents and Gozitan household respondents respondents) of the Gozitan household respondents perceive working females in a positive way.
were asked to suggest measures which may assist in addressing the needs and difficulties of employed females in Malta and Gozo.

The salient recommendations mentioned in both studies are depicted in Table 6.18 below.
TABLE 6.18 – Proposed Measures to Address The Needs of Working Women In Malta and Gozo TABLE 6.18 – Proposed Measures to Address The Needs of Working Women In Malta and Gozo Availability of Family-Friendly Measures in Gozo and Malta Possibility of more tele-working arrangements More job opportunities.
Gozitan Respondents Possibility to work flexible hours Possibility of more tele-working arrangements A link between Malta and Gozo to ease commuting An improvement in public transport More affordable and safer childcare centres More job opportunities in Gozo.
Maltese Respondents More affordable childcare centres Childcare centres in all localities Possibility to work flexible hours Out of the 1,000 employed Gozitan and Maltese females interviewed, 51.3% (513 respondents) are mothers; of these, 255 respondents are Gozitan and 258 respondents are Maltese.
The findings show that motherhood seems to come at a later age in life, both in Malta and Gozo as only 8% (16 respondents) and 9% (18 respondents) of Gozitan and Maltese mothers respectively hail from the lower age cohort.

When asked how motherhood had affected or is affecting their employment, a significant 36% (183 respondents) said that they had stopped working.

This was mainly observed by the Maltese female respondents.
Only 22% (115 respondents) of the mothers indicated that they had continued working on a full-time basis and this was largely observed to be prevalent among Gozitan respondents.

Also, another 19% (98 respondents) of the mother respondents indicated that when they became mothers, they were not in employment.

These figures are shown in Table 6.19 below.

 Possibility of more tele-working arrangements More job opportunities.
TABLE 6.19 – Change in Employment Status with Motherhood – Employed Females Availability of Family-Friendly Measures in Gozo and Malta TABLE 6.19 - Change in Employment Status with Motherhood - Employed Females Out of the 1,000 employed Gozitan and Maltese females interviewed, 51.3% (513 respondents) are mothers; of these, 255 respondents are Gozitan and 258 respondents are Maltese.
The findings show that motherhood seems to come at a later age in life, both in Malta and Gozo as only 8% (16 respondents) and 9% (18 respondents) of Gozitan and Maltese mothers respectively hail from the lower age cohort.
Gozitan - 15 - 29 yrs Maltese - 15 - 29 yrs Gozitan - 30 - 59 yrs Maltese - 30 - 59 yrs Counts Break % Respondents 253 Total Total 513 16 18 239 240 183 35.7% Stopped w orking When asked how motherhood had affected or is affecting their employment, a significant 36% (183 respondents) said that they had stopped working.

This was mainly observed by the Maltese female Kept on w orking full- respondents.
Only 22% (115 respondents) of the mothers indicated that they had continued working on a tim e full-time basis and this was largely observed to be prevalent among Gozitan respondents.

Also, another 19% (98 respondents) of the mother respondents indicated that when they became mothers, they were not in employment.

These figures are shown in Table 6.19 below.
Opted for part-tim e 5 31.3% 75 31.4% 29 12.1% 6 33.3% 115 22.4% 1 6.3% 11 4.6% 30 5.8% 18 7.5% 3 18.8% 67 28.0% 108 45.0% 5 27.8% - - Availed herself of reduced hours 44 8.6% 3 18.8% 4 22.2% 20 8.4% 17 7.1% TABLE 6.19 – Change in Employment Status with Motherhood – Employed Females 4 1.7% Gozitan - 15 - 29 yrs Maltese - 15 - 29 yrs Gozitan - 30 - 59 yrs Maltese - 30 - 59 yrs 5 2.1% 10 1.9% 1 5.6% Total - - Worked flexible Counts hours Break % Respondents Worked on Telew orking Total Took a career break Stopped w orking Kept on w orking full- Was not in tim e em ploym ent at the tim e Opted for part-tim e Other Availed herself of reduced hours Don't know / Don't rem em ber Worked flexible hours 8 1.6% 513 32 6.2% 183 35.7% 115 22.4% 98 19.1% 30 5.8% 44 8.6% 10 1.9% 18 3.5% 1 0.2% Refused Worked on Telew orking 1 0.2% 8 1.6% - - 16 3 2 18.8% 12.5% 5 1 31.3% 6.3% 1 6.3% 3 3 18.8% 18.8% - - - - - - - - - 18 - 5 2 27.8% 11.1% 6 1 33.3% 5.6% - - - - 4 22.2% - 1 - 5.6% - - - - 5 239 2.1% 67 22 28.0% 9.2% 75 41 31.4% 17.2% 11 4.6% 9 20 3.8% 8.4% 1 5 0.4% 2.1% - 5 - 2.1% 3 240 1.3% 108 6 45.0% 2.5% 29 55 12.1% 22.9% 18 7.5% 6 17 2.5% 7.1% - 4 - 1.7% 1 3 0.4% 1.3% 6 2.5% 32 6.2% 2 12.5% 2 11.1% 22 9.2% Took a career break Was not in em ploym ent at the tim e Of the 199 Gozitan and Maltese mother respondents who opted to keep on working either on a full-time basis, on part-time basis, on reduced hours or on flexi-hours arrangements, once they became mothers, a 248 very high 71% (140 respondents) stated that while they were at work their grandparents babysat their children.
This child-minding arrangement finding emerged for both Gozitan and Maltese mothers’ situations.

Worthy of mention is that some 8% and 2% of this respondent cohort indicated that their childcare responsibilities are shared between both parents and the father became a house husband, National Commission for the Promotion of Equality 3 18.8% 41 17.2% 55 22.9% 98 19.1% Don't know / Don't 9 3.8% 1 6.3% 6 2.5% 18 3.5% 1 5.6% Other - - 1 - - - 1 respectively.
An important and worrying finding is that a significantly low 10% (19 respondents) of these rem em ber 0.2% 0.4% - - - mothers made use of the services of a childcare centre and this child-minding arrangement was largely 1 1 - - - Refused 0.2% - - - 0.4% Of the 199 Gozitan and Maltese mother respondents who opted to keep on working either on a full-time basis, on part-time basis, on reduced hours or on flexi-hours arrangements, once they became mothers, a 254 very high 71% (140 respondents) stated that while they were at work their grandparents babysat their children.
This child-minding arrangement finding emerged for both Gozitan and Maltese mothers’ situations.

Worthy of mention is that some 8% and 2% of this respondent cohort indicated that their childcare responsibilities are shared between both parents and the father became a house husband, respectively.
An important and worrying finding is that a significantly low 10% (19 respondents) of these mothers made use of the services of a childcare centre and this child-minding arrangement was largely 254 used by Maltese mothers, while Gozitans were more likely to use family for babysitting.

This finding is illustrated in Table 6.20 below.
TABLE 6.20 – Childcare Support Used – Gozitan and Maltese Mothers TABLE 6.20 – Childcare Support Used – Gozitan and Maltese Mothers Counts Break % Respondents Total The services of a childcare centre Grandparents' babysitting Father becam e househusband Other relatives/ friends' babysitting Childcare responsibilities shared betw een father and m other The services of a nanny Other Don't know / Don't rem em ber Refused Total Gozitan - 15 - 29 yrs Maltese - 15 - 29 yrs Gozitan - 30 - 59 yrs Maltese - 30 - 59 yrs 197 19 9.6% 140 71.1% 4 2.0% 8 4.1% 15 7.6% - - 7 3.6% 3 1.5% 1 0.5% 9 2 22.2% 6 66.7% - - 1 11.1% - - - - - - - - - - 10 2 20.0% 8 80.0% - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 110 8 7.3% 83 75.5% 3 2.7% 3 2.7% 6 5.5% - - 4 3.6% 2 1.8% 1 0.9% 68 7 10.3% 43 63.2% 1 1.5% 4 5.9% 9 13.2% - - 3 4.4% 1 1.5% - - V. Societal Perceptions on Women in Paid Employment This was perceived by 70% of Gozitan society’s younger members and by 54% of Gozitan society’s A total of 884 respondents (88%) of the aggregate 1,000 working female respondents communicated that older members.
Some 25% (126 respondents) of Gozitan society seem to perceive the working they believe that societal perceptions towards working women have changed considerably and substantially in the last ten years.

There was no distinction based on residency or age since all female in a ‘neutral’ light, i.e.

neither positive or negative.

This perception finding emerged respondents shared this opinion.

among the older Gozitan society members, rather than the younger ones.

Figure 6.6 highlights these findings.


This was also confirmed by an also positive 85% (426 respondents) of the Gozitan household respondents who agreed that society perceptions on working women had changed considerably and substantially over the last 10 years.

This was stated by both Gozitan household male and female members, irrespective of age.
However, it is worthy of mention that some of the Gozitan household male members hailing from the older age group and the household female members who have never been employed, tended more to observe that societal perceptions had remained the same.

More detailed findings on this research area may be found in Figures 6.4 and 6.5 below.

The 313 Gozitan households who indicated that they perceive Gozitan working women in a positive light, were asked to specify the reasons for these positive perceptions.
An interesting finding is that Gozitan society (43% - 135 respondents) believes that it is no longer an option for the woman to stay at home, while 27% (84 respondents) of these survey respondents FIGURE 6.4 – Change in Societal Perceptions of Working Women – Employed Females FIGURE 6.4 – Change in Societal Perceptions of Working Women – Employed Females 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 9 2 - 5 1 - n a t i z o G s r y 9 2 - 5 1 - e s e t l a M s r y 9 5 - 0 3 - n a t i z o G s r y 9 5 - 0 3 - e s e t l a M s r y 255 Did not change at all Did not change Minor change Changed considerably Changed substantially Don't know FIGURE 6.5 – Change in Societal Perception of Working Women – Gozitan Households 50 Unlocking the Female Potential - Research Report 45 249 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 9 3 - 8 1 - s e l a m e F s r y 9 6 - 0 4 - s e l a M s r y 9 3 - 8 1 - s e l a M s r y 9 6 - 0 4 - s e l a m e F s r y Did not change at all Did not change Minor change Changed considerably Changed substantially Don't know According to 78% (777 respondents) of the whole employed female respondents, nowadays it has become the norm for females to be in paid employment.
This opinion was shared by working female respondents hailing from both Gozo and Malta, irrespective of age.

However only 1.8% of the respondents acknowledge that it is acceptable for a female to earn more than her husband \partner.

Table 6.21 below shows these findings.
TABLE 6.21 – How Society Perceives Working Females – Employed Females’ Perceptions 256 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 9 2 - 5 1 - n a t i z o G s r y 9 2 - 5 1 - e s e t l a M s r y 9 5 - 0 3 - n a t i z o G s r y 9 5 - 0 3 - e s e t l a M s r y Did not change at all Did not change Minor change Changed considerably Changed substantially Don't know FIGURE 6.5 – Change in Societal Perception of Working Women – Gozitan Households FIGURE 6.5 – Change in Societal Perception of Working Women – Gozitan Households 50 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 9 3 - 8 1 - s e l a m e F s r y 9 3 - 8 1 - s e l a M s r y 9 6 - 0 4 - s e l a m e F s r y 9 6 - 0 4 - s e l a M s r y Did not change at all Did not change Minor change Changed considerably Changed substantially Don't know According to 78% (777 respondents) of the whole employed female respondents, nowadays it has become the norm for females to be in paid employment.
This opinion was shared by working female respondents hailing from both Gozo and Malta, irrespective of age.

However only 1.8% of the respondents acknowledge that it is acceptable for a female to earn more than her husband \partner.

Table 6.21 below shows these findings.

observed that it has now become the norm for Gozitan society for Gozitan females to be in paid employment.
Female employment was only perceived by 8% (26 respondents from a total of 313 respondents) of these Gozitan household respondents as being an accomplishment.

On a negative TABLE 6.21 – How Society Perceives Working Females – Employed Females’ Perceptions note, a mere 1% (2 respondents) observed that it is acceptable for a Gozitan female to earn more than her husband/ partner.

Table 6.22 explains this finding in more detail.


The majority (58.5% - 24 respondents) of the 41 Gozitan household respondents who indicated that Gozitan working females are perceived negatively by Gozitan society, pointed out that this is because the traditional role of the wife/ mother is to be at home to take care of the family.

These Gozitan household respondents were largely males aged over 40 years who lived in households where females had never been employed.
256 Other reasons why the Gozitan working female is perceived negatively by Gozitan society include: the employment of mothers hinders the bond and communication that needs to be established between the mother and the child; and employment of females increases marriage separations.
An encouraging observation is that 64% (322 respondents) of all Gozitan households perceive employed university graduate females and females who occupy senior job positions in a very positive light while 22% (110 respondents) have a ‘neutral’ perception.

Only 8% (42 respondents) of Gozitan society possess a ‘negative’ perception on Gozitan working women, who possess a tertiary level of education and who occupy senior job positions.
Both employed Gozitan and Maltese females and Gozitan households agreed that, since more females are opting to form part of the labour market, a change in the traditional roles of men and women in the family/household has resulted.

In fact, this was stated by 52% (516 respondents) of all the employed female respondents and by an even higher 57% (287 respondents) of the Gozitan household respondents.
It is worth pointing out that such households generally were those where female members were currently employed or had been in the past.
250 National Commission for the Promotion of Equality TABLE 6.21 – How Society Perceives Working Females – Employed Females’ Perceptions Counts Break % Respondents Total It has becom e the norm for fem ales to be in em ploym ent It is considered as an accom plishm ent It is acceptable that the w om an earns m ore than her husband / partner Fem ales in em ploym ent are appreciated for their capability of balancing the hom e front and the w ork place It is the norm for w om en to stay at hom e Em ploym ent hinders the bond and com m unication that needs to be established betw een the m other and the child during the first years of upbringing Fem ales in em ploym ent need to choose their priorities betw een follow ing a career and raising a fam ily The increase in m arriage separations is the negative outcom e of fem ale em ploym ent Other Don't know Total Gozitan - 15 - 29 yrs Maltese - 15 - 29 yrs Gozitan - 30 - 59 yrs Maltese - 30 - 59 yrs - - - - 301 223 74.1% 17 5.6% 5 1.7% 8 2.7% 4 1.3% 2 0.7% 5 1.7% 2 0.7% 31 10.3% 4 1.3% When analyzing how Gozitan society perceives working women, an encouraging 62% (313 respondents) of the Gozitan household respondents perceive working females in a positive way.
This was perceived by 70% of Gozitan society’s younger members and by 54% of Gozitan society’s older members.

Some 25% (126 respondents) of Gozitan society seem to perceive the working female in a ‘neutral’ light, i.e.

neither positive or negative.

This perception finding emerged among the older Gozitan society members, rather than the younger ones.

Figure 6.6 highlights these findings.
FIGURE 6.6 – How Gozitan Society Perceives Working Women 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 9 3 - 8 1 - s e l a m e F s r y FIGURE 6.6 – How Gozitan Society Perceives Working Women s r y 9 3 - 8 1 - s e l a M 9 6 - 0 4 - s e l a m e F s r y In a Positive way In a Negative way In a 'Neutral' way Don't know Refused s r y 9 6 - 0 4 - s e l a M 257 The 313 Gozitan households who indicated that they perceive Gozitan working women in a positive light, were asked to specify the reasons for these positive perceptions.
An interesting finding is that Gozitan society (43% - 135 respondents) believes that it is no longer an option for the woman to stay at home, while 27% (84 respondents) of these survey respondents observed that it has now become the norm for Gozitan society for Gozitan females to be in paid employment.

Female employment was only perceived 251 by 8% (26 respondents from a total of 313 respondents) of these Gozitan household respondents as being an accomplishment.
On a negative note, a mere 1% (2 respondents) observed that it it is acceptable for a Gozitan female to earn more than her husband/ partner.

Table 6.22 explains this finding Unlocking the Female Potential - Research Report in more detail.
TABLE 6.22 – Reasons Why Working Females are Perceived Positively by Gozitan Society Total Fem ales - 18 - 39 yrs Males - 18 - 39 yrs Fem ales - 40 - 69 yrs Males - 40 - 69 yrs Counts Break % Respondents Total It is no longer an option for the w om an to stay at hom e It has becom e the norm for fem ales to be in em ploym ent It is considered as an accom plishm ent It is acceptable that the w om an earns m ore than her husband / partner Fem ales in em ploym ent are appreciated for their capability of balancing the hom e front and the w orkplace Other Don't know Refused 313 135 43.1% 84 26.8% 26 8.3% 2 0.6% 17 5.4% 48 15.3% 0.3% 1 - - 61 28 45.9% 16 26.2% 9.8% 6 1 1.6% 5 8.2% 5 8.2% - - - - 82 35 42.7% 27 32.9% 3.7% 1.2% 6 7.3% 11.0% 1.2% 3 1 9 1 - - 112 47 42.0% 24 21.4% 11 9.8% 4 3.6% 26 23.2% - - - - - - 58 25 43.1% 17 29.3% 10.3% 2 3.4% 13.8% 6 - - 8 - - - - 258 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 9 3 - 8 1 - s e l a m e F s r y s r y 9 3 - 8 1 - s e l a M 9 6 - 0 4 - s e l a m e F s r y In a Positive way In a Negative way In a 'Neutral' way Don't know Refused s r y 9 6 - 0 4 - s e l a M The 313 Gozitan households who indicated that they perceive Gozitan working women in a positive light, were asked to specify the reasons for these positive perceptions.
An interesting finding is that Gozitan society (43% - 135 respondents) believes that it is no longer an option for the woman to stay at home, while 27% (84 respondents) of these survey respondents observed that it has now become the norm for Gozitan society for Gozitan females to be in paid employment.

Female employment was only perceived by 8% (26 respondents from a total of 313 respondents) of these Gozitan household respondents as being an accomplishment.
On a negative note, a mere 1% (2 respondents) observed that it it is acceptable for a Gozitan female to earn more than her husband/ partner.

Table 6.22 explains this finding in more detail.
TABLE 6.22 – Reasons Why Working Females are Perceived Positively by Gozitan Society TABLE 6.22 – Reasons Why Working Females are Perceived Positively by Gozitan Society Counts Break % Respondents Fem ales - 18 - 39 yrs Males - 18 - 39 yrs Fem ales - 40 - 69 yrs Males - 40 - 69 yrs Total Total It is no longer an option for the w om an to stay at hom e It has becom e the norm for fem ales to be in em ploym ent It is considered as an accom plishm ent It is acceptable that the w om an earns m ore than her husband / partner Fem ales in em ploym ent are appreciated for their capability of balancing the hom e front and the w orkplace Other Don't know Refused 313 135 43.1% 84 26.8% 26 8.3% 2 0.6% 17 5.4% 48 15.3% 1 0.3% - - 61 28 45.9% 16 26.2% 6 9.8% 1 1.6% 5 8.2% 5 8.2% - - - - 82 35 42.7% 27 32.9% 3 3.7% 1 1.2% 6 7.3% 9 11.0% 1 1.2% - - 112 47 42.0% 24 21.4% 11 9.8% - - 4 3.6% 26 23.2% - - - - 58 25 43.1% 17 29.3% 6 10.3% - - 2 3.4% 8 13.8% - - - - 258 Nevertheless, more than 38% (384 respondents) of Gozitan and Maltese working females observed that this change in roles has not yet manifested itself and the burden of housework still remains largely on the woman.
This was also mentioned by 34% (170 respondents) of the Gozitan household respondents, who hailed primarily from households, where female members have never been in paid employment.
When the respondents of both surveys were asked how attitudes towards the sharing of household responsibilities can change, almost 52% (516 respondents) of all employed females and 27% (134 respondents) of Gozitan household respondents claimed that children should be taught that there are no differences in the roles of boys and girls in life.
The need for more awareness that sharing responsibilities leads to a healthier family relationship and that child-caring and upbringing is just as much the father’s responsibility as it is the mother’s, were also observed largely by the Gozitan employed female survey respondents.

6.7 Conclusion In the light of the foregoing review of recent literature and primary research studies carried out a number of salient conclusions on the situation of Gozitan women in employment emerge.
These are presented in Chapter 2 of this Report, together with some policy considerations addressing female employment in Gozo.

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Emerald Group Publishing Ltd. 256 National Commission for the Promotion of Equality TEST 1 – TASK 3 – Compare and Contrast STUDENTS’ PICTURES SHAMPOO €4.90 PERFUME €34.00 English – Oral – End of Primary Benchmark 2013 – Page 1 of 15 TEST 2 – TASK 3 – Compare and Contrast STUDENTS’ PICTURES €59.95 €44.85 English – Oral – End of Primary Benchmark 2013 – Page 2 of 15 TEST 3 – TASK 3 – Compare and Contrast STUDENTS’ PICTURES English – Oral – End of Primary Benchmark 2013 – Page 3 of 15 TEST 4 – TASK 3 – Compare and Contrast STUDENTS’ PICTURES samdalli@ilearn.edu.mt This Thursday Hi, Sam!
I’ll be coming over to your house on Thursday.

I will bring some cookies with me.
Your friend, Alex English – Oral – End of Primary Benchmark 2013 – Page 4 of 15 TEST 5 – TASK 3 – Compare and Contrast STUDENTS’ PICTURES English – Oral – End of Primary Benchmark 2013 – Page 5 of 15 TEST 6 – TASK 3 – Compare and Contrast STUDENTS’ PICTURES €7.48 €3.74 English – Oral – End of Primary Benchmark 2013 – Page 6 of 15 TEST 7 – TASK 3 – Compare and Contrast STUDENTS’ PICTURES English – Oral – End of Primary Benchmark 2013 – Page 7 of 15 TEST 8 – TASK 3 – Compare and Contrast STUDENTS’ PICTURES €79.99 €7.50 English – Oral – End of Primary Benchmark 2013 – Page 8 of 15 TEST 9 – TASK 3 – Compare and Contrast STUDENTS’ PICTURES €0.97 €2.49 English – Oral – End of Primary Benchmark 2013 – Page 9 of 15 TEST 10 – TASK 3 – Compare and Contrast STUDENTS’ PICTURES English – Oral – End of Primary Benchmark 2013 – Page 10 of 15 TEST 11 – TASK 3 – Compare and Contrast STUDENTS’ PICTURES English – Oral – End of Primary Benchmark 2013 – Page 11 of 15 TEST 12 – TASK 3 – Compare and Contrast STUDENTS’ PICTURES English – Oral – End of Primary Benchmark 2013 – Page 12 of 15 TEST 13 – TASK 3 – Compare and Contrast STUDENTS’ PICTURES English – Oral – End of Primary Benchmark 2013 – Page 13 of 15 TEST 14 – TASK 3 – Compare and Contrast STUDENTS’ PICTURES English – Oral – End of Primary Benchmark 2013 – Page 14 of 15 TEST 15 – TASK 3 – Compare and Contrast STUDENTS’ PICTURES €51.21 €34.90 English – Oral – End of Primary Benchmark 2013 – Page 15 of 15 TEST 1 – TASK 4 – Inverted Interview STUDENTS’ PICTURES English – Oral – End of Primary Benchmark 2013 – Page 1 of 15 TEST 2 – TASK 4 – Inverted Interview STUDENTS’ PICTURES English – Oral – End of Primary Benchmark 2013 – Page 2 of 15 TEST 3 – TASK 4 – Inverted Interview STUDENTS’ PICTURES English – Oral – End of Primary Benchmark 2013 – Page 3 of 15 TEST 4 – TASK 4 – Inverted Interview STUDENTS’ PICTURES English – Oral – End of Primary Benchmark 2013 – Page 4 of 15 TEST 5 – TASK 4 – Inverted Interview STUDENTS’ PICTURES English – Oral – End of Primary Benchmark 2013 – Page 5
 of 15 TEST 6 – TASK 4 – Inverted Interview STUDENTS’ PICTURES English – Oral – End of Primary Benchmark 2013 – Page 6 of 15 TEST 7 – TASK 4 – Inverted Interview STUDENTS’ PICTURES English – Oral – End of Primary Benchmark 2013 – Page 7 of 15 TEST 8 – TASK 4 – Inverted Interview STUDENTS’ PICTURES English – Oral – End of Primary Benchmark 2013 – Page 8 of 15 TEST 9 – TASK 4 – Inverted Interview STUDENTS’ PICTURES English – Oral – End of Primary Benchmark 2013 – Page 9 of 15 TEST 10 – TASK 4 – Inverted Interview STUDENTS’ PICTURES English – Oral – End of Primary Benchmark 2013 – Page 10 of 15 TEST 11 – TASK 4 – Inverted Interview STUDENTS’ PICTURES English – Oral – End of Primary Benchmark 2013 – Page 11 of 15 TEST 12 – TASK 4 – Inverted Interview STUDENTS’ PICTURES English – Oral – End of Primary Benchmark 2013 – Page 12 of 15 TEST 13 – TASK 4 – Inverted Interview STUDENTS’ PICTURES English – Oral – End of Primary Benchmark 2013 – Page 13 of 15 TEST 14 – TASK 4 – Inverted Interview STUDENTS’ PICTURES English – Oral – End of Primary Benchmark 2013 – Page 14 of 15 TEST 15 – TASK 4 – Inverted Interview STUDENTS’ PICTURES English – Oral – End of Primary Benchmark 2013 – Page 15 of 15 --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Writing Task – Write between 50 and 60 words.
(10 marks) Choose 1 or 2 1.

Look at the poster below.

You are going to help the Sports Club.

Write a short note to ask a friend to join you.

2.

Look at the poster below.

You are going to this concert.

Write a short note to invite your friend to join you.

OR Page 2 of 7 End of Primary Benchmark – 2013 English – Writing PLEASE TURN THE PAGE English – Writing End of Primary Benchmark – 2013 Page 3 of 7 Writing Task – Write between 140 and 200 words.

(20 marks) Choose 1 or 2 1.


Last week, your school organised an exhibition of crafts made by the students.

Write an article about the event for the school magazine.

You could describe the people, the place, and the various crafts.

You could also give your opinion of the exhibition.

OR 2.

Last Sunday, you went to an annual Pet Show held in the village square.

Write an article about the event for the Local Council newsletter.

You could describe the people, the place, and the various pets.
You could also give your opinion of the show.

Page 4 of 7 End of Primary Benchmark – 2013 English – Writing Title No.

__________ 4 marks Use this space to plan your writing.

English – Writing End of Primary Benchmark – 2013 Page 5 of 7 Title No.
___________ 16 marks __________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ Page 6 of 7 End of Primary Benchmark – 2013 English – Writing __________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ END OF WRITTEN PAPER English – Writing End of Primary Benchmark – 2013 Page 7 of 7 --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Task 1 (8 marks) Listen carefully.
Underline the correct word or phrase in the brackets.

Dialogue 1 1.

John wants to go to the (Post Office, Bank, Bus Terminus).

2.

There is a (post office, bus terminus, bank) at the corner with Tower Road.

3.

After he crosses the street, John has to (turn right, turn left, walk straight on).

4.

If he follows the policewoman’s directions, John will reach his destination (in a short time, after a long walk, in about ten minutes).

Dialogue 2 5.
Dialogue 2 5.

Clare wants to go to the (Chemist’s, Stationer’s, Youth Centre).

6.

The policewoman and Clare are in (Main Square, Farmers’ Street, Fishermen’s Street).

7.

There is a (chemist’s, stationer’s, youth centre) at the corner with Fishermen’s Street.

8.

St Mary’s Church is the building (next to, in front of, behind) the Youth Centre.

Page 2 of 4 End of Primary Benchmark – 2013 English – Listening Comprehension Task 2 (12 marks) Listen carefully.

1.
1.

True, False or No Information Given 5 marks Tick () the correct box in the table below.

True False No Information Given (a) Nicole and Elena went to Italy in summer.

(b) Nicole and Elena knew how to get to the centre of Verona.

(c) There were very few squares to visit in Verona.

(d) The place they liked most was Juliet’s balcony.

(e) The Cathedral of Verona was 600 years old.

2.

Underline the correct word or phrase in each bracket.

2 marks (a) Nicole and Elena are (sisters, friends, cousins).
(b) The weather in Verona was rather (hot, cold, stormy).

(c) The paintings and other works of art were in a (house, castle, canal).

(d) Nicole and Elena travelled around the two cities mostly (by taxi, by train, on foot).

PLEASE TURN THE PAGE English – Listening Comprehension End of Primary Benchmark – 2013 Page 3 of 4 3.

Tick () the correct answer.

2 marks (a) Nicole and Elena arrived in Italy during the week.

at the weekend.

on a Saturday.


(b) The words ‘winding’ and ‘narrow’ are used in the passage to describe the bridges of Verona.

the streets of Verona.

the canals of Venice.

4.

Fill in each blank with ONE word.

3 marks (a) Nicole and Elena saw no ______________________ in the streets of Venice.

(b) Nicole and Elena _________________________ to ride a gondola when they were in Venice.

(c) Nicole and Elena were ________________________ by the magnificent churches and palaces of Venice.
END OF LISTENING COMPREHENSION PAPER Page 4 of 4 End of Primary Benchmark – 2013 English – Listening Comprehension ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ Reading Comprehension 1 (6 marks) Read carefully the three book blurbs on the opposite page.

Now answer the questions below.

1.

Underline the correct answer.

3 marks (a) Tiggy’s Pet is a (frightening, funny, historical) story.
(b) Tiggy is quite an (ordinary, extraordinary, awful) kitten.

(c) Seaside Surprise and Other Stories should be read during the (carnival, mid-term, summer) holidays.

(d) You can learn about the sea’s secrets (during the night, when the sea is calm, during the day).

(e) John, Peter and Pam go to live (in the countryside, by the seaside, in another town).

(f) There the children meet someone who becomes their (enemy, friend, teacher).

2.

Read the following sentences.


Write a T if the sentence is True, an F if it is False and an N if there is No Information Given.

2 marks (a) Tiggy’s Pet is about a toy mouse.

___________ (b) ‘Seaside Surprise’ is the only story in the book written by Marie Smith.

___________ (c) The Countryside Children is an adventure story.

___________ (d) The three books are each one hundred pages long.

___________ 3.

Complete the sentences.


1 mark (a) Tiggy and Jinny have many _______________________________________ together.

(b) The countryside children’s father _________________________________________.

Page 2 of 7 End of Primary Benchmark – 2013 English – Reading Comprehension Tiggy’s Pet by Charles Weary Everybody knows that cats chase mice.

And what’s more, they catch them and eat them too.

At least normal cats do … but Tiggy is no ordinary kitten.
To everyone’s embarrassment he prefers tinned cat food to real mice.

When at last he does catch a mouse, he decides not to eat it, but to keep it as a pet!

Read about Tiggy, Jinny the mouse and their adventures.

A delicious, humorous story!

Seaside Surprise and Other Stories by Marie Smith The wonderful sea holds many secrets that are only revealed when the moon is shining.

A delightful collection of short stories for the summer holidays.
The Countryside Children by Adele Brown When their father is mysteriously taken away, John, Peter and Pam have to move with their mother to the countryside.

A nearby farm becomes the centre of their new life, bringing them not only fun and adventure, but an important new friend who changes their lives.

What adventures await the three children?

Read the book now!
Read the book now!

English – Reading Comprehension End of Primary Benchmark – 2013 Page 3 of 7 Reading Comprehension 2 (24 marks) Read the passage below, which is divided into two sections.

Then, answer the questions that follow each section.

Section 1 Amelia Earhart was one of the world’s most famous pilots.

She broke records and showed great courage during her short life.

She disappeared while she was on a flight around the world.
Amelia Earhart’s family consisted of her father Edward, her mother Amy, Amelia and her younger sister Muriel.

Amelia’s nickname ‘Meelie’ remained with her throughout her life.

Born on 24th July, 1897, Amelia was daring even when she was a child.

When she was (paragraph 1) seven years old she wanted to ride an elephant, but her mother said, “No”.

However, she allowed her to ride a Ferris wheel instead.

A short time later, Amelia, Muriel, and a boy, Ralphie, built a roller coaster in their garden.
It ran from the top of a three-metre tool shed to the ground.

Their Uncle Carl, whom they called ‘Nicey’, helped them with it.

Amelia took the first ride and felt as if she were ‘flying’, but when their mother came out and saw how unsafe it was, she made them tear it down.

To make up for the loss of their roller coaster, their parents gave them a swing, and Uncle Carl made a merry-go-round for the girls.

Their mother made tracksuits for them to wear and encouraged their outdoor activities.
(paragraph 2) A tool shed is a small building that is used for storing things such as garden tools.

A Ferris wheel, also known as a big wheel, is a structure consisting of a rotating upright wheel with passenger cars.

Amelia and her sister loved animals, and it hurt them when they saw animals being abused.

Once she was very upset at their neighbour, Mr. Oldham, because he had been cruel to his horse.
(paragraph 3) Page 4 of 7 End of Primary Benchmark – 2013 English – Reading Comprehension Questions on Section 1 10 marks 1.

Write down Amelia Earhart’s date of birth.

½ mark ______________________________________ 2.

Read the following sentences.

Put a T if the sentence is True, an F if it is False and an N if there is No Information Given in Section 1.

3 marks (a) Amelia Earhart was a well-known pilot.

(b) Amelia was adventurous.

(c) Uncle Carl built the roller coaster.


(d) Edward Earhart was Uncle Carl’s brother.

(e) Amelia and Muriel had a horse.

(f) Amelia was angry at Mr. Oldham.

3.

In what way is Uncle Carl’s nickname a good one for him?

1 mark __________________________________________________________________________ 4.

Find a word from paragraph 3 which is the opposite of cared for.

½ mark ______________________________________ 5.

How do you know that Amelia loved animals?


1 mark __________________________________________________________________________ 6.

Underline the correct answer.

4 marks (a) Amelia was (old, young, a child) when she died.

(b) Amelia and Muriel had a (Ferris wheel, swing, slide) in their garden.

(c) Mother made them tear down the roller coaster because it was (ugly, dangerous, fast).

(d) Mother made tracksuits for the girls so that they would be (comfortable, elegant, smart) while playing.
English – Reading Comprehension End of Primary Benchmark – 2013 Page 5 of 7 Section 2 In 1921, Amelia began taking flying lessons.

She worked in an office to pay for the lessons and bought her first plane that summer.

She told Muriel, her sister, that she thought that in the future the cockpits of planes would be covered, and planes would be large enough to carry 10 or 12 passengers.

They would even run according to a timetable.


She loved travelling so much that she designed clothing suitable for travel and even designed some light weight luggage for air travel.

(paragraph 4) In 1932, one year after her flight as a passenger across the Atlantic, she crossed alone from Canada to Ireland.

It was a dangerous flight due to the fact that one of the instruments on her latest plane wasn’t working.
She didn’t know how high she was above the ocean, but she arrived safely and was awarded many honours in Europe.

(paragraph 5) Amelia’s last flight began in June 1937.

She and her friend Fred Noonan set out to fly around the world in a twin-engine plane.

The two of them took off from Miami in America to South America.

Then they crossed the South Atlantic Ocean to Dakar in Africa.

From there they had to go to Thailand and then to Australia.

However, on the way, radio contact with the plane was lost.
A final message from Amelia was received on 2nd July, 1937 at 8.45 a.m. Amelia’s voice was described as frantic.

(paragraph 6) Although there was a long search, the American Navy never found a trace of either the plane or the pilots.

After 16 days the Navy called off the search.

Their disappearance is still a mystery.

(paragraph 7) Adapted from Amelia Earhart – Biography by Patsy Stevens Questions on Section 2 10 marks 7.

Why did Amelia work in an office?


1 mark ___________________________________________________________________________ 8.

What happened on 18th July, 1937?

1 mark ___________________________________________________________________________ 9.

What is mysterious about the disappearance of Amelia Earhart?

1 mark ___________________________________________________________________________ Page 6 of 7 End of Primary Benchmark – 2013 English – Reading Comprehension 10.

Underline the correct answer.


4 marks (a) In 1921, planes could carry (more than, less than, up to) 10 passengers.

(b) Amelia liked (practical, fashionable, designer) clothing for travel.

(c) Amelia (always, sometimes, never) travelled with a companion.

(d) (The American Navy, Nobody, Muriel Earhart) knows what happened to Amelia Earhart.

11.

Read the following sentences.

Put a T if the sentence is True, an F if it is False and an N if there is No Information Given in Section 2.
3 marks (a) Amelia Earhart believed planes would improve in the future.

(b) Amelia Earhart was admired in Europe.

(c) Amelia did not like travelling by train.

(d) Amelia owned more than one plane.

(e) Amelia sent only one message during her last flight.

(f) Muriel sometimes travelled with her sister.

Questions on the whole passage 4 marks 12.


Continue this sentence: 1 mark For Amelia it was a problem that one of the instruments wasn’t working because __________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________.

13.

Put these sentences in the order they happened.

The first one has been done for you.

2½ marks (a) Amelia bought her first plane.

(b) Amelia worked in an office.


(c) Amelia was given an award in Europe.

(d) Amelia rode a Ferris wheel.

1 (e) Amelia flew alone.

(f) Amelia crossed the Atlantic.

14.

Write down a sentence from paragraph 6 which shows that Amelia was frightened.

½ mark ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________.
END OF READING COMPREHENSION PAPER English – Reading Comprehension End of Primary Benchmark – 2013 Page 7 of 7 END OF PRIMARY BENCHMARK MATHEMATICS MENTAL PAPER 20 marks 15 minutes Mathematics – Mental Paper – End of Primary Benchmark – 2013 Page 1 of 3 MENTAL PAPER ANSWER SHEET Yes No 1.

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7. m2 8.

9.

8 8·09 10.

Page 2 of 3 Mathematics – Mental Paper – End of Primary Benchmark – 2013 109 11.

Odd Even 12.

13. o 14. g 15.

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€ END OF MENTAL PAPER Mathematics – Mental Paper – End of Primary Benchmark – 2013 Page 3 of 3 PIRLS 2011 Malta Report Progress in International Reading Literacy Study Ministry for Education and Employment Directorate for Quality and Standards in Education Research and Development Department 2013 PIRLS 2011 Progress in International Reading Literacy Study Malta Report Ministry for Education and Employment Directorate for Quality and Standards in Education Research and Development Department 2013 Contents Contents Executive Summary Chapter 1: Background to PIRLS 2011 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 Introduction Selection criteria and test design and administration The PIRLS reading assessment items International benchmarks of reading attainment Report structure Chapter 2: Reading Attainment in PIRLS 2011 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 Introduction Overall reading achievement in PIRLS 2011 Gender differences in overall reading attainment Reading attainment for different purposes Chapter 3: The Context of Foreign Language Teaching 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 Introduction Home reading resources Spoken language at home before starting school Reading by parents at home Parents’ educational expectation for their children Early literacy activities before starting Primary school Pre-Primary education Early Literacy tasks accomplished Chapter 4: The School Environment 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 Introduction School location School composition by student economic background Schools with students having English/Maltese as their native language PIRLS 2011 iii vi 1 1 3 5 6 12 15 15 15 21 23 35 35 35 39 40 42 44 45 47 49 49 49 51 52 iii PIRLS 2011 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.9 Primary schools where pupils enter with early literacy skills Effects of reading resource shortages on instruction Teacher working conditions Size of school library Schools with computers available for instruction Chapter 5: The School Objectives 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 5.8 Introduction Heads’ of School perspective regarding emphasis on academic success Teachers’ perspective regarding emphasis
 on academic success Time spent by Heads’ of School on leadership activities Emphasis in early grades on reading skills and strategies Safe and orderly schools School discipline and safety Bullying at school Chapter 6: Information about the teachers 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 Introduction Teachers’ formal education Emphasis on language/reading areas in teachers’ formal education Teachers’ years of experience Time spent by teachers on professional reading development Teachers’ career satisfaction Chapter 7: Children and their Reading Introduction Reading Enjoyment Pupils’ motivation to read Pupils’ confidence in reading Instructional time spent on language and reading Collaboration between teachers to improve teaching methods Instruction to engage pupils in learning 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 7.6 7.7 iv Pupils’ engagement in reading lessons Teachers’ impact to develop pupils’ comprehension skills 7.10 Effect on learning due to pupils’ lack of prerequisites knowledge 7.11 Effect on learning due to pupils’ lack of sleep and nutrition 7.12 Effect on learning by disruptive and uninterested students 7.13 Computer activities during reading lessons 7.14 Classroom libraries 7.15 Resources teachers use for teaching reading Appendix A B C D Maltese Students’ responses Maltese Teachers’ responses Maltese Heads’ of School responses Maltese Parents’ responses PIRLS 2011 95 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 105 106 109 118 123 v PIRLS 2011 Executive Summary The Progress in International Reading Literacy Study (PIRLS) is a comparative study of the reading attainment of 10-year-olds (4th grade students).
Moreover, it investigates reading literacy and the factors involved in acquiring this skill.

The PIRLS study is held over a five- yearly cycle and is conducted under the auspices of the International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement (IEA).

The International Study Centre is responsible for the overall design, development and implementation of the study.
This includes establishing the procedures, overseeing instrument development, conducting training and carrying out quality assurance measures.

To develop the PIRLS reading literacy tests, a large number of reading passages were submitted by the national research coordinators and discussed at international meetings.

Background to PIRLS 2011  The survey takes place every five years.

The first was carried out in 2001 and PIRLS 2011 was the third survey.
 Malta took part in this survey for the first time in 2011; however, the test was administered solely to 4th grade, in Malta’s case, pupils in Year 5, who were tested in both English and Maltese to compare reading attainment between these two languages.

 The 3598 Maltese students that participated in the PIRLS study included 1755 females and 1843 males.
The sample comprised almost the whole population of 10-year olds and guaranteed a maximum margin of error of approximately 1% using a 95% degree of confidence.

 These pupils, whose average age was 9.8 years, were selected randomly from 96 Primary schools ensuring a good geographical representation.

2098 pupils were selected from 62 State schools, 1084 pupils were selected from 22 Church schools and 416 pupils were selected from 12 Independent schools.
 Test items were organised into thirteen test booklets with items repeated across booklets.

Each student was provided with a test booklet and had to complete the provided tasks under test conditions.

 Moreover, pupils, teachers, Heads of School and parents were also asked to complete questionnaires.

The questionnaires submitted to Heads of schools and class teachers elicited information about the approaches adopted by the school and teachers to the teaching of reading.
The parent and student questionnaires elicited information about demographic and economic backgrounds, educational resources at home, preprimary education, pupils’ attitude to reading, frequency of reading and their confidence in their reading abilities.

In order to ensure that assessment material provided valid and reliable measures of reading literacy, a matrix sampling technique was used.
This enabled all assessment instruments to be linked so that ultimately performance of all pupils could be placed on a single scale using item response theory.

 vi PIRLS 2011  PIRLS identifies two purposes for reading, which include literary experience, and acquiring and using information.
It also identifies four comprehension processes, which include focus on and the retrieval of explicitly stated information and ideas, the making of straightforward inferences, interpreting and integration of ideas and information, the examination and evaluation of content, language and textual elements.

 A total reading score is generated to measure reading literacy skills of pupils.
The PIRLS reading achievement scale score is a rescaled version of the total reading score, which has a mean of 500 and a standard deviation of 100.

This makes it possible to compare reading scale scores at different cycles.

 PIRLS 2011 identifies four benchmarks of reading achievement.

The low, intermediate, high and advanced benchmarks are set at 400, 475, 550 and 625 respectively.
Reading Attainment in PIRLS 2011  Malta’s mean reading score (477) was significantly lower than the international average and was ranked 35th of 45 participating countries.

 Reading attainment of Maltese pupils was comparable to pupils from Trinidad and Tobago but was significant higher than nine countries including Azerbaijan, Iran, Colombia, United Arab Emirates, Saudi Arabia, Indonesia, Qatar, Omar and Morocco.
 The bottom 25% of Maltese students scored less than 412 and the top 25% scored more than 546 in the Reading Achievement scale.

 The proportion of Maltese pupils scoring more than 550 scale points in reading (24%) was significantly lower than the international average (44%).

Moreover, the proportion of Maltese pupils scoring less than 475 scale points in reading (45%) was significantly higher than the international average (20%).
 The mean reading score of Maltese students in the Maltese test (457) was significantly lower than the corresponding mean reading score in the English test (477).

 In all countries, with the exception of Colombia, girls scored higher than boys in reading.

In Malta, girls scored 18 scale points more than boys in the English test and 25 scale points more than boys in the Maltese test.
 On average, Independent school pupils scored significantly higher in reading than Church school pupils who in turn scored significantly higher than State school pupils.

Mean reading scores of girls exceed those of boys by 14.2 scale points in State schools, 11.5 scale points in Church schools and 19.8 scale points in Independent schools.
 In the English test, Maltese pupils scored significantly higher in informational reading than literary reading; however, in the Maltese test, the mean scores for the two reading purposes were comparable.

Both boys and girls scored higher in informational reading.
vii PIRLS 2011   In both Maltese and English tests, Maltese pupils scored higher in tasks that required retrieving information and making straightforward inferences rather than in tasks that required interpreting, integrating and evaluating the information.

In all school types, Maltese female students scored significantly higher than males in both reading purposes and comprehension processes.
The Home Reading Environment  Malta has a significantly higher proportions of pupils having an internet connection and an own room (67%) and more than 25 children books at home (87%) compared to international averages (55% and 59%) respectively.

Moreover, Malta has a significantly lower proportion of students having at least one parent with a professional occupation (18%) compared to the international average (31%).
 The scale score that measures home reading resources ranges from 11.5 (Norway, Australia) to 7.2 (Morocco).

Malta’s mean scale score (10.3) is above the international mean.

Reading attainment is positively and significantly related to home resources for reading.

 88% of Maltese pupils spoke Maltese and 45% spoke English before they started attending school.
On average, pupils who were speaking their home language before they started school, scored significantly higher in reading than their counterparts who did not.

 The proportion of Maltese parents who like to read (46%) is significantly higher than the international average (32%).

The proportions of Maltese parents who somewhat like to read (45%) or do not like to read (8%) are significantly lower than the international averages (57% and 11%) respectively.
Reading attainment is positively and significantly related to how much parents like to read.

 Maltese parents hold low educational expectations for their children.

13% of Maltese parents expect their children to complete a postgraduate degree; 25% expect their children to complete university; 29% expect their children to complete post-secondary education, but not university while 33% expect their children to complete post-secondary education or less.
The corresponding international average proportions are (31%, 34%, 16% and 19%).

Reading attainment is positively and significantly related to the parents’ educational expectations for their children.

 The proportion of Maltese parents who often carried out early literacy activities with their children (45%) is significantly higher than the international average (37%).
 The scale score that measures parents’ frequency of doing early literacy activities with their children ranges from 11.2 (Northern Ireland) to 8.4 (Morocco).

Malta’s mean scale score (10.4) is higher than the international average.

Reading attainment is positively and significantly related to early literacy activities before children start school.
 The vast majority of Maltese pupils (86%) attend kindergarten for a duration of between 1 to 3 years; 11% attended pre-primary education for three years or more and 3% never attended or attended Kindergarten for less than 1 year.

viii PIRLS 2011  The proportion of Maltese pupils who could perform early literacy tasks very well (28%) or moderately well (50%) is significantly higher than the corresponding international averages (26% and 42%).
 The scale score that measures performance in early literacy tasks by pupils when they began Primary school ranges from 11.3 (Trinidad and Tobago) to 8.5 (Slovak Republic).

Malta’s mean scale score (10.3) is above the international average.

The School Environment  The proportion of Maltese pupils coming from economically affluent homes (47%) is significantly higher than the international average (35%).
On the other hand, the proportion of Maltese pupils coming from economically disadvantaged homes (10%) is significantly lower than the international average (30%).

Reading attainment is positively and significantly related to the pupil’s economic background.

 6% of Maltese schools have more than 90% English-speaking pupils; 12% of the schools have between 51% and 90% and 82% of the schools have less than 50% English-speaking pupils.
 The proportion of Maltese schools having more than 75% of pupils with early literacy skills (21%) exceeds marginally the international average (20%).

Reading attainment is weakly positively related to the proportion of pupils within a school possessing early literacy skills.
 The proportion of Maltese schools that are not affected by reading resource shortages (26%) exceeds the international average (24%); whereas the proportion of schools that are affected considerably by reading resource shortages (5%) is equal to the international average.

 The scale score that measures how much instruction was continuous and uninterrupted by a lack of reading resources ranges from 11.6 (Slovenia) to 7.4 (Colombia).
Malta’s middling scale score (10.3) is similar to Finland, Croatia and Lithuania.

 22% of Maltese teachers indicated almost no problems with poor working conditions (repairs required in the school, crowded classrooms, inadequate instructional material and huge teaching workload).

51% of Maltese teachers indicated minor problems and the remaining 26% of teachers indicated moderate problems.

These proportions were similar to international averages.
 The scale score that measures good working conditions ranges from 11.1 (Poland) to 7.8 (Morocco).

Malta’s middling scale score (9.8) is similar to Denmark, Netherlands, Russian Federation, Georgia and France.

Reading attainment of pupils is weakly related to teachers’ working conditions.

 The proportion of Maltese school libraries having more than 500 book titles (69%) exceeds marginally the international average (68%).
Moreover, 14% of Maltese Primary schools do not have a library, which is equal to the international average.

Reading attainment of pupils is positively related to the size of school libraries.

ix PIRLS 2011  The proportion of Maltese schools having one computer available for instruction for at most 5 pupils (82%) is significantly higher than the international average (69%).

All Maltese schools have computers available for instruction.
There is no evidence of any relationship between the reading attainment of pupils and the number of computers available within schools.

The School Objectives  The proportion of Maltese schools which apportion very high emphasis to academic success (13%) is well above the international average (9%) and comparable to Canada and Israel.

This perspective is shared by both teachers and Heads of School.
 The scale score that measures school emphasis on academic success ranges from 11.9 (Northern Ireland) to 7.9 (Morocco).

Malta’s mean scale score (11.0) is significantly higher than the international average indicating that Maltese schools tend to allocate high emphasis to academic attainment compared to other countries.

 The proportion of Maltese Heads of School spending a lot of time addressing bad behaviour by pupils and disruption (39%) is lower than the international average (44%).
 The proportion of Maltese Heads of School spending a lot of time advising teachers when they encounter queries and problems with their teaching (39%) is higher than the international average (35%).

 The proportion of Maltese Heads of School report that they spend a lot of time initiating educational projects or improvements (44%) is higher than the international average (41%).
 Participation in professional development activities for Principals is given less importance by Maltese Heads of School (26%) compared to the international average (38%).

 The proportion of Maltese Heads of School reporting that they emphasise early reading skills and strategies at or before 2nd grade (13%) is significantly lower than the international average (28%).
 The scale score that measures the onset when reading skills and strategies are emphasized ranges from 12.6 (England and Australia) to 6.8 (Morocco).

Malta’s scale score (10.4) is below the international average.

There is a significant positive relationship between reading attainment and onset when reading skills and strategies are emphasized.
 The proportion of Maltese teachers indicating that they attend safe and orderly schools (50%) is less than the international average (55%); however, the proportion of Maltese teachers indicating that they attend unsafe schools (2%) is less than the international average (4%).

 The scale score that measures safety and order in school ranges from 11.4 (Ireland) to 8.4 (Trinidad and Tobago).

Malta’s mean scale score (9.9) is lower than the international average.
Reading attainment is positively related to the degree of safety and order within the school.

 The proportion of Maltese Heads of School reporting negligible disciplinary problems (64%) is significantly higher than the international average (58%).

Moreover, the proportion of Heads x PIRLS 2011 of School reporting moderate disciplinary problems (6%) is significantly lower than the international average (11%).
 The scale score that measures school discipline and safety ranges from 11.4 (Chinese Taipei, Hong Kong) to 6.2 (Indonesia).

Malta’s mean scale score (10.2) is higher than the international average.

Achievement in reading is positively related to the degree of safety and discipline within the school.

 The proportion of Maltese students who hardly ever experienced bullying (42%) is lower than the international average (47%).
On the other hand, the proportion of Maltese pupils who are bullied on a weekly basis (22%) is marginally higher than the international average (20%).

 The scale score that measures lack of bullying at school ranges from 11.4 (Azerbaijan) to 9.1 (Qatar, Trinidad and Tobago).

Malta’s mean scale score (9.8) is lower than the international average.

Reading attainment is negatively related to the amount of bullying experienced by the child at school.
Information about the Teacher  The proportion of Maltese teachers who completed a Bachelor’s degree (69%) is significantly higher than the international average (53%); however, the proportion of teachers who completed a Master’s degree or a PhD (10%) is significantly lower than the international average (26%).

 The proportion of Maltese teachers who emphasized language in their formal education or training (65%) is significantly lower than the international average (72%).
The proportion of teachers who emphasized pedagogy and teaching reading in their formal education or training is equal to the international average (62%).

The percentage of Maltese teachers who emphasized reading theory in their formal education or training (16%) is significantly lower than the international average (33%).

There is no relationship between pupils’ reading attainment and the language/reading areas emphasized by teachers in formal education.
 The proportion of Maltese teachers with less than 10 years teaching experience (44%) is significantly higher than the international average proportion (28%).

The proportion of Maltese teachers with 20 years or more teaching experience (18%) is significantly lower than the international average (41%).

 The average years of experience of Maltese teachers (12 years) is significantly less than the international average (17 years) indicating that Malta has a very young teaching workforce.
 The proportion of Maltese teachers who spent between 6 to 15 hours, during the last two years, on professional reading development (58%) is significantly higher than the international average (50%).

Conversely, the proportions of Maltese teachers who never engaged in any professional reading development (23%) or who spent more than 16 hours on professional reading (19%) are lower than international means (25%, 24%).
 The proportion of Maltese teachers who are satisfied by their job (66%) is significantly higher than the international average proportion (54%).

On the other hand, the proportions of xi PIRLS 2011 Maltese teachers who are moderately satisfied (30%) or less than satisfied (4%) are lower than international averages (40% and 5%) respectively.

 The scale score that measures teachers’ career satisfaction ranges from 11.6 (Colombia) to 8.6 (France).
Malta’s scale score (10.7) is significantly higher than the international average.

Reading attainment is weakly positively related to the teachers’ career satisfaction.

Children and their Reading  The proportion of Maltese pupils who like reading (34%) is significantly higher than the international average proportion (28%); however, the proportion of Maltese pupils who dislike reading (16%) is marginally higher than the international average (15%).
 The scale score that measures pupils’ enjoyment for reading ranges from 10.9 (Portugal) to 9.3 (Croatia).

Malta’s scale score (10.2) is significantly higher than the international average.

Reading attainment is positively and significantly related to enjoyment for reading.
 The proportion of Maltese pupils who are motivated to read (82%) is significantly higher than the international average proportion (74%); whereas the proportion of pupils who are not motivated to read (4%) is marginally lower than the international average (5%).

 The scale score that measures pupils’ motivation to read ranges from 11.2 (Georgia) to 8.9 (Hong Kong).

Malta’s scale score (10.4) is significantly higher than the international average.
Reading attainment is positively and significantly related to motivation to read.

 The proportion of Maltese pupils who are confident in reading (39%) is significantly higher than the international average (36%).

However, 13% of Maltese pupils indicated that they are not confident in reading.

This exceeds the international average (11%).

 The scale score that measures confidence in reading ranges from 10.6 (Austria, Israel) to 9.1 (Morocco).
Malta’s middling scale score (10.1) is similar to Denmark, England and Australia.

Reading attainment is positively and significantly related to confidence in reading.

 The total instructional time throughout a whole year in Malta (891 hours), reported by Heads of School, is 14 hours less than the international average (905 hours).

 The language instructional time throughout a whole year in Malta (181 hours), reported by teachers is 51 hours less than the international average (232 hours).
 The time spent reading as part of language instruction throughout a whole year in Malta (37 hours) is the lowest of all the countries taking part and is 34 hours less than the international average (71 hours).

 The time spent reading across the curriculum, including time spent on reading instruction throughout a whole year in Malta (104 hours) is 42 hours less than the international average (146 hours).
 The proportion of very collaborative Maltese teachers who interact frequently with other teachers (84%) is one of the highest proportions and exceeds the international average by almost 20%.

xii PIRLS 2011  The scale score that measures collaboration between teachers for teaching development ranges from 11.8 (Morocco) to 8.2 (Slovenia).

Malta’s scale score (11.5) is the second largest score and is significantly higher than the international average.
There exists no relationship between reading attainment and the degree of collaboration between teachers.

 The proportion of Maltese teachers who engage pupils in learning during most lessons (81%) is significantly higher than the international average (71%).

The remaining 19% of teachers reported that they engage pupils in learning in about half the lessons.

 The scale score that measures how much teachers engage pupils in learning ranges from 11.4 (Romania) to 7.7 (Denmark).
Malta’s scale score (10.3) is significantly higher than the international average.

Reading attainment is weakly positively related to how much teachers engage pupils in learning.

 The proportion of Maltese pupils who reported that they are engaged in reading lessons (55%) is significantly higher than the international average (42%).

The proportion of Maltese who are not engaged in reading lessons (7%) is marginally lower than the international mean.
 The scale score that measures how much pupils are involved in reading lessons ranges from 11.3 (Indonesia) to 8.7 (Finland).

Malta’s scale score (10.6) is significantly higher than the international average.

There is a positive relationship between attainment in reading and how much pupils are engaged in reading lessons.

 The contribution of Maltese teachers to their pupils in developing comprehension skills and strategies is above the international average.
The comprehension skills in which the contribution of Maltese teachers is lower than the international average are: making generalisations and drawing inferences based on what pupils read; describing the style or structure of the text they have read; determining the author’s perspective or intention.

 The proportion of Maltese teachers reporting excessive instruction limitation due to pupils lacking prerequisite knowledge/skills (17%) is significantly higher than the international average (11.%).
The proportion of teachers reporting no instruction hindrance caused by pupils lacking prerequisite knowledge/skills (19%) is significantly lower than the international average.

There is a strong negative relationship between reading attainment and the lack of prerequisite knowledge and skills.
 The proportion of Maltese pupils who have adequate basic nutrition (88%) and adequate sleep (73%), as reported by the teachers, exceeds the corresponding international average proportions (73% and 51%) by a large margin.

There is evidence that lack of basic nutrition and lack of sleep is associated with a poorer reading attainment.
 The proportion of Maltese disruptive pupils who hamper instruction in class (16%) exceeds the international average proportion (12%); however, the proportion of uninterested Maltese pupils in class is identical to the international average (10%).

There is very strong evidence that attainment in reading tends to deteriorate in the presence of disruptive and uninterested pupils.
 The proportion of Maltese teachers reporting that computers are available for reading lessons (73%) is significantly higher than the international average (45%).

Moreover, Maltese teachers make frequent use of these computers during reading lessons.

The availability or otherwise of xiii PIRLS 2011 computers during reading lessons does not seem to result in any significant rise in pupils’ reading attainment scores.
 90% of pupils in Malta have the availability of a classroom library or a reading corner, which is significantly higher than the international average (72%).

There is evidence of a positively weak relationship between reading attainment and the availability of a classroom library.
 The proportion of Maltese teachers reporting that their classroom library has at least 50 books, and has at least three magazine titles are (49% and 35%) respectively, which are well above the international averages (32% and 31%).
 The proportions of Maltese teachers who give time to pupils to use the classroom library at least once a week; allow pupils borrow books from the classroom library and take pupils to other libraries within and outside the school at least once a month are (82%, 76% and 75%) respectively.

These exceed by large margins the corresponding international average proportions (60%, 56% and 68%).
 Maltese teachers make more use of a variety of children’s books as a supplement (72%) rather than as a basis for instruction (24%).

These proportions are similar to international averages (69% and 27%) respectively.

 86% of Maltese teachers use textbooks as a basis for instruction rather than as a supplement, which is significantly higher than the international average (72%).

 Maltese teachers make more use of reading series as a basis for instruction (59%) rather than as a supplement (34%).
This is in contrast with international trends where foreign teachers make more use of reading series as a supplement (59%) rather than a basis for instruction (27%).

 Computer software for reading instruction has widespread use as a supplement.

16% of Maltese teachers use computer software as a basis for instruction; whereas, 55% use it as a supplement.

These proportions exceed international averages (8% and 48%) by large margins.
 Maltese teachers use workbooks and worksheets more as a supplement (50%) rather than as a basis for instruction (45%), which is similar to the international trend (56% and 40%) respectively.

xiv 1 PIRLS 2011 1.1 Introduction The Progress in International Reading Literacy Study (PIRLS) is a comparative study of the reading attainment of ten-year-olds (5th grade).

Moreover, it investigates reading literacy and the factors involved in acquiring this skill.
PIRLS is conducted under the auspices of the International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement (IEA).

The International Study Centre is responsible for the overall design, development and implementation of the study.

This includes establishing the procedures, overseeing instrument development, conducting training and carrying out quality assurance measures.
To develop the PIRLS reading literacy tests, a large number of reading passages were submitted by the national research coordinators and discussed at international meetings.

At these meetings, workshops were convened and the research coordinators wrote questions on those passages that were accepted by the group.

The process was iterative and the material was reviewed by both research coordinators and the reading development group.
The Special Surveys Methods Statistics group was responsible for all sampling activities in PIRLS, including developing the sampling procedures and documentation, and assisting participants in adapting the PIRLS sampling design to local conditions.

After administering the reading test to a number of pupils selected randomly from various schools the scripts were corrected and marked.

The data collected from each country was processed and verified and used to construct the international database.
The PIRLS study is conducted on a five-yearly cycle and this is the third time it was carried out.

The first PIRLS study was held in 2001 with the participation of 26 countries.

The target population included all students enrolled in the upper of the two adjacent grades that contain the largest proportion of 9-year olds at the time of testing.

The survey was repeated in 2006 in which 40 countries participated in the study.
The target population for this study was redefined to include all students who completed four years of schooling from the first year of ISCED level 1.

This age group was targeted because at this age children would have learned to read and are now starting to read to learn.

Malta took part in this study for the first time in 2011 together with 47 other participating countries.

Figure 1.1 displays the countries participating in PIRLS 2001, 2006 and 2011.
Participants from Honduras, Morocco, Kuwait and Botswana were 6th grade students.

To investigate the effect of language on reading attainment Malta took part as 1 PIRLS 2011 a benchmark participant in which a number of 5th grade students received instructions in Maltese rather than English.

Other benchmark participants included Florida in the United States, Ontario, Quebec and Alberta in Canada, Andalusia in Spain, Dubai and Abu Dhabi in the United Arab Emirates and the Republic of South Africa.
These benchmark participants did not contribute to the estimation on national and international mean reading scores.

Figure 1.1: Countries participating in PIRLS 2011 and preceding studies 2 PIRLS 2011 1.2 Selection criteria and test design and administration In most of the participating countries the PIRLS sample was drawn from the population of pupils aged 10 years who attended Primary educational institutions.

For convenience this population is referred to as 10-year-olds or 5th grade.
Figure 1.2 displays the number of sampled schools, the sample size and the average age of the pupils participating in the study within each country.

The pupils with the lowest average age were those in Italy and Norway (9.7 years) and the pupils in Denmark and Romania (10.9 years) were on average the oldest.
Figure 1.2: Number of sampled schools and average age of pupils 3 PIRLS 2011 In Malta, the main study was administered in April 2011 and all the selected 3598 pupils attended state and non-state primary schools.

A large proportion (93.4%) of these pupils was born in 2001 and the sample average age (9.8 years) was marginally lower compared to other participating countries.
The Maltese sample comprised 1755 (48.8%) females and 1843 (51.2%) males and guaranteed a maximum margin of error of approximately 1% assuming a 95% degree of confidence.

These pupils were selected randomly from 96 schools ensuring a good geographical representation.

2098 (58.3%) pupils were selected from 62 state schools, 1084 (30.1%) pupils were selected from 22 church schools and 416 (11.6%) pupils were selected from 12 independent schools.
These sample proportions are comparable to the population proportions of pupils attending these school types ensuring a representative sample.

Table 1.1 displays the number of male and female Maltese pupils categorized by school type.
Table 1.1 Maltese participants categorized by gender and school type Gender Male Female State 1155 (32.0%) 943 (26.2%) School Type Church 441 (12.3%) 643 (17.9%) Independent 247 (6.9%) 169 (4.7%) Test items were organised into thirteen test booklets with items repeated across booklets.

Each student was provided with a test booklet and had to complete the provided tasks under test conditions.
In order to ensure that assessment material provided valid and reliable measures of reading literacy, a matrix sampling technique was used.

This enabled all assessment instruments to be linked so that ultimately performance of all pupils could be placed on a single scale using item response theory methods although each participating pupil took just a part of the whole assessment.
The material was divided into assessment ‘blocks’ where each block consisted of a passage of up to 1000 words and its associated items.

There were five blocks containing literary texts and five containing information texts and which are described in section 1.3.

The blocks were combined into 13 different test booklets with two blocks in each booklet.
One booklet was a colour ‘reader’; this was a separate stimulus booklet containing two reading passages and with the test items in an accompanying response booklet.

Test administrators were appointed and followed the procedure described in the Test Administrator manual.

The marking of the constructed response questions in the tests was carried out by trained markers In addition, pupils, teachers and heads of schools were also asked to complete questionnaires.
The questionnaires submitted to heads of schools and class teachers elicited information about the approach to the teaching of reading adopted in the school and in the classrooms.

Moreover, they collected background information about the teachers and the schools of the pupils taking part in the survey.

These questionnaires were sent in advance and were collected on the day of testing by the test administrator.

The survey required two timetabled sessions in the participating schools, both on the same day.
The first was for the administration of the reading tests and the second was for the completion of the pupil questionnaire.

The student questionnaire elicited information on pupils’ demographic background including gender and age, about items owned by the family and about educational resources in the home.

The questionnaire also provides information about the pupils’ attitude to reading, what they choose to read when not in school, how often they read and their confidence in their reading abilities.
4 PIRLS 2011 1.3 The PIRLS reading assessment items Reading literacy is defined by PIRLS as the ability to understand and use those written language forms required by society and valued by the individual.

Young readers can construct meaning from a variety of texts.

They read to learn, to participate in communities of readers in school and everyday life, and for enjoyment.
Besides being a constructive and interactive process, reading is intended to embrace multi-modal forms of reading, as well as traditional print forms.

PIRLS identifies two purposes for reading and four comprehension processes.

Each assessment block (or test) is attributed to one of the two purposes (literary experience, acquiring and using information).

There are a total of ten blocks altogether, with five texts being literary pieces while another five are informational.
Within each assessment block, a question is attributed to one of the four processes (focus on and retrieve explicitly stated information and ideas, make straightforward inferences, interpret and integrate ideas and information, examine and evaluate content, language and textual elements).

The texts selected for use in PIRLS 2011 were submitted by representatives of the participating countries and scrutinized by the group of reading experts and the national research coordinators at various meetings.
Once a shortlist of texts had been selected, several items were produced by the national research coordinators and other representatives of the participating countries at item writing workshops.

These items were subsequently reviewed by the reading expert group.

Following the analysis of the field test data, three literary and three informational passages were selected for the main survey.
These were combined with the four blocks retained from the 2006 survey, which served as a means of linking the two surveys.

Table 1.2 shows the proportion of different types of items (multiple- choice and constructed response) in the assessment blocks and the total number of marks allocated to the two reading purposes.

Moreover, it also provides a breakdown of the different item types and mark allocation by the four reading processes.
Table 1.2: Distribution of PIRLS 2011 items by Reading Purpose and Reading Process 5 PIRLS 2011 1.4 International Benchmarks of Reading Attainment To enable comparison between participating countries in reading skills, four scores were generated for each student.

Two scores are provided for reading purposes – reading for literary purposes, and reading for informational purposes.
Two other scores are provided for reading processes – retrieving and straightforward inferencing, and interpreting, integrating and evaluating.

Moreover, an overall reading score was generated to measure reading literacy skills of pupils.

This PIRLS reading achievement scale has a mean of 500 and a standard deviation of 100 and was designed to remain constant between assessments at different cycles.
Table 1.3: International Benchmarks of Reading Achievement 6 PIRLS 2011 In order to aid interpretation of the survey results, these reading achievement scores are categorized by four international benchmarks.

The Advanced International Benchmark is set at a scale score of 625, the High International Benchmark is 550, the Intermediate International Benchmark is 475 and the Low International Benchmark is 400.
Figure 1.3 provides a detailed description of each benchmark for both literary and informational purposes.

Figure 1.3: Item at a Low International Benchmark (Literary experience) A multiple-choice item is anchored at the Low International Benchmark if at least 65% of pupils scoring at 400 answered the item correctly.

Figure 1.2 shows the percentage of correct replies for a multiple-choice item anchored at the Low International Benchmark.
7 PIRLS 2011 Figure 1.4: Item at Intermediate International Benchmark (Acquire and Use information) A multiple-choice item is anchored at the Intermediate International Benchmark if at least 65% of pupils scoring at 475 answered the item correctly and less than 50% of the pupils scoring at the Low International Benchmark (400) answered correctly.

Figure 1.4 shows the percentage of correct replies for a multiple-choice item anchored at the Intermediate International Benchmark.
8 Figure 1.5: Item at High International Benchmark (Literary Experience) PIRLS 2011 A multiple-choice item is anchored at the High International Benchmark if at least 65% of pupils scoring at 550 answered the item correctly and less than 50% of the pupils scoring at the Intermediate International Benchmark (475) answered correctly.

Figure 1.5 shows the percentage of correct replies for a multiple-choice item anchored at the High International Benchmark.
9 PIRLS 2011 Figure 1.6: Item at Advanced International Benchmark (Acquire and Use Information) Similarly, a multiple-choice item is anchored at the Advanced International Benchmark if at least 65% of pupils scoring at 625 answered the item correctly and less than 50% of the pupils scoring at the High International Benchmark (550) answered correctly.

About 50% of the items are in a multiple-choice format and the rest require a constructed response.
Sometimes this may be in the form of a table that has to be completed or events to be sequenced.

More typically, pupils must write a short phrase or several sentences.

Since constructed-response questions 10 PIRLS 2011 nearly eliminate guessing, the criterion for the constructed-response items is simply 50% at the particular benchmark, and for multi-mark items, the analysis differentiated between partial-credit and full-credit responses.
Figures 1.6 and 1.7 display the percentage of pupils getting partial or full credit for these constructed-response, multi-marks item anchored respectively at the High and Advanced International Benchmark.

Pupils reaching a particular benchmark demonstrated the comprehension skills and strategies characterizing that benchmark as well as competencies of pupils at any lower benchmarks.
Figure 1.7: Item at Advanced International Benchmark (Literary Experience) 11 PIRLS 2011 1.5 Report Structure Chapter 2 presents the reading attainment results of 5th grade pupils for each of the 45 participating countries in PIRLS 2011.

The three countries - Botswana, Honduras and Kuwait which participated with 6th grade pupils are excluded from this analysis.

Performance in reading attainment is first compared between countries and then compared between boys and girls for each country separately.
Reading attainment is also compared between countries in two different purposes – literary purposes and informational purposes.

This is followed by the results in two processes of reading comprehension – retrieving and straightforward inferencing and interpreting integrating and evaluating.

This chapter also contrasts overall reading achievement between Maltese pupils attending different school types.
Chapter 3 describes the relationship between children’s home circumstances and their performance on the PIRLS reading assessment.

In PIRLS, there are two sources of evidence concerning children’s literacy development before they attended primary schools and the literacy practices in the home.
Most of the information for these two sources is elicited from the Parent and the Pupil questionnaires, which are respectively completed by parents/carers and pupils, and provide rich information about home resource for learning, parents attitude towards reading, early literacy skills of pupils before onset of primary schooling, early literacy activities at home and parents’ educational expectation for their children.
Chapter 4 provides information about the school environment mostly supplied by the Heads of schools and partly by teachers.

This chapter analyzes the school location, the school composition by student economic background, teacher working conditions, size of school library, and availability of computers for instruction at school and how this instruction is affected by reading resource shortage.
Moreover, the Heads of schools provide information about the pupils’ early literacy skills when they enter Primary schools.

Chapter 5 describes the views Heads of Schools and teachers regarding a number of school related issues.

It highlights the Heads’ and teachers’ perspectives regarding the school emphasis on academic success; the amount of time Heads spend on leadership activities and the emphasis they give to reading skills and strategies.
Moreover, this chapter addresses other issues related to school discipline and safety; bullying at school, student behaviour and attitude towards their teachers.

Chapter 6 provides information about teaching and reading approaches adopted by teachers in the school classrooms.
Moreover, it describes the background information about the teachers' formal education, teachers’ emphasis on language and reading areas in their formal education and training, teachers’ years of experience, teachers’ career satisfaction and the time spent by teachers on professional development related to reading in the recent past.

Chapter 7 focuses on children’s attitudes and habits to reading and their confidence in their abilities.
This chapter describes how much pupils find reading enjoyable; their motivation and confidence to read; the instructional time spent on language and learning; collaboration with other teachers to improve teaching methods; how much students are engaged during lessons to 12 enhance reading and learning and strategies employed by teachers to develop students’ reading comprehension skills.
Other issues that will be reviewed include the instruction limitations caused by students’ lack of prerequisite knowledge/skills, lack of nutrition and sleep; disruptive and uninterested students; resources used by teachers for teaching reading; computer activities during reading lessons and availability of classroom libraries.
PIRLS 2011 13 PIRLS 2011 14 PIRLS 2011 2 2.1 Introduction This chapter presents the reading attainment results of 5th grade pupils for each of the 45 participating countries in PIRLS 2011.

The three countries - Botswana, Honduras and Kuwait which participated with 6th grade pupils are excluded from this analysis.

Performance in reading attainment is first compared between countries and then compared between boys and girls for each country separately.
Reading attainment is also compared between countries in two different purposes – literary purposes and informational purposes.

This is followed by the results in two processes of reading comprehension – retrieving and straightforward inferencing and interpreting integrating and evaluating.

These purposes and processes were described comprehensively in Chapter 1.

This chapter also contrasts overall reading achievement between Maltese pupils attending different school types.
2.2 Overall Reading Achievement in PIRLS 2011 Hong Kong (571), the Russian Federation (568), Finland (568) and Singapore (568) attained the highest mean reading scores of the 45 participating countries in PIRLS 2011 for 5th grade pupils.

The mean reading scores of these four countries were comparable but were significantly higher than those of all other participating countries.
Malta’s mean reading score (477) was significantly lower than the international PIRLS mean reading score (500) implying that reading attainment of 5th grade Maltese pupils is significantly lower than the average reading attainment of the participating countries.

Reading attainment of Maltese pupils was comparable to pupils from Trinidad and Tobago but was significant higher to 10 countries including Azerbaijan, Iran, Colombia, United Arab Emirates, Saudi Arabia, Indonesia, Qatar, Omar and Morocco.
The 34 countries that scored significantly higher than Malta in reading included Hong Kong, the Russian Federation, Finland and Singapore Northern Ireland, the United States, Denmark, Croatia, Chinese Taipei, Ireland, England, Canada, Netherlands, Czech Republic, Sweden, Italy, Germany, Israel, Portugal, Hungary, Slovak Republic, Bulgaria, New Zealand, Slovenia, Austria, Lithuania, Australia, Poland, France, Spain, Norway, Romania, Georgia and Belgium (French).
15 PIRLS 2011 Figure 2.1: Distribution of Reading Achievement Figure 2.1 displays the mean reading scores on the PIRLS achievement scale listed together with the standard errors for each country.

The PIRLS reading achievement scale was established in PIRLS 2001 to have a mean of 500 and a standard deviation of 100 and was designed to remain constant between assessments.

The standard error refers to uncertainty in estimates resulting 16 PIRLS 2011 from random fluctuations in samples.
The smaller the standard error, the better the sample’s score is as an estimate of the population’s score.

The 95% confidence intervals, which are shown graphically as the darkened areas on the achievement distribution, provide a range of values for the actual mean reading score if the whole population of students had to be included in the study.

Mean reading scores of two countries differ significantly when their corresponding confidence interval are disjoint (do not overlap).
Figure 2.2: Percentiles of Reading Achievement 17 PIRLS 2011 Figure 2.2 also shows the ranges in reading achievement for the middle group of pupils (25th to 75th percentiles) and for the lowest and highest attainers (5th and 95th percentiles).

For high performing countries the difference between the 5th and 95th percentile was slightly above 200 points; while, for low performing countries the difference between the 5th and 95th percentile was slightly above 300 points.
This indicates that in low performing countries reading scores are more dispersed than high performing countries.

In Malta, the difference between the 25th and 75th percentile is 134 scale points, the difference between the 10th and 90th percentile is 254 and the difference between the 5th and 95th percentile is 317 scale points.

These percentile scores are essential to display the proportion of pupils in different countries below or above a specified threshold scale score.
For instance, the 5th percentile for Lithuania is equal to the 25th percentile for Malta indicating that the weakest 25% of pupils in Malta has the same level of reading attainment as the weakest 5% in Lithuania.

On the other hand the 75th percentile for Croatia is equal to the 90th percentile for Malta indicating that the top 10% of pupils in Malta has the same level of reading attainment as the top 25% in Croatia.
Figure 2.3: Multiple Comparisons of Average Reading Achievement 18 PIRLS 2011 Figure 2.3 depicts whether or not the differences in average achievement between pairs of countries are statistically significant.

Selecting a country of interest and reading across the table, an arrow pointing up indicates better performance and an arrow pointing down indicates poorer performance than the comparison country.

The absence of an arrow indicates no significant difference in performance.
Figure 2.4: Percentage of Pupils Reaching International Benchmarks Figure 2.4 shows the proportion of pupils within the International Benchmarks, described in Chapter 1, for countries participating in PIRLS 2011.
The international average shows that 8% of the pupils have a reading attainment score above 625, 36% have a reading attainment score between 550 and 625, 36% have a reading attainment score between 475 and 550, 15% have a reading attainment score between 400 and 475 and the remaining 5% have a reading 19 PIRLS 2011 attainment score below 400.

The proportions for Malta are respectively 4%, 20%, 31%, 23% and 22%.
Malta has lower proportions of pupils in the advanced and high benchmark categories and a higher proportion of pupils in the low benchmark category.

Reading attainment of pupils in Morocco was very poor where 79% of the students scored less than 400.
Figure 2.5: Distribution of Reading Achievement (Benchmarking participants) Malta participated in a benchmarking exercise in which the reading literacy test was administered in two languages (English and Maltese) allowing sufficient time between the two tests.

To prevent repeating the same test twice, each pupil was provided with a different booklet.
Florida (state in USA), Ontario, Alberta, Quebec (provinces in Canada), Andalusia, Dubai, Abu Dhabi and Republic of South Africa also participated in this benchmarking exercise.

Figure 2.5 displays the mean reading scores and standard errors, 95% confidence intervals and percentiles on the PIRLS achievement for benchmarking participants.
The mean score of Maltese pupils in reading when the test was administered in Maltese is significantly lower than the corresponding mean reading score when the test was administered in English.
Figure 2.6 shows that for the Maltese test, only 1% of the pupils have a reading attainment score above 625, 13% have a reading attainment score between 550 and 625, 31% have a reading attainment score between 475 and 550, 29% have a reading attainment score between 400 and 475 and the remaining 26% have a reading attainment score below 400.
Figure 2.6: Percentage of students reaching International Benchmarks (Benchmarking participants) 20 PIRLS 2011 2.3 Gender Differences in Overall Reading Attainment Figure 2.7 shows that, with the exception of Colombia, in all countries participating in PIRLS 2011, girls outperformed boys in their reading attainment.
Figure 2.7: Gender Differences in Reading Performance 21 PIRLS 2011 In Colombia, Italy, France, Spain and Israel differences in mean reading scores were small (6 scale points or less) and were not found to be significant at the 0.05 criterion.

Saudi Arabia had the largest gender discrepancy in reading attainment (54 scale points), followed by Oman (40 scale points), Trinidad and Tobago (31 scale points), Qatar (30 scale points) Morocco (29 scale points) and United Arab Emirates (27 scale points).
In Malta, girls outperformed boys in both the reading test administered in English (Difference of 18 scale points) and in Maltese (Difference of 25 scale points).

Figure 2.8: Gender Differences in Reading Performance (Benchmarking Participants) Figure 2.9: Reading Performance of Maltese Pupils by Gender and School Type 22 PIRLS 2011 Figure 2.8 shows that the difference between boys’ and girls’ reading performance was at 25 scale points when the test was administered in Maltese.
Both differences were greater than the PIRLS international average (16 points).

Figure 2.9 exhibits the same pattern when Maltese pupils are categorized by school type.

Mean reading attainment scores for girls exceed those for boys by 14.2 scale points in State schools, 11.5 scale points in Church schools and 19.8 scale points in Private schools.
2.4 Reading Attainment for different purposes One of the central features and strengths, of IEA surveys is the explicit definition of the constructs being assessed.

PIRLS 2011, reading literacy is defined as the ability to understand and use those written language forms required by society and /or valued by the individual.

Young readers can construct meaning from a variety of texts.

They read to learn, to participate in communities of readers in school and everyday life, and for enjoyment.
(Mullis et al, 2006).

This definition, in which reading is seen as a constructive and interactive process, is intended to embrace multi-modal forms of reading, as well as traditional print forms.

PIRLS identifies two purposes for reading – reading for literary experience and reading to acquire and use information, which are described in Chapter 1.

Figures 2.10 and 2.11 present the average achievement of the participating countries in these two purposes for reading.
It should be noted, however that the two numerical scale scores representing the reading purposes are not comparable since they represent different constructs and the degree of difficulty may vary between the two assessments.

To allow comparison of the relative performance of each country the international average for each purpose was scaled to be 500, similar to the overall international average.
This makes it possible to examine relative strengths and weaknesses of countries by comparing the relative positions of the participants on the two scales.

The red bars show the difference between mean scores for overall reading and reading for literary experience and the grey bars show the difference between mean scores overall reading and reading to acquire and use information.
Figure 2.10: Performance between Reading Purposes (Benchmarking participants) 23 PIRLS 2011 Figure 2.11: Performance between Reading Purposes The performance of pupils in Malta differed significantly between the two purposes for reading.

This is in keeping with the majority of the countries since only in 15 of the participating countries did the pupils not differ significantly between the two purposes for reading.
The score of Malta for the English test on the scale of reading for literary purposes was 470 and the score on the scale of reading for informational purposes was substantially higher at 485.

In the case of 24 PIRLS 2011 the Maltese Benchmark the score for literacy was 458 while that for informational purposes was slightly less at 455.
The difference in scores was mainly evident in the least performing countries (United Arab Emirates, Saudi Arabia, Indonesia, Qatar, Oman and Morocco) though it was also found in Chinese Taipei and Hong Kong, two high performing countries.

In all these countries the score for informational reading was significant higher than the score for literary reading.
Figure 2.12: Performance between Reading Comprehension Processes 25 PIRLS 2011 PIRLS identifies four reading processes that were described in Chapter 1.

These include: focus on and retrieve explicitly stated information, make straightforward inferences, interpret and integrate ideas and information and examine and evaluate content, language and textual elements.
The two text-based processes (retrieval and straightforward inferencing) were grouped to form a single scale, and the other two processes more concerned with reasoning (interpreting and integrating, and examining and evaluating) were combined to form another.

Participating countries’ performance on these two scales, the retrieving and straightforward inferencing scale and the interpreting, integrating and evaluating scale, is reported separately.
Figures 2.12 and 2.13 show the difference in performance between the two reading scales for each country.

There was a difference of 4 scale points between the performance of pupils in Malta in the English test favouring the retrieving and straightforward inferencing scale.

In the case of the Maltese Benchmark the difference was of 10 scale points.
Most of the high performing countries performed better in the reasoning process (interpreting, integrating and evaluating) than in the text-based processes (the retrieving and straightforward inferencing).

On the other hand most of the low performing countries performed better in the text-based processes than the reasoning processes.
Figure 2.13: Performance between Reading Comprehension Processes (Benchmarking Participants) Figure 2.14 shows that girls consistently outperform boys both in the two reading purposes and the two reading processes.

In the English test, Maltese girls scored 23 scale points higher than boys in reading for literary purposes (international average was 20) and 13 scale points higher in reading for information (international average was 12).
Figure 2.15 shows that in the Maltese test these differences were even higher where girls had a mean scale score of 30 points higher than boys on literary reading and 17 points higher than boys in informational reading.

In all participating countries, with the exception of Colombia and Israel, girls scored significantly better than boys on literary reading.

Gender differences in informational reading are less conspicuous compared to literary reading.
There is no statistical difference between the scores of boys and girls in eleven countries (Austria, Belgium (French), Colombia, France, Israel, Poland, Italy, Czech Republic, Germany, Netherlands, and Spain).

Colombia was the only country where boys fared marginally better than girls.

In the remaining countries girls performed significantly better than boys.
26 Figure 2.14: Gender Score Differences in Reading Purposes and Comprehension Processes PIRLS 2011 In the English test, Maltese girls scored 19 points more than boys on the retrieval and straightforward inferencing processes (international average was 16) and 17 points more than boys on the interpreting, integrating and evaluating processes (international average was 17).
In the Maltese test these differences were even larger where girls had a mean score of 24 points higher than boys on retrieval and straightforward inferencing processes and 25 points higher than boys in interpreting, integrating and evaluating processes.

In all participating countries, with the exception of Austria, Colombia Israel, Italy, the Netherlands and Spain, girls scored significantly 27 PIRLS 2011 better than boys in retrieving and straightforward inferencing processes.
Colombia was the only country where boys fared marginally better than girls.

In all participating countries, with the exception of Belgium (French), Colombia, France, Israel and Italy, girls performed significantly better than boys in the interpreting, integrating, and evaluating processes.
Figure 2.15: Gender Score Differences in Reading Purposes and Processes (Benchmarking Participants) Figure 2.16: Percentage Correct Replies in Reading Purposes and Processes Figures 2.16 and 2.17 display the percentage of correct replies in comprehension processes, reading purposes and overall reading.

The percentage of correct replies obtained by Maltese pupils in overall reading when the test was administered in English (46%) was significantly higher than when the test was administered in Maltese (40%).
Both percentages are significantly lower than the international average (55%).

In both the English and Maltese versions of the test, Maltese pupils fared significantly better in literary reading (48% and 45%) than in informational reading (43% and 36%).

This is in line with other participating countries where the international average percentage of correct replies in literary reading (59%) exceeds the corresponding mean percentage in informational reading (50%) by almost 10%.
Similarly in both the English and Maltese versions of the test, Maltese pupils fared significantly better in retrieving and straight- forward inferencing processes (56% and 52%) than in interpreting, integrating and evaluating 28 processes (35% and 29%).
This is in line with other countries where the international average percentage of correct replies in retrieving and straightforward inferencing (64%) exceeds the corresponding mean percentage in interpreting, integrating and evaluating (45%) by almost 20%.
Figure 2.17: Percentage Correct Replies in Reading Purposes and Processes (Benchmark Participants) PIRLS 2011 29 PIRLS 2011 Figure 2.18: Literary Reading Performance of Maltese Pupils by Gender and School Type Figure 2.19: Informational Reading Performance of Maltese Pupils by Gender and School Type 30 Figure 2.20: Retreiving and Inferencing Reading Performance of Maltese Pupils by Gender and School type PIRLS 2011 Figure 2.21: Interpret, Integrate, Evaluate Reading Attainment of Maltese Pupils by Gender and School Type 31 PIRLS 2011 Figure 2.22: Reading Scale Benchmarks of Maltese Pupils by Gender Figure 2.23: Reading Scale Benchmarks of Maltese Pupils by School Type 32 PIRLS 2011 Figures 2.18 to 2.21 display that in all school types female pupils score significantly higher than male pupils in both reading purposes and comprehension processes since most of the 95% confidence intervals (error bars) are either disjoint or overlap slightly.
Moreover, students attending Private schools on average score significantly higher than pupils attending Church and State Schools.

Figures 2.2 and 2.23 display significantly higher proportions of females and pupils attending Private schools in the upper reading scale benchmarks and significantly higher proportions of males and pupils attending State schools in the lower reading scale benchmarks.
33 PIRLS 2011 34 PIRLS 2011 3 3.1 Introduction This chapter considers the relationship between children’s home circumstances and their performance on the PIRLS reading assessment.

In PIRLS, there are two sources of evidence concerning children’s literacy development before they attended primary schools and the literacy practices in the home.
Most of the information for these two sources is elicited from the Parent and the Pupil questionnaires, which are respectively completed by parents/carers and pupils, and provide rich information about home resource for learning, parents attitude towards reading, early literacy skills of pupils before onset of primary schooling, early literacy activities at home and parents’ educational expectation for their children.
3.2 Home Reading Resources A scale score for home reading resources was generated by considering five components – highest education levels and employment status of either parent, the number of books at home as suggested by pupils and by parents, the availability of an internet connection and whether child has an own room.

Tables 3.1 to 3.5 display the responses of the Maltese sample for each of the five items.
Table 3.1: Number of books at home as suggested by Maltese pupils How many books are there in your home?

0-10 books 11-25 books 26-100 books 101-200 books More than 200 books Frequency 297 995 1411 526 345 Percentage 8.3% 27.8% 39.5% 14.7% 9.7% Table 3.2: Items found at home as suggested by Maltese pupils Do you have any of these things at home?
Your own room Internet connection Yes 70.8% 94.1% No 29.2% 5.9% 35 PIRLS 2011 Table 3.3: Highest Parental Education Level as suggested by parents What is the highest level of education completed by the child’s father and mother?
No schooling ISCED 1 (Primary education) ISCED 2 (Secondary education) ISCED 3 (Post-Secondary education) ISCED 4 (Diploma from MCAST / ITS) ISCED 5B (Diploma from University ISCED 5A (Bachelor’ Degree from University) Beyond ISCED 5A (Master’s, PhD) Not applicable Father 0.6% 4.2% 54.7% 15.0% 4.9% 5.8% 6.5% 7.1% 1.3% Mother 0.3% 2.4% 54.3% 18.1% 5.1% 6.9% 8.1% 4.2% 0.7% Table 3.4: Number of children’s books at home as suggested by Maltese parents About how many children’s books are there in your home?
0-10 11-25 26-50 51-100 More than 100 Frequency 108 352 962 1154 882 Percentage 3.1% 10.2% 27.8% 33.4% 25.5% Table 3.5: Employment situation as suggested by Maltese parents Which best describes the employment situation of the child’s father and mother?
Father Mother Working at least full-time for pay Working part-time only for pay Not working for pay Other Not applicable 87.5% 2.5% 1.9% 4.7% 3.3% 33.4% 22.1% 25.5% 6.3% 12.8% Pupils with ‘Many Resources’ had a score of at least 11.9, which is the point on the scale corresponding to students reporting they had more than 100 books in the home and two home study supports, and parents reporting that they had more than 25 children's books in the home, that at least one parent had finished university, and at least one parent had a professional occupation, on average.
Pupils with ‘Few Resources’ had a score no higher than 7.3, which is the scale point corresponding to students reporting that they had 25 or fewer books in the home and neither of the two home study supports, and parents reporting that they had 10 or fewer children's books in the home, that neither parent had gone beyond upper-secondary education, and that neither parent was a small business owner or had a clerical or professional occupation, on average.
All other pupils were assigned to the ‘Some Resources’ category.

Figure 3.1 indicates the feedback given by parents and pupils on the availability of resources.

The proportion of Maltese pupils with ‘Many Resources’ (15%) is slightly lower than the international average (18%), the proportion with ‘Some Resources’ (84%) is significantly higher than the international average (71%); whereas the proportion with ‘Few Resources’ (1%) is significantly lower than the international average (9%).
Norway and Australia have the highest mean scale score (11.5) indicating richest home reading resources and Morocco has the lowest 36 PIRLS 2011 mean scale score (7.2).

Malta’s mean scale score (10.3) is above the international average.

The most striking relationship that emerges is that reading attainment is significantly positively related to home resources for reading.
The mean attainment reading scores of pupils with ‘Many’, ‘Some’ and ‘Few’ resources are (571, 510 and 448) respectively and this pattern applies to all participating countries.

The mean attainment reading scores of Maltese pupils with ‘Many’ and ‘Some’ resources are (553 and 476) respectively.

The mean reading scores of Maltese pupils with ‘Few’ resources could not be computed because of insufficient data.
Figure 3.1: Home Resources for Reading 37 PIRLS 2011 Figure 3.2: Components of Home Resources for Reading Scale Figure 3.2 displays a significantly higher proportion of Maltese pupils having an internet connection, an own room and more than 25 children books at home compared to international average proportions.

However, Malta has a significantly lower proportion of families with a least one parent having a university degree or higher.
Malta’s proportions for the other 3 components are marginally lower international average proportions.

38 PIRLS 2011 3.3 Spoken language at home before starting school Figure 3.3 displays the percentage of pupils who spoke the test language before starting school as reported by parents.

45% of Maltese parents reported that their children spoke English before starting school.
Although this percentage is well below the International Average (92%) this is attributed to the fact that the native language of Maltese pupils is Maltese.

Figure 3.3: Language speaking before starting school 39 PIRLS 2011 Figure 3.4 displays that 88% of Maltese pupils spoke Maltese before starting school.
For both pupils who spoke the language before starting school and those who did not, the mean achievement scores in the Maltese reading test (468 and 420) were lower than the corresponding scores in the English reading test (513 and 459) and which were lower than international mean scores (516 and 479).
In all participating countries, with the exception of Qatar, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates and Trinidad and Tobago, pupils who starting speaking the language before starting school, on average scored higher in reading than their counterparts.

Table 3.6 shows that around 3% of Maltese spoke Italian, 1% spoke German and another 1% spoke Arabic before they started school.
Figure 3.4: Language speaking before starting school (Benchmarking Participants) Table 3.6: Languages spoken by Maltese pupils before starting school What language did your child speak before he/she began school?
English Maltese Italian German Arabic Other Yes 44.7% 87.6% 2.9% 0.8% 1.1% 3.0% No 55.3% 12.4% 97.1% 99.2% 98.9% 97.0% 3.4 Reading by Parents at Home A scale score for ‘Parents like reading’ was generated using scale parents’ responses to seven statements about reading and how often they read for enjoyment.
Pupils whose parents like reading had a score on the scale of at least 10.9, which corresponds to their parents ‘agreeing a lot’ with four of the seven statements and ‘agreeing a little’ with the other three, as well as reading for enjoyment ‘every day or almost every day’, on average.
Pupils whose parents do not like reading had a score no higher than 7.9, which corresponds to their parents ‘disagreeing a little’ with four of the seven statements and ‘agreeing a little’ with the other three, as well as reading for enjoyment only ‘once or twice a month’, on average.

All other pupils had parents who somewhat like reading.

Tables 3.7 and 3.8 display the responses of Maltese parents elicited for reading attitudes and frequency.
40 Figure 3.5: Parents like Reading PIRLS 2011 Table 3.7: Reading attitudes of Maltese parents Indicate how much you agree with the following statements about reading?
I read only if I have to I like talking about what I read with other people I like to spend my spare time reading I read only if I need information Reading is an important activity in my home I would like to have more time for reading I enjoy reading Agree a lot 8.4% 48.7% 61.8% 12.7% 61.5% 79.2% 78.1% Agree a little 15.4% 34.1% 24.5% 18.7% 27.0% 14.0% 15.9% Disagree a little 18.1% 10.5% 8.8% 22.2% 8.8% 3.9% 3.1% Disagree a lot 58.2% 6.7% 4.9% 46.3% 2.8% 2.9% 2.9% 41 PIRLS 2011 Table 3.8: Reading frequency by Maltese parents When you are at home, how often do you read for your own enjoyment?
Every day or almost every day Once or twice a week Once or twice a month Never or almost never Frequency 1427 1285 369 382 Percentage 41.2% 37.1% 10.7% 11.0% Figure 3.5 displays a significantly higher proportion of Maltese parents (46%) who like to read compared to the international average proportion (32%).
On the other hand, the proportions of Maltese parents who somewhat like to read (45%) or do not like to read (8%) are significantly lower than the international average proportions (57% and 11%) respectively.

Sweden has the highest mean scale score (10.9) indicating frequent reading and a very positive attitude towards reading.

Morocco and Hong Kong has the lowest mean scale score (9.3).
Malta mean scale score (10.7) is well above the international average and is similar to those of Ireland, Australia, Denmark, New Zealand, Northern Ireland and Sweden.

The most striking relationship that emerges is that reading attainment is significantly positively related to how much parents like to read.

The mean attainment reading scores of pupils whose parents ‘Like’, ‘Somewhat like’ and ‘Do not like’ to read are (535, 507 and 487) respectively and this pattern applies to all participating countries.
The mean attainment reading scores of Maltese pupils with ‘Many’ and ‘Some’ resources are (499, 470 and 460) respectively.

3.5 Parents’ Educational Expectation for their Children Table 3.9 displays the educational level that parents expect their children to reach, ranging from ISCED level 2 to beyond ISCED level 5A.
Around 15% of the parents expect their children to complete Secondary education; about 19% expect that they complete Post-Secondary education; around 9% get a diploma from MCAST or ITS; about 21% get a diploma from university or a degree from MCAST; about 25% get a degree from university and only 13% engage in Post-graduate studies (MSc or PhD).

Table 3.9: Educational expectation of Maltese Parents for their Children How far in his / her education do you expect your child to go?
ISCED 2 (Secondary education) ISCED 3 (Post-Secondary education) ISCED 4 (Diploma from MCAST / ITS) ISCED 5B (Diploma from University ISCED 5A (Bachelor’ Degree from University) Beyond ISCED 5A (Master’s, PhD) Frequency 480 618 281 673 803 429 Percentage 14.6% 18.8% 8.6% 20.5% 24.5% 13.1% Figure 3.6 provides information for each country about parents’ educational expectations for their children.
Maltese parents hold low expectations for their children since only 13% expect their children to complete a postgraduate degree compared to the international average (31%).

Similarly 25% of Maltese parents expect their children to complete university as opposed to the International Average (34%).

Contrastingly 29% of Maltese parents expect their children to 42 PIRLS 2011 complete post-secondary education, but not university while the international average stands at 16%.
Furthermore, 33% of Maltese parents expect their children to complete Post-secondary education as opposed to the international average of 19%.

It should be noted; however, that a large proportion of these parents reached an ISCED 2 level of education and although their educational expectation for their children are much higher than their personal educational levels they are much lower compared to other countries.
Figure 3.6: Parents’ educational expectation for their children 43 PIRLS 2011 3.6 Early Literacy Activities before starting Primary School A scale score for ‘Parents’ frequency of doing Early Literacy Activities’ was generated using the nine items displayed in Table 3.10.

Pupils often engaged in early literacy activities had a score on the scale of at least 10.7 which corresponds to their parents ‘often’ doing five of the nine activities with them and ‘sometimes’ doing the other four, on average.
Pupils never or almost never engaged in such activities had a score no higher than 6.2 which corresponds to parents ‘never or almost never’ doing five of the nine activities with them and ‘sometimes’ doing the other four, on average.

All other pupils had parents who sometimes engaged them in early literacy activities.
Figure 3.7: Early literacy activities carried out with child by parents 44 PIRLS 2011 Table 3.10: Early literacy activities carried out with child by Maltese parents Before your child began primary school, how often did you or someone else in your home do the following activities with him or her?
Read books Tell stories Sing songs Play with alphabet toys Talk about things you had done Talk about things you had read Play word games Write letters or words Read aloud signs and labels Often 52.6% 53.5% 53.4% 57.1% 63.9% 35.5% 44.0% 50.3% 38.4% Sometimes 44.5% 42.2% 36.0% 34.9% 32.7% 54.0% 45.8% 41.2% 44.4% Never or almost never 2.9% 4.3% 10.6% 8.0% 3.4% 10.4% 10.3% 8.5% 17.2% Table 3.10 shows that more than 50% of Maltese parents often read books, tell stories, play with alphabet toys, sing songs, talk about things they have done and write letter or words with their children.
Play word games, talk about things they have done and read aloud signs and labels are less frequent activities of Maltese parents with their children.

Northern Ireland (11.2), Russian Federation (11.1) and New Zealand (11.0) have the highest mean scale score indicating highest frequency of early literacy activities of parents with their children.

Morocco (8.4), Hong Kong (8.7), Chinese Taipei (8.7) and Iran (8.9) have the lowest mean scale scores.
Malta’s mean scale score (10.4) is above the international average and is similar to those of Spain, Poland, Czech Republic and Hungary.

The most striking relationship that emerges is that reading attainment is significantly positively related to how much parents participate in early literacy activities with their children.
The mean attainment reading scores of pupils whose parents ‘Often’, ‘Sometimes’ and ‘Almost never’ engage in early literacy activities are (529, 506 and 430) respectively and this pattern applies to all participating countries.

The corresponding mean attainment reading scores of Maltese pupils whose parents ‘Often’ and ‘Sometimes’ participate in early literacy activities with their child are (507 and 463) respectively.
3.7 Pre-Primary Education Table 3.11 shows the percentage of Maltese pupils who attended pre-primary education for various durations.

Figure 3.8 shows that the vast majority of Maltese pupils (86%) attend kindergarten for duration between 1 to 3 years which is significantly higher than the international average proportion (36%).
However, the proportion of Maltese pupils who attended pre-primary education for three years or more (11%) is considerably lower compared to the international average proportion (42%).

Possibly this can be explained as a result of the fact that our system has only recently started to distinguish between Early Years and Primary Education with the Early Years now including Childcare, Kindergarten 1 and 2 and Years 1 and 2.
The proportions of Maltese pupils (3%) who attended Kindergarten for less than 1 year or who never attended (less than 1%) are significantly lower than the international average proportions (11% and 11% respectively).

In fact the percentage of Maltese pupils who did not attend pre-primary education was one of the lowest amongst the participating countries.

45 PIRLS 2011 Table 3.11: Duration of Maltese pupils in Kindergarten How long were he / she in Kindergarten?
3 years or more Between 2 and 3 years 2 years Between 1 and 2 years 1 year or less Frequency 379 595 2148 219 94 Percentage 11.0% 17.3% 62.5% 6.4% 2.7% Figure 3.8: Pupils attended Pre-primary Education 46 PIRLS 2011 3.8 Early Literacy Tasks Accomplished A scale score was generated using parents’ responses to assess how well their children could do the five tasks on the Early Literacy Tasks, which are displayed in Table 3.12.
Pupils who could do literacy tasks very well had a score on the scale of at least 11.5 which corresponds to their parents reporting that the pupils could do three literacy tasks very well and the other two moderately well, on average.

Pupils doing the tasks not well had a score no higher than 8.9, which corresponds to parents reporting that pupils could do three tasks not very well and the other two moderately well, on average.
All other pupils could do the literacy tasks moderately well when they began primary school.

Figure 3.9: Early Literacy Tasks performed by pupils when they began Primary School 47 PIRLS 2011 Table 3.12: Early Literacy Tasks performed by Maltese pupils when they began Primary School How well could your child do the following in English when he / she began primary school?
Recognise most of the letters of the alphabet Read some words Read sentences Write letters of the alphabet Write some words Very well 48.6% 29.6% 16.1% 43.5% 24.5% Moderately well 39.1% 46.0% 39.0% 41.6% 43.6% Not very well 9.4% 17.7% 29.3% 10.9% 21.4% Not at all 2.9% 6.6% 15.6% 3.9% 10.5% Figure 3.9 shows that the proportion of Maltese pupils who performed early literacy tasks very well (28%) or moderately well (50%) are considerably higher than the international average proportions (26% and 42% respectively).
The proportion of Maltese pupils underperforming in early literacy tasks (22%) is around 10% lower than the international average proportion (32%).

Trinidad and Tobago (11.3), Singapore (11.1), Colombia (11.0).

Qatar (11.0) and Hong Kong (11.0) have the highest mean scale score indicating highest performance in early literacy tasks by pupils when they began Primary school; whereas, Slovak Republic (8.5) has the lowest mean scale score.
Malta’s mean scale score (10.3) is above the international average and is similar to that of Denmark, France, Finland and Sweden.

The most striking relationship that emerges is that reading attainment is significantly positively related to performance in early literacy tasks.

The mean attainment reading scores of pupils who performed ‘Very well’, ‘Moderately well’ and ‘Not very well’ are (537, 511 and 489) respectively and this pattern applies to all participating countries.
The corresponding mean attainment reading scores of Maltese pupils are (515, 480 and 448) respectively.

48 PIRLS 2011 4 4.1 Introduction This chapter provides information about the school environment mostly supplied by the Heads of School and partly by teachers.
This chapter analyzes the school location, the school composition by student economic background, teacher working conditions, size of school library, and availability of computers for instruction at school and how this instruction is affected by reading resource shortage.

Moreover, the Heads of School provide information about the pupils’ early literacy skills when they enter Primary schools.
4.2 School Location Table 4.1 shows that 44% of the schools in Malta are situated in small towns and villages, 31 % are situated in densely populated areas and 15% are located in medium size cities or large towns.

The remaining schools are situated in either suburban areas or remote rural areas.

Table 4.1: Description of the locality where the school is situated Which best describes the immediate area in which your school is located?
Urban – Densely populated Suburban – Outskirts of urban area Medium size city or large town Small town or village Remote rural Frequency 29 6 14 41 3 Percentage 31.2% 6.5% 15.1% 44.1% 3.2% Figure 4.1 shows that Malta is the only country where no school is located in an area where there are more than 100,000 inhabitants.

On the other hand, the international average indicates that 31% of pupils attend schools which are located in areas where the population exceeds 100,000.
Heads of School indicated that 13% of Maltese pupils are living in a locality where there are between 15,001 and 100,000 inhabitants, while 87% of Maltese pupils are living in a locality where there are 15,000 or less inhabitants.

Reading attainment is weakly related to population size of the school locality.

The mean reading attainment scores of pupils attending schools in ‘Very large cities’, ‘Moderately large cities’ and ‘Small towns and villages’ are 525, 49 PIRLS 2011 512 and 500 respectively.
However, this pattern does not apply to all countries.

In Malta, the mean reading attainment score of students attending schools located in ‘Small towns and villages’ (481) exceeds by 29 scale points the mean reading scores of pupils attending schools in larger cities (452).
This trend is also observed in England and Austria Figure 4.1: School Location 50 PIRLS 2011 4.3 School Composition by Student Economic Background Schools where more than 25% of students come from economically affluent homes and not more than 25% of pupils come from economically disadvantaged homes are labelled as ‘More Affluent’.
School where more than 25% of pupils come from economically disadvantaged homes and not more than 25% of pupils come from economically affluent homes are labelled as ‘More Disadvantaged’.

All other possible response combinations are ‘Neither more affluent nor more disadvantaged’.
Figure 4.2: School Composition by Student Economic Background 51 PIRLS 2011 Table 4.2: Maltese School Composition by Student Economic Background Approximately what percentages of students in your school have the following background?
Come from economically disadvantaged homes Come from economically affluent homes 0-10% 62.1% 34.4% 11-25% 21.8% 14.4% 26-50% 4.6% 24.4% 51-100% 11.5% 26.7% Table 4.2 shows that 62% of Maltese schools have less than 10% of pupils coming from economically disadvantaged homes; whereas, 27% of Maltese schools have more than 50% of pupils coming from economically affluent homes.
Combining the two variables together, 47% of Maltese pupils are categorised as coming from economically affluent homes which is higher than the international average (35%).

On the other hand, the proportion of Maltese pupils categorised as coming from economically disadvantaged homes (10%) is much lower than the international average (30%).

As expected, Figure 4.2 shows that reading attainment is strongly related to students’ economic background.
Pupils who come from economically affluent backgrounds perform better in reading tasks than those who come from more disadvantaged backgrounds.

Italy and Qatar were the only two countries where the average reading achievement scores of students coming from economically affluent homes was less than those who came from neither more affluent nor more disadvantaged backgrounds.
The mean reading attainment scores of pupils coming from ‘More affluent’, ‘Neither more affluent nor disadvantaged’ and ‘More disadvantaged’ economic backgrounds are 530, 515 and 490 respectively.

This trend also applies to Malta where the mean reading attainment scores of pupils coming from the three economic backgrounds are 482, 478 and 421 respectively.
4.4 Schools with students having English/Maltese as native language Figure 4.3 shows that 75% of Maltese schools have more than 90% Maltese-speaking pupils; 16% of the schools have between 51% and 90% and 9% of the schools have less than 50% Maltese-speaking pupils.
Students attending schools where more than 90% are Maltese- speaking pupils scored higher in the Maltese reading test (461) than their counterparts attending schools with lower proportions of Maltese-speaking pupils (448 and 438), which conforms to what we expect.
Figure 4.3: Schools with Students having test language as their native language (Maltese for Malta) 52 Figure 4.4: Schools with Students having test language as their native language (English for Malta) PIRLS 2011 Figure 4.4 shows that 6% of Maltese schools have more than 90% English-speaking pupils; 12% of the schools have between 51% and 90% and 82% of the schools have less than 50% English-speaking pupils.
Students attending schools where more than 90% are English-speaking pupils scored higher in the English reading test (524) than their counterparts attending schools with lower proportions of English- speaking pupils (521 and 470), which conforms to what we expect.

Students from Singapore, Indonesia and Austria were in a similar situation to Malta.
53 PIRLS 2011 4.5 Primary Schools where pupils enter with early literacy skills Principal responses across the five items, displayed in Table 4.3 were averaged and their students were assigned to categories where 1 corresponds to less than 25%, 2 corresponds to 25- 50%, 3 corresponds to 51-75% and 4 corresponds to more than 75%.
Figure 4.5: Schools where students enter the Primary grades with early literacy skills 54 PIRLS 2011 Table 4.3: Maltese schools where students enter the Primary grades with early literacy skills About how many of the students in your school can do the following when they begin primary school?
Recognise most of the letters of the alphabet Read some words Read sentences Write letters of the alphabet Write some words More than 75% 36.0% 20.2% 6.7% 28.9% 14.4% 51-75% 16.9% 14.6% 10.1% 12.2% 8.9% 25-50% 13.5% 16.9% 14.6% 17.8% 20.0% Less than 25% 33.7% 48.3% 68.5% 41.1% 56.7% Figure 4.5 shows that 21% of Maltese schools have more than 75% of pupils with early literacy skills; 13% of schools have 51-75% of students; 22% of the schools have 25-50% of pupils and 44% of Maltese schools have less than 25% of students in possession of early literacy skills.
These proportions are comparable to the international average proportions which are 21%, 18%, 22% and 40% respectively.

Singapore has the highest proportion (80%) of schools with more than 75% of pupils in possession of early literacy skills.

This is followed by Spain (73%), England (60%), Hong Kong (51%), Qatar (46%), Chinese Taipei (46%), United Arab Emirates (43%) and Sweden (38%).

Hungary has the highest proportion (91%) of schools with less than 25% of pupils in possession of early literacy skills.
This is followed by Austria (82%), Northern Ireland (81%), Slovak Republic (81%), Czech Republic (76%), Germany (72%) and Portugal (70%).

Figure 4.5 shows that reading attainment is weakly positive related to the proportion of students within a school possessing early literacy skills.

The mean reading attainment scores of pupils attending schools accommodating ‘More than 75%’, ’51-75%’, ’25-50%’ and ‘Less than 25%’ of pupils in possession of early literacy skills are (516, 511, 512 and 500) respectively.
This weak relationship also applies to Malta were the mean reading attainment scores of pupils attending these four school categories are (501, 517, 490 and 455) respectively.

4.6 Effects of reading resource shortages on instruction A scale score for Reading Resource Shortages was generated by considering Heads’ of School responses concerning eleven school and classroom resources that are displayed in Tables 4.4 and 4.5.
Table 4.4: General Resources in Maltese schools How much is your school’s capacity to provide instruction affected by a shortage or inadequacy of general school resources?
Instructional material (textbooks) Supplies (paper, pencils) School building and grounds Heating / cooling and lighting systems Instructional space (classrooms) Technologically competent staff Computers for instruction Not at all 66.3% 80.2% 41.3% 40.7% 40.2% 23.1% 21.3% A little 17.4% 6.6% 33.7% 34.1% 29.3% 42.9% 47.2% Some 6.5% 6.6% 13.0% 17.6% 20.7% 28.6% 24.7% A lot 9.8% 6.6% 12.0% 7.7% 9.8% 5.5% 6.7% 55 PIRLS 2011 Table 4.5: Resources for Reading Instruction in Maltese schools How much is your school’s capacity to provide instruction affected by a shortage or inadequacy of resources for reading instruction?
Teachers with a specialisation in reading Computer software for reading instruction Library books Audio-visual resources for reading instruction Not at all 21.3% 21.6% 53.4% 18.0% A little 47.2% 44.3% 23.9% 57.3% Some 24.7% 30.7% 13.6% 21.3% A lot 6.7% 3.4% 9.1% 3.4% Figure 4.6: Instruction affected by Reading Resource Shortages 56 PIRLS 2011 The generated scale for Reading Resource Shortages was devised such that students in schools where instruction was Not Affected by resource shortages had a score on the scale of at least 11.2.
This corresponds to their Heads’ reporting that shortages affected instruction ‘not at all’ for six of the eleven resources and ‘a little’ for the other five, on average.

Pupils in schools where instruction was Affected a Lot had a score no higher than 6.7, which corresponds to their Heads’, reporting that shortages affected instruction ‘A lot’ for six of the eleven resources and some for the other five, on average.
All other pupils attended schools where instruction was Somewhat Affected by resource shortages.

Slovenia has the largest scale score (11.6) indicating that instruction in this country was affected least by resource shortages.

This is followed by New Zealand (11.2), Australia (11.2) and United States (11.1).
Colombia (7.4), Hong Kong (8.0), Azerbaijan (8.3), Oman (8.4) and Islamic Republic of Iran (8.4) had the lowest scale scores indicating that instruction in these countries was affected most by resource shortages.

Malta has a middling scale score (10.3) which is similar to Finland, Croatia and Lithuania.
Figure 4.6 shows that 26% of Maltese Heads of School reported that instruction was not affected by reading resource shortages; 71% stated that instruction was somewhat affected and only 5% stipulated that instruction was affected considerably resource shortages.

These proportions are comparable to international averages (24%, 71% and 5%).

Reading attainment is negatively related to the amount instruction was affected by resource shortages.
The mean reading attainment scores of pupils attending schools where shortages in reading resources ‘Did not affect instruction’, ‘Somewhat affected’ and ‘Affected a lot instruction’ are (523, 511, and 478) respectively.

This negative relationship is not very evident for Malta were the mean reading attainment scores of pupils in these three reading resource shortage categories are (485, 474 and 484) respectively.
4.7 Teacher Working Conditions A scale score for Teacher Working Conditions was generated by considering teachers’ responses concerning five potential problem areas, described in Table 4.6.

Pupils whose teachers had hardly any problems with their working conditions had a score on the scale of at least 11.2 which corresponds to their teachers reporting ‘Not a problem’ for three of five areas and ‘minor problem’ for the other two, on average.
Pupils whose teachers had moderate problems had a score no higher than 8.6 which corresponds to their teachers reporting ‘Moderate problem’ for three of five conditions and ‘minor problem’ for the other two, on average.

All other pupils had teachers that reported ‘Minor Problems’ with their working conditions.

Table 4.6: Maltese teacher working conditions In your current school, how severe is each problem?
The school building needs significant repair Classrooms are crowded Teachers have too many teaching hours Teachers do not have adequate workspace Teachers do not have adequate instructional material Not a problem 35.5% 37.4% 42.6% 27.8% 32.2% Minor problem 35.5% 28.4% 33.5% 31.1% 41.8% Moderate problem 22.7% 22.3% 17.7% 27.3% 22.6% Serious Problem 6.2% 11.8% 6.2% 13.9% 3.4% 57 PIRLS 2011 Figure 4.7: Teacher working conditions Working conditions from teachers in Malta were marginally poorer than the International average.
22% of Maltese teachers indicated almost no problems regarding repairs required in the school, crowded classrooms, adequate instructional material, appropriate workspace and huge teaching workload.

51% of Maltese teachers indicated minor problems and the remaining 26% of teachers indicated moderate problems.

The corresponding international average proportions are (27%, 48% and 25%).

Reading attainment of pupils is weakly related to teachers’ working conditions.
The mean reading attainment scores of students attending schools where there are ‘Almost no problems’ ‘Minor problems’ and ‘’Moderate problems’ are respectively (518, 514 and 509).

This trend also applies to Malta where the mean reading attainment scores of pupils attending schools in these three environment scenarios are (485, 479 and 468) respectively.

58 PIRLS 2011 4.8 Size of School Library Figure 4.8 shows the role played by school libraries in achievement.
The International Average indicates that the average achievement of pupils is generally higher in schools which have larger libraries.

This international average falls from 525 in schools where there are more than 5000 book titles to 513 in those which have between 501 to 5000 book titles and 500 in those schools which have 500 book titles or less and goes down to 498 in those which do not have a school library.
Figure 4.8: Size of School Library 59 PIRLS 2011 According to Heads, 11% of Maltese schools have more than 5000 book titles, 58% have between 500 to 5000 and 17% have less than 500 book titles.

The corresponding international average proportions are (28%, 40% and 18%) respectively.

Moreover, 14% of Maltese Primary schools have no library, which is comparable to the international average (14%).
4.9 Schools with Computers available for Instruction Figure 4.9: Schools with computers available for instruction 60 PIRLS 2011 Figure 4.9 shows the number of computers that are available in schools for instruction purposes.

Heads of Maltese schools report that 15% of pupils have a computer available for 1 to 2 pupils, which is substantially below the international average (41%).

England (88%) tops the list, followed by Slovak Republic (81%), Denmark (86%), Northern Ireland (76%) and Canada (74%).
Malta ranks very high at 67% where schools have 1 computer for 3-5 pupils.

It is followed by Germany (49%), France (47%) and Israel (46).

18% of Maltese pupils reportedly have 1 computer for 6 or more pupils.

This is close to France (17%) and Finland (15%).

There is no evidence of any relationship between the reading achievement scores of pupils and the number of computers available within the schools.
61 PIRLS 2011 62 PIRLS 2011 5 5.1 Introduction This chapter describes the views of Heads of School and teachers regarding a number of school related issues.

It highlights the Heads’ and teachers’ perspectives regarding the school emphasis on academic success; the amount of time Heads spend on leadership activities and the emphasis they give to reading skills and strategies.
Moreover, this chapter addresses other issues related to school discipline and safety; bullying at school, student behaviour and attitude towards their teachers.

A scale score is generated for each of these issues which will be used to identify differences between participating countries.
5.2 Heads’ perspectives regarding emphasis on academic success A scale score for School Emphasis on Academic Success was generated by considering the five aspects displayed in Tables 5.1 and which were assessed by Heads of School.

Pupils in schools where their Heads reported a very high emphasis on academic success had a score on the scale of at least 13.0 which corresponds to their Heads characterizing three of the five aspects as ‘Very high’, on average.
Pupils in schools with a medium emphasis on academic success had a score no higher than 8.8, which corresponds to their Heads characterizing three of the five aspects as ‘medium’ and the other two as ‘high’, on average.

All other pupils attended school with a High Emphasis on academic success.

Table 5.1 displays the responses of Maltese Heads of School regarding the emphasis the school provides to academic success.
Table 5.1: Responses of Maltese Heads of School regarding the school emphasis on academic success How would you, as a Head of School, characterise each of the following within your school?
Teachers’ understanding of the school’s curricular goals Teachers’ degree of success in implementing the school’s curriculum Teachers’ expectations for student achievement Parental support for student achievement Pupils’ desire to do well in school Very high 22.8% High 67.4% Medium 9.8% 20.7% 68.5% 10.9% 30.4% 12.1% 17.4% 53.3% 44.0% 47.8% 14.1% 37.4% 31.5% Low 0.0% 0.0% 1.1% 5.5% 2.2% Very low 0.0% 0.0% 1.1% 1.1% 1.1% 63 PIRLS 2011 Figure 5.1: Responses of Maltese Heads of School regarding the school emphasis on academic success Figure 5.1 shows that 13% of Maltese pupils attend schools which apportion very high emphasis to academic success.
This is well above the international average (9%) and comparable to Canada (12%) and Israel (15%).

The percentage of Maltese pupils attending schools which assign high emphasis on academic success (69%) is considerably higher than the international average (59%).

18% of Maltese pupils attend schools which allot medium emphasis on academic success and is comparable to England (16%) and Austria (17%).

Findings indicate that the greater the emphasis on academic success the higher the achievement.
The mean reading scores of pupils attending schools that allocate ‘Very high emphasis’, ‘High emphasis’ and ‘Medium 64 PIRLS 2011 emphasis’ are (527, 517 and 497) respectively.

The corresponding mean reading achievement scores of Maltese pupils are (488, 488 and 431) respectively.

The scale score that measures the school emphasis on academic success according to Heads of School ranges from 11.9 (Northern Ireland) to 7.9 (Morocco).
Malta’s mean scale score (11.0) is significantly above the international average.

5.3 Teachers’ perspectives regarding emphasis on academic success Figure 5.2: Responses of teachers of schools regarding the school emphasis on academic success 65 PIRLS 2011 A similar scale score was generated for School Emphasis on Academic Success by using the teachers’ responses to the same five aspects displayed in Tables 5.2.
Pupils in schools where their teachers reported a very high emphasis on academic success had a score on the scale of at least 13.0 which corresponds to their teachers characterizing three of the five aspects as ‘Very high’ and the other two as ‘High’, on average.

Pupils in schools with a medium emphasis on academic success had a score no higher than 8.7 which corresponds to their teachers characterizing three of the five aspects as ‘Medium’ and the other two as ‘High,’ on average.
All other pupils attended schools with a high emphasis on academic success.

Table 5.2 displays the responses of Maltese teachers’ regarding the emphasis the school provides to academic success.

Table 5.2: Teachers’ responses regarding the school emphasis on academic success How would you, as a teacher, characterise each of the following within your school?
Understanding of school’s curriculum goals Degree of success in implementing curriculum Expectations for student achievement Parental support for student achievement Pupils’ desire to do well in school Very High 29.5% 18.9% 22.6% 10.8% 11.8% High 58.6% 65.6% 62.7% 29.7% 47.4% Medium 11.9% 15.1% 14.6% 50.5% 35.1% Low 0.0% 0.5% 0.0% 8.0% 5.2% Very Low 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.9% 0.5% Figure 5.2 shows that, on average, the responses of Maltese teachers match those of the Heads of School.
The proportion of Maltese pupils attending schools which assign ‘Very high emphasis’, ‘High’ and ‘Medium emphasis’ to academic success are respectively (12%, 65% and 23%).

International Averages show that the emphasis on academic success is positively related to reading achievement.

The mean reading scores of pupils attending schools that allocate ‘Very high emphasis’, ‘High emphasis’ and ‘Medium emphasis’ are (529, 517 and 497) respectively.
The corresponding mean reading achievement scores of Maltese pupils are (515, 475 and 462) respectively.

The scale score that measures school emphasis on academic success according to teachers ranges from 11.7 (Northern Ireland) to 7.8 (Morocco).

Malta’s mean scale score (10.4) is significantly above the International Average.
5.4 Time spent by Heads’ of School on leadership activities Figure 5.3 shows that Heads of School in Malta reported that 58% of pupils attend schools where the Heads spend a lot of time promoting the schools’ educational vision or goals.

This is slightly higher than the 53% of England, 49% of Germany and 41% of France.

Maltese Heads of School are of the opinion that 67% of Maltese pupils attend schools where Heads spend a lot of time developing the schools curricular and educational goals.
This compares well with the 68% of pupils in England, the 62% in Italy and the 61% in Ireland.

The percentage of pupils whose Heads of School spend ‘A Lot of Time’ monitoring teachers’ implementation of the schools’ educational goals in their teaching is lower in Maltese schools at 32% than the International Average at 48%.

It is much lower than that of England at 56% but higher than that of Finland which stands at 18% and that of France at 8%.
40% of Maltese Heads of Schools reported that they spend a lot of time monitoring pupils’ learning progress to ensure that educational goals are reached, as opposed to the 47% in Italy, the 76% in England and the 12% in Finland.

71% of Maltese Heads report that a lot of time is spent in keeping an orderly atmosphere in the school, which is marginally higher than the International Average (68%).
66 Figure 5.3: Proportion of Heads of School who spend a lot of time on leadership activities PIRLS 2011 Figure 5.3 shows that 39% of Maltese Heads of School spend a lot of time addressing bad behaviour by pupils and disruption; however, this is lower than the international average (44%).
39% of Maltese Heads of School devote a lot of time advising teachers when they encounter queries and problems with their teaching, which is higher than the international average (35%) and higher than the 17% of England and the 16% of Finland but lower than the 48% of Italy.
44% of Maltese Heads of School report that they spend a lot of time initiating educational 67 PIRLS 2011 projects or improvements, which is higher than the international average (41%), England (34%) and Finland (28%) but is lower than Italy (61%) and Singapore (58%).
Participation in professional development activities for Heads of School is given less importance by Maltese Heads of School (26%) compared to the international average (38%); however, Malta’s proportion is higher than Germany (17%), England (13%), Portugal (6%) and France (5%).
5.5 Emphasis in early grades on reading skills and strategies A scale score that measures the onset when reading skills and strategies are emphasized is generated using the responses of Heads of School on eleven reading related items displayed in Table 5.3.
Pupils in schools where their Heads of School reported reading skills and strategies were emphasized at or before second grade (Year 3) had a score on the scale of at least 11.1, which corresponds to all eleven skills and strategies being emphasized at second grade, on average.
Pupils in schools where their Heads of School reported reading skills and strategies were emphasized at fourth grade (Year 5) or later had a score no higher than 6.5, which corresponds to all eleven skills and strategies being emphasized at fourth grade, on average.

All other pupils attended schools where reading skills and strategies were emphasized at third grade (Year 4).
Table 5.3: Grades when reading skills and strategies are emphasized in Maltese schools In which Year group do the following reading skills and strategies first receive a major emphasis in the instruction of English in your school?
Reading isolated sentences Reading connected text Locating information within the text Identifying the main idea of a text Explaining of supporting understanding of a text Comparing a text with personal experience Comparing different texts Make predictions about what will happen next in a text Make generalisations and drawing inferences on text Describing the style or structure of a text Determine the author’s perspective or intention Year 2 or earlier 93.3% 67.8% 24.7% 20.0% 15.7% 12.5% 4.5% 15.6% 7.9% 2.2% 3.4% Year 3 6.7% 31.1% 59.7% 48.9% 40.4% 25.0% 16.9% 14.4% 16.9% 7.8% 5.6% Year 4 0.0% 1.1% 14.6% 27.8% 31.5% 33.0% 27.0% 33.3% 12.4% 16.7% 9.0% Year 5 0.0% 0.0% 1.1% 3.3% 12.4% 29.5% 37.1% 32.2% 34.8% 25.6% 30.3% Not in these grades 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 14.6% 4.4% 28.1% 47.8% 51.7% Figure 5.4 shows that 13% of Maltese Heads of School stated that reading skills and strategies are emphasised at or before Year 3 (second grade) and the remaining 87% of Heads declared that emphasis on reading skills commence at Year 4 (third grade).
International averages show that achievement in reading is positively related to an early onset with the emphasis on reading skills and strategies.

The average reading attainment scores of pupils attending schools where reading skills were emphasized at or before Year 3, at Year 4, at Year 5 or later are (522, 511 and 450) respectively; however, this relationship is not evident for Malta.
The scale score that measures the onset when reading skills and strategies were emphasized ranges from 12.6 (England and Australia) to 6.8 (Morocco).

Malta’s mean scale score (9.4) is significantly below the international average and is comparable to Finland (9.2), Norway (9.3), Italy (9.4) and Chinese Taipei (9.4).
68 Figure 5.4: Emphasis on Early Grades on Reading Skills and Strategies PIRLS 2011 5.6 Safe and orderly schools A scale score that measures safety and order in school was generated using the teachers’ responses on five statements that are displayed in Table 5.4.
Pupils in safe and orderly schools had a score on the scale of at least 10.1 which corresponds to their teachers ‘agreeing a lot’ with three of the five qualities of a safe and orderly school and ‘agreeing a little’ with the other two, 69 PIRLS 2011 on average.

Pupils in Not Safe and Orderly schools had a score no higher than 6.2 which corresponds to their teachers ‘disagreeing a little’ with three of the five qualities and ‘agreeing a little’ with the other two, on average.
All other pupils attended Somewhat Safe and Orderly schools.

Figure 5.5: Safe and Orderly schools Figure 5.5 shows that 50% of Maltese teachers indicated that they attend safe and orderly schools; 49% attend somewhat safe / orderly schools and 2% attend unsafe schools.

International Averages stand at (55%, 41% and 4%) respectively.

Achievement in reading is positively related 70 PIRLS 2011 to the degree of safety and order within the school.
The average reading attainment scores of pupils attending ‘Safe and orderly’, ‘Somewhat safe and orderly’, ‘Not safe and order’ schools are (518, 505 and 486) respectively.

This pattern applies to Malta where pupils attending safe and orderly schools (488) scored significantly higher than their counterparts attending somewhat safe and orderly schools (470).

The mean reading score for Maltese pupils attending unsafe schools was not computed due to insufficient data.
The scale score that measures safety and order within schools ranges from 11.9 (Indonesia) to 8.4 (Trinidad and Tobago).

Malta’s mean scale score (9.9) is below the international average and is comparable to Austria (10.0), Poland (9.9), Hong Kong (9.9), Poland (9.9), Bulgaria (9.9), Russian Federation (9.7), Germany (9.6), Hungary (9.6) and Lithuania (9.6).
Table 5.4: Safety and order in Maltese schools Thinking about your current school, indicate the extent to which you agree or disagree with each of the following statements?
This school is located in safe neighbourhood I feel safe at school The school’s security policies are sufficient The pupils behave in an orderly manner The pupils are respectful of the teachers Agree a lot 75.3% 80.7% 60.6% 41.1% 43.5% Agree a little 19.6% 16.6% 30.0% 39.3% 37.2% Disagree a little 5.1% 2.7% 7.3% 15.4% 14.2% Disagree a lot 0.0% 0.0% 2.1% 4.2% 5.1% 5.7 School discipline and safety A scale score that measures school discipline and safety was generated using responses of Heads of School on ten items related to school problems, which are displayed in Table 5.5.
Pupils in schools with hardly any problems had a score on the scale of at least 9.9 which corresponds to their Heads reporting ‘Not a problem’ for five of the ten discipline and safety issues and ‘minor problem’ for the other five, on average.

Pupils in schools with moderate problems had a score no higher than 7.7 which corresponds to their Heads reporting ‘Moderate problem’ for five of the ten issues and ‘Minor problem’ for the other five on average.

All other pupils attended schools with minor problems.
Table 5.5: School discipline and safety in Maltese schools To what degree is each of the following problems among Year 5 students in your school?
Arriving late at school Absenteeism Classroom disturbance Cheating Swearing Vandalism Theft Intimidation or verbal abuse among students Physical fights among students Intimidation or verbal abuse of teachers or staff Not a problem 42.9% 64.8% 40.2% 68.5% 71.7% 79.1% 81.3% 41.1% 42.9% 87.0% Minor problem 46.2% 26.4% 44.6% 26.1% 18.5% 14.3% 14.3% 43.3% 45.1% 7.6% Moderate problem 7.7% 6.6% 14.1% 3.3% 7.6% 4.4% 2.2% 11.1% 9.9% 4.3% Serious problem 3.3% 2.2% 1.1% 2.2% 2.2% 2.2% 2.2% 4.4% 2.2% 1.1% 71 PIRLS 2011 Figure 5.6: School Discipline and Safety Figure 5.6 shows that Maltese Heads of School exhibit a more realistic picture of the local situation than what was portrayed in the preceding section.
64% of Heads of School reported that their school disciplinary problems were trivial.

30% stipulated that they encountered minor problems and 6% stated that disciplinary problems were moderate.

Not surprisingly, pupils who attended schools where disciplinary problems were trivial achieved significantly higher reading scores (519) compared to students attending schools with minor problems (504) and moderate disciplinary problems (476).
This trend applies to Malta where insignificant disciplinary problems (492) scored students attending safe schools with 72 PIRLS 2011 significantly higher than their counterparts attending schools with minor problems (454) and moderate disciplinary problems (448).

The scale score that measures safety and school discipline ranges from 11.4 (Hong Kong and Chinese Taipei) to 6.2 (Indonesia).
Malta’s mean scale score (10.2) is above the international average and comparable to Finland (10.3), United States (10.3), Canada (10.3) and Russian Federation (9.7).

5.8 Bullying at School Figure 5.7: Pupils bullied at school 73 PIRLS 2011 A scale score that measures bullying at school was generated using pupils’ responses to six bullying behaviours, which are displayed in Table 5.6.
Pupils who were never bullied had a score on the scale of at least 10.1 which corresponds to ‘Never’ experiencing three of the six bullying behaviours and each of the other three behaviours ‘a few times a year’ on average.

Pupils bullied about once weekly had a score no higher than 8.3 which corresponds to their experiencing each of three of the six behaviours ‘once or twice a month’ and each of the other three ‘a few times a year’ on average.

All other pupils were bullied about once monthly.


Table 5.6: Bullying in Maltese schools During this year, how often have any of the following things happened to you at school?
I was made fun of or called names I was left out of games/activities by other pupils Someone spread lies about me Something was stolen from me I was hit or hurt by other pupil(s) I was made to do things I didn’t want to do to others Never or almost never 44.6% 52.2% 46.9% 62.9% 38.8% 66.0% Once or twice a year 23.9% 19.5% 24.7% 20.8% 30.2% 15.8% Once or twice a month 11.1% 13.5% 12.9% 8.3% 14.6% 8.5% At least once a week 20.4% 14.7% 15.6% 8.0% 16.4% 9.7% Figure 5.7 shows that 42% of Maltese pupils indicated that they hardly ever experience bullying, which is lower than the international average (47%).
36% of Maltese pupils indicated that they were bullied on a monthly basis, at par with Canada but slightly higher than England (35%) and Italy (33%).

Similarly the proportion of Maltese pupils being bullied on a weekly basis (22%) was marginally higher than the international average (20%).

The scale score that measures bullying at school ranges from 11.4 (Azerbaijan) to 9.1 (Trinidad and Tobago and Qatar).
Malta’s mean scale score (9.8) is marginally below the international average and is comparable to Spain (9.8), Canada (9.8) and England (9.9) and Islamic Republic of Iran (9.9).

74 PIRLS 2011 6 6.1 Introduction This chapter provides information about teaching and reading approaches adopted by teachers in classrooms.
This chapter also describes background information about the teachers' formal education, teachers’ emphasis on language and reading areas in their formal education and training, teachers’ years of experience, the time spent by teachers on professional development related to reading in the recent past and teachers’ career satisfaction.
6.2 Teachers’ formal education Table 6.1 shows that around 70% of Maltese Year 5 teachers completed a Bachelor’s degree, approximately 10% completed a Master’s degree or a PhD and the remaining 20% either completed a Diploma at University or MCAST, but not a Bachelor’s degree, or completed Upper Secondary education.

Figure 6.1 displays the proportions of teachers within each education level.
The international average proportion of teacher who completed a Master’s degree or a PhD (26%) is significantly higher than Malta’s (10%).

Slovak Republic (99%) tops the list, followed by Poland (96%), Czech Republic (93%), Finland (82%), Russian Federation (79%), France (75%) and Georgia (75%).
On the other hand, Malta has a significantly higher proportion of teachers with a Bachelor’s degree compared to the international average proportion (53%) and is comparable to Denmark (75%), Chinese Taipei (72%), England (71%), New Zealand (69%), Saudi Arabia (69%), Qatar (70%) and United Arab Emirates (67%).

The proportion of Maltese teachers who completed a Diploma or reached a level beyond post-secondary education is comparable to international average proportions (21%).
Table 6.1: Formal education of Maltese teachers What is the highest level of formal education you have completed?
Did not complete ISCED level 3 Completed ISCED level 3 Completed ISCED level 4 Completed ISCED level 5B Completed Bachelor’s Degree Completed Master’s, PhD Frequency 2 17 1 20 145 22 Percentage 1.0% 8.2% 0.5% 9.8% 69.9% 10.6% 75 PIRLS 2011 Figure 6.1: Teachers’ Formal Education 6.3 Emphasis on language/reading areas in teachers’ formal education Table 6.2 shows the proportion of teachers who during their formal education or training emphasised various aspects of language and reading areas.
Figure 6.2 shows that the proportion of teachers who emphasized language in their formal training ranges from 97% (Bulgaria) to 0% (French-speaking Belgian community).

The percentage of Maltese teachers who did emphasize language in their formal education or training (65%) is significantly lower than the international average (72%).
Other countries scored higher than the international average: Bulgaria is 76 PIRLS 2011 followed by the Russian Federation (95%), the Slovak Republic (93%), Georgia (92%), Romania (90%), Croatia (90%) and the United Arab Emirates.

Table 6.2: Emphasis on language and reading areas by Maltese teachers in formal education/training As part of your formal education and / or training, to what extent did you study the following areas?
Language test English / Maltese) Pedagogy/ teaching reading Reading theory Not at all 3.9% 7.3% 22.9% Overview or introduction to topic 30.9% 30.6% 61.0% It was an area of emphasis 65.2% 62.1% 16.1% Figure 6.2: Emphasis on language and reading areas by teachers in formal education/training 77 PIRLS 2011 The proportion of teachers who emphasized pedagogy and teaching reading in their formal education or training ranges from 97% (Bulgaria) to 28% (Finland).
The percentage of Maltese teachers who did emphasize pedagogy and teaching reading in their formal education or training is comparable to the international average (62%).

Bulgaria is followed by the Russian Federation (95%), Georgia (88%), Hungary (88%), Croatia (87%), the Slovak Republic (84%) and Romania (83%).

The proportion of teachers who emphasized reading theory in their formal education or training ranges from 76% (Russian Federation) to 8% (Finland).
The percentage of Maltese teachers who did emphasize reading theory in their formal education or training (16%) is significantly lower than the international average (33%).

The Russian Federation is followed by Azerbaijan (58%), Indonesia (57%), Trinidad and Tobago (55%), Georgia (53%) and Bulgaria (50%).

It is evident that pupils’ reading achievement scores are not related to the proportion of teachers who made emphasis on language and reading areas in their formal education and training.
6.4 Teachers’ years of experience Table 6.3 displays the age distribution of Maltese teachers teaching Year 5 pupils.

Around 43% of teachers have ages ranging 30 to 39 years, about 26% are aged less than 30 years and approximately 31% are aged at least 40 years.

Table 6.3: Age Distribution of Maltese teachers teaching Year 5 students How old are you?
Under 25 25-29 30-39 40-49 50-59 60 or more Frequency 19 35 92 32 27 7 Percentage 9.0% 16.5% 43.4% 15.1% 12.7% 3.3% Figure 6.3 clearly displays a significantly higher proportion of Maltese teachers (44%) with less than 10 years teaching experience compared to the international average proportion (28%).

Moreover, the proportion of Maltese teachers (18%) with 20 years or more teaching experience is significantly lower than the international average (41%).
In fact, the average years of experience of Maltese teachers (12 years) is significantly less than the international average (17 years) indicating that Malta has one of the youngest teaching workforces of all participating countries.

Malta is preceded by England and the United Arab Emirates (10 years teaching experience), New Zealand, Oman Singapore and Qatar (11 years teaching experience) and equalled by Ireland (12 years teaching experience).
On the other hand, Bulgaria, Hungary, Italy, Lithuania and the Russian Federation have the oldest teaching workforce (24 years teaching experience) followed by Azerbaijan, Poland and Romania (23 years teaching experience).

There seems to be a positive relationship between the pupils’ reading attainment scores and the years of teaching experience.
The mean reading attainment scores of pupils taught by teachers with ’20 years of teaching experience’, ‘between 10 and 20 years’, ‘between 5 and 10 years’ and ‘less than 5 years’ are (517, 511, 510 and 507) respectively.

The corresponding mean reading achievement scores of Maltese pupils are (491, 475, 472 and 477) respectively.
78 Figure 6.3: Teachers’ years of experience PIRLS 2011 6.5 Time spent by teachers on professional reading development Table 6.4 displays the time distribution spent by teachers in in-service workshops or seminars that dealt directly with reading or teaching reading.

Around 23% of Maltese teachers never engaged in any professional reading development.

This proportion is marginally lower than the international average proportion (25%).
On the other hand, the proportion of Maltese teachers who spent more than 16 hours on professional reading development (19%) is significantly lower than the international average (24%); however, Malta has a significantly higher proportion (58%) compared to the international average proportion (50%) of teachers spending between 6 to 15 hours on professional reading development.
79 PIRLS 2011 Table 6.4: Amount of time spent by Maltese teachers on professional reading development In the past two years, how many hours in total have you spent in in-service workshops or seminars that dealt directly with reading or teaching reading?
None Less than 6 hours 6-15 hours 16-35 hours More than 35 hours Frequency 48 58 62 24 14 Percentage 23.3% 28.2% 30.1% 11.7% 6.8% Figure 6.4: Time spent by teachers on professional reading development 80 PIRLS 2011 Figure 6.4 displays that Israel has the highest proportion (72%) of Primary school teachers engaging in professional reading development during the last two years, followed by Romania (51%), Islamic Republic of Iran (47%), Portugal (45%), Georgia (42%), United States (41%) and Azerbaijan (40%).
France has the lowest proportion (2%) of Year 5 school teachers spending at least 16 hours in professional reading development, followed by Morocco (4%), Germany (4%), Finland (4%), England (7%), Bulgaria (8%), the French speaking Belgian community (9%) and the Czech Republic (9%).

The professional reading training received by teachers does not appear to be related to the achievement of pupils in reading.
The mean reading attainment scores of pupils taught by teachers who spent ‘At least 16 hours’, ‘Less than 16 hours’ and ‘No time’ are (512, 513 and 513) respectively.

The corresponding mean reading achievement scores of Maltese pupils are (478, 471 and 493) respectively indicating no visible trend that conforms to what is expected.

Table 6.5: Frequency of reading children’s books by Maltese teachers For your professional development, about how often do you read children’s books?
At least once a week Once or twice a month Once or twice a year Never or almost never Frequency 58 92 34 15 Percentage 29.1% 46.2% 17.1% 7.5% Table 6.5 shows the frequency distribution of Maltese reading children’s books.

Around 73% of Maltese Year 5 school teachers read children’s books at least once monthly, which is comparable to the international average proportion (73%).
Azerbaijan leads the list with 99% of the teachers reading children’s books regularly, followed by Colombia (96%), Indonesia (95%), Russian Federation (95%), Romania (93%), Georgia (93%), Portugal (93%) and Croatia (92%).

6.6 Teachers’ career satisfaction Table 6.6 presents a positive picture regarding teachers’ job satisfaction.
Around 90% of Maltese teachers agree fully that they do important work as teachers; more than 75% agree entirely that they are happy with their profession and satisfied with being teachers at their present schools.

Approximately 70% of teachers disagreed completely that they are frustrated and about 63% were almost certain that they will proceed with their career as teachers and more than 65% of the teachers disagreed that they had more enthusiasm when they began teaching.
Table 6.6: Career satisfaction of Maltese school teachers How much do you agree with the following statements?
I am content with my profession as a teacher I am satisfied with being a teacher at this school I had more enthusiasm when I began teaching I do important work as a teacher I plan to continue as a teacher for as long as I can I am frustrated as a teacher Agree a lot 76.3% 79.1% 12.8% 92.4% 63.5% 0.5% Agree a little 19.9% 17.5% 21.3% 7.6% 27.0% 14.3% Disagree a little 3.8% 3.3% 24.2% 0.0% 8.5% 15.7% Disagree a lot 0.0% 0.0% 41.7% 0.0% 0.9% 69.5% 81 PIRLS 2011 Figure 6.5: Teachers’ Career Satisfaction A scale score was generated to assess teachers’ career satisfaction.
Pupils whose teachers are satisfied with their job had a score on the scale of at least 10.0, which corresponds to their teachers ‘agreeing a lot’ with three of the six statements and ‘agreeing a little’ with the other three, on average.

Pupils whose teachers are less than satisfied had a score no higher than 6.5, which corresponds to their teachers ‘disagreeing a little’ with three of the six statements and ‘agreeing a little’ with the other three, on average.
All other pupils had ‘somewhat satisfied’ teachers.

82 PIRLS 2011 The proportion of Maltese teachers who are satisfied with their job (66%) is significantly higher than the international average proportion (54%).

However, the proportions of Maltese teachers who are moderately satisfied (30%) or less than satisfied (4%) are considerably lower than international average proportions (40% and 5%) respectively.
Colombia has the highest proportion (90%) of Primary school teachers who are satisfied with their career, followed by Indonesia (89%), Croatia (83%), Georgia (79%), Spain (69%), Ireland (69%), Denmark (69%), Israel (67%) and Malta (66%).

France has the lowest proportion (25%) of Primary school teachers who are satisfied with their job, followed by Sweden (29%), Chinese Taipei (31%), Morocco (35%) and Singapore (35%).
The teachers’ career satisfaction is weakly positively related to the achievement of pupils in reading.

The mean reading attainment scores of pupils whose teachers are ‘Satisfied’, ‘Somewhat satisfied’ and ‘Less than satisfied’ are (516, 509 and 511) respectively.

The corresponding mean reading achievement scores of Maltese pupils are (485, 463 and 467) respectively.

The scale score that measures Primary teachers’ job satisfaction ranges from 11.6 (Colombia) to 8.6 (France).
Malta’s scale score (10.7) is well above the international average.

83 PIRLS 2011 84 PIRLS 2011 7 7.1 Introduction This chapter focuses on children’s attitudes and habits to reading and their confidence in their abilities.
This chapter describes how much pupils find reading enjoyable; their motivation and confidence to read; the instructional time spent on language and learning; collaboration with other teachers to improve teaching methods; how much students are engaged during lessons to enhance reading and learning and strategies employed by teachers to develop pupils’ reading comprehension skills.
Other issues that will be reviewed include the instruction limitations caused by pupils’ lack of prerequisite knowledge/skills, lack of nutrition and sleep; disruptive and uninterested pupils; resources used by teachers for teaching reading; computer activities during reading lessons and availability of classroom libraries.

7.2 Reading Enjoyment Pupils who find reading enjoyable are likely to read more than others who do not derive any enjoyment from reading.
In terms of developing skills, children with a positive attitude are more likely to practise the reading skills they are learning at school.

To assess pupils’ enjoyment for reading a scale score was generated according to their degree of agreement with six statements related to reading and how often they did two reading activities outside of school, which are displayed in Tables 7.1 and 7.2.
Pupils who like reading had a score on the scale of at least 11.0, which corresponds to their ‘agreeing a lot’ with three of the six statements and ‘agreeing a little’ with the other three, as well as doing both reading activities every day outside of school, on average.
Pupils who do not like reading had a score no higher than 8.2, which corresponds to their ‘disagreeing a little’ with three of the six statements and ‘agreeing a little’ with the other three, as well as doing both reading activities only once or twice a month, on average.

All other pupils somewhat like reading.


The proportion of Maltese pupils who like reading (34%) is significantly higher than the international average proportion (28%); however, the proportion of Maltese pupils who dislike reading (16%) is marginally higher than the international average (15%).

The scale score that measures pupils’ enjoyment of reading ranges from 10.9 (Portugal) to 9.3 (Croatia).
Malta’s scale (10.2) is significantly higher than the international average indicating that enjoyment of reading in Malta is above average.

85 PIRLS 2011 Figure 7.1: Enjoyment of reading Table 7.1: Responses of Maltese pupils regarding reading behaviour What do you think about reading?
Indicate how much you agree with each of these statements I read only if I have to I like talking about what I read with other people I am happy if someone gives me a book as a present I think reading is boring I would like to have more time for reading I enjoy reading Agree a lot 26.4% 46.7% 58.5% 13.1% 50.1% 61.7% Agree a little 16.3% 27.3% 20.6% 11.6% 23.4% 19.3% Disagree a little 16.4% 11.6% 9.6% 15.1% 12.7% 8.5% Disagree A lot 40.8% 14.4% 11.3% 60.2% 13.8% 10.5% 86 PIRLS 2011 Table 7.2: Reading attitudes of Maltese pupils How often do you do these things outside school?
I read for fun I read things that I choose myself Every day or almost every day 47.0% 64.6% Once or twice a week 28.4% 22.0% Once or twice a month 9.6% 7.5% Never or almost never 15.0% 6.0% The PIRLS study confirms the within-country association between reading enjoyment and reading attainment.
This relationship applies to all countries, including Malta, with higher proportions of high achievers in reading expressing positive views about reading and higher proportions of low achievers in reading expressing negative views.

This is clearly displayed in Figure 7.1, where the mean reading attainment scores for pupils who ‘Like reading’, ‘Somewhat like reading’ and ‘Do not like reading’ are (542, 506 and 488) respectively.
The corresponding mean reading scores for Malta are (506, 466 and 452) respectively.

7.3 Pupils’ motivation to read There is a recognised positive relationship between how well children read and how much they read.

Reading is an activity which benefits from practice and for many children, much of that practice takes place beyond the classroom.
To assess pupils’ motivation to read a scale score was generated using pupils’ responses evaluating the degree of agreement with six statements related to reading, displayed in Table 7.3.

Pupils motivated to read had a score on the scale of at least 8.7, which corresponds to their ‘agreeing a lot’ with three of the six statements and ‘agreeing a little’ with the other three, on average.
Pupils who were not motivated had a score no higher than 6.8, which corresponds to their ‘disagreeing a little’ with three of the six statements and ‘agreeing a little’ with the other three, on average.

All other pupils were somewhat motivated to read.

Table 7.3: Motivation to read of Maltese pupils Do you read for any of the following reasons?
Tell how much you agree with each of these statements I like to read things that make me think It is important to be a good reader My parents like it when I read I learn a lot from reading I need to read well for my future I like it when a book helps me imagine other worlds Agree a lot 63.5% 84.0% 88.0% 79.9% 78.3% 80.2% Agree a little 22.7% 11.0% 7.2% 13.0% 13.7% 11.9% Disagree a little 6.6% 2.4% 2.5% 3.8% 3.6% 3.4% Disagree A lot 7.3% 2.6% 2.3% 3.4% 4.5% 4.6% The proportion of Maltese pupils who indicated that they are motivated to read (82%) is significantly higher than the international average proportion (74%) and is similar to Norway (81%), Romania (83%), the Russian Federation (83%), Saudi Arabia (83%), Portugal (83%), Oman (83%), Croatia (80%) and the United Arab Emirates (80%).
The proportion of Maltese pupils who indicated that they are not motivated to read (4%) is marginally lower than the international average proportion (5%).

The scale score that measures reading motivation ranges from 11.2 (Georgia) to 8.9 (Hong Kong).

Malta’s scale score (10.4) is significantly higher than the international average indicating that motivation for reading in Malta is above average.
87 PIRLS 2011 Figure 7.2 shows that some high achieving countries including Hong Kong, Finland, Singapore and England, on average reported lower levels of motivation compared to some low achieving countries Georgia, Indonesia, Colombia, Trinidad and Tobago, and the Islamic Republic of Iran.

However, there exists a strong positive relationship between motivation to read and reading attainment.
The mean reading attainment score of pupils who are ‘Motivated’, ‘Somewhat motivated’ and ‘Not motivated’ are (518, 503 and 474) respectively.

This positive relationship applies to most of the countries participating in PIRLS 2011, including Malta whose corresponding mean reading scores are (486, 453 and 407) respectively.
Figure 7.2: Motivation to read 88 PIRLS 2011 7.4 Pupils’ confidence in reading With a positive attitude to reading, a child who approaches reading confidently is more likely to seek out opportunities to read more frequently and more widely.

To assess pupils’ confidence in reading a scale score was generated using pupils’ responses evaluating the degree of agreement with seven statements on pupils’ confidence in reading, displayed in Table 7.4.
Figure 7.3: Confidence in reading Pupils who are confident in reading had a score on the scale of at least 10.6, which corresponds to their ‘agreeing a lot’ with four of the seven statements and ‘agreeing a little’ with the other three, on average.

Pupils who are not confident in reading had a score no higher than 89 PIRLS 2011 7.9, which corresponds to their ‘disagreeing a little’ with four of the seven statements and ‘agreeing a little’ with the other three, on average.
All other pupils were somewhat confident in reading.

Table 7.4: Confidence of Maltese pupils in reading How well do you read?
Indicate how much you agree with each of these statements I usually do well in reading Reading is easy for me Reading is harder for me than most of my classmates I don’t care how hard it is to read an interesting book I have trouble reading stories with difficult words My teacher tells me I am a good reader Reading is harder for me than any other subject Agree a lot 68.6% 61.6% 13.4% 61.5% 23.6% 50.8% 13.3% Agree a little 24.0% 26.7% 14.6% 18.6% 28.5% 30.7% 13.1% Disagree a little 3.9% 7.0% 17.4% 9.1% 16.8% 10.4% 14.6% Disagree A lot 3.6% 4.7% 54.5% 10.9% 31.1% 8.1% 59.1% Figure 7.3 reveals that, on average, children in Malta expressed confidence about their reading attainment in English.
39% of pupils in Malta indicated that they had confidence, which is higher than the 37% of pupils in England and the international average of 36%.

48% of pupils in Malta declared that they were somewhat confident which is significantly lower than the 53% of pupils in England and the international average (53%).

13% of Maltese pupils indicated that they are not confident in reading which exceeds the proportion in England (10%) and the international average (11%).
The scale score that measures confidence in reading ranges from 10.6 (Israel and Austria) to 9.1 (Morocco).

Malta has a middling scale score (10.1), which is similar to Denmark (10.1), Australia (10.1), Indonesia (10.1), Northern Ireland (10.0), Trinidad and Tobago (10.0), England 10.0) and the Slovak Republic (10.0).

Greater confidence is associated with higher achievement.

This is reflected in the reading achievement scores obtained by the pupils both locally and internationally.
The mean reading attainment score of pupils who are ‘Confident’, ‘Somewhat confident’ and ‘Not confident’ are (502, 453 and 456) respectively.

This positive relationship applies to Malta whose corresponding mean reading scores are (525, 463 and 392) respectively.

7.5 Instructional time spent on language and reading Total instructional hours per year was computed by multiplying the number of school days per year with the number of instructional hours per day.
The language instructional hours per year were computed by multiplying the ratio of language instructional hours per week and schools days per week with school days per year, displayed in Tables 7.5 and 7.6.

Table 7.5: Distribution of total instructional time (in hours) per day in Malta What is the total instructional time, excluding breaks, in a typical day?
3 hours 4 hours 5 hours 6 hours 90 Frequency 1 4 85 1 Percentage 1.1% 4.4% 93.4% 1.1% PIRLS 2011 Table 7.6: Distribution of total language instructional time (in hours) per week in Malta In a typical week, how much time do you spend on language instruction and/or activities with the pupils?
0-2 hours 3 hours 4 hours 5 hours 6 hours 7-10 hours More than 10 hours Frequency 7 23 57 41 30 22 14 Percentage 3.6% 11.9% 29.4% 21.1% 15.5% 11.3% 7.2% Figure 7.4: Instructional time spent on language and reading 91 PIRLS 2011 The total instructional time throughout a whole year in Malta (891 hours), reported by Heads of School, is 14 hours less than the international average (905 hours).
Indonesia has the highest total instructional time yearly (1297 hours), followed by Italy (1085), the Netherlands (1078) Israel (1075) and Qatar (1068).

Lithuania (649), the Russian Federation, (660) Bulgaria (673) and Slovenia (684) have the lowest total instructional time annually.

The language instructional time throughout a whole year in Malta (181 hours), reported by teachers is 51 hours less than the international average (232 hours).
Australia has the highest language instructional time yearly (356 hours), followed by New Zealand (349).

Georgia (162), Croatia (172), Oman (176), Ireland (176), Malta (181), Bulgaria (186) and Finland (188) have the lowest language instructional time annually.

The time spent reading as part of language instruction throughout a whole year in Malta (37 hours) is the lowest of all the countries taking part and is 34 hours less than the international average (71 hours).
The United States and New Zealand allocate the highest reading time annually as part of language instruction (131 hours), followed by Australia (119), Hungary (104) and Canada (101 hours).

The time spent reading across the curriculum, including time spent on reading instruction throughout a whole year in Malta (104 hours) is 42 hours less than the international average (146 hours).
The United States allocates the highest reading time across the curriculum yearly (246 hours), followed by Slovak Republic (239), Portugal (235), New Zealand (220) and Hungary (206).

Chinese Taipei (65), Austria (97), Morocco (99) and Finland (99) have the lowest reading time across the curriculum annually.
7.6 Collaboration between teachers to improve teaching methods To assess collaboration between teachers for teaching development, a scale score was generated by using teachers’ responses to how often they interact with other teachers in each of five teaching areas, displayed in Table 7.7.
Pupils taught by very collaborative teachers had a score on the scale of at least 9.4, which corresponds to their teachers having interactions with other teachers at least ‘one to three times per week’ in each of three of the five areas and ‘two or three times per month’ in each of the other two, on average.
Pupils taught by somewhat collaborative teachers had a score no higher than 6.6, which corresponds to their teachers ‘never or almost never’ interacting with other teachers in each of three of the five areas and ‘two or three times per month’ in each of the other two, on average.

All other pupils had collaborative teachers.

Table 7.7: Collaboration between Maltese teachers to enhance their teaching methods How often do you have the following types of interactions with other teachers?
Never or almost never 28.0% 31.4% 27.0% 2-3 times per month 40.3% 38.1% 39.8% 1-3 times Per week 26.1% 22.4% 23.2% Daily or almost daily 5.7% 8.1% 10.0% 91.5% 40.0% 6.1% 38.6% 1.4% 15.2% 0.9% 6.2% Discuss how to teach a particular topic Collaborate in planning and preparing material Share what you have learned about teaching experience Visit another classroom to learn about teaching Work together to try out new ideas 92 Figure 7.5: Collaboration between teachers to enhance teaching methods PIRLS 2011 84% of Maltese teachers reported that they are very collaborative and interact frequently with other teachers.
Malta, the Czech Republic and Ireland reported the highest proportions (84%) which were higher than the international average proportion by 19%.

Slovenia had the lowest proportion (26%) of teachers reporting frequent collaboration with other teachers.
The scale score that measures collaboration ranges from 11.5 (Malta) to 8.2 (Slovenia) indicating that Maltese teachers interact well with other teachers by discussing teaching methods and sharing teaching experience and collaborate in planning and preparing teaching material.

There exist no relationship between the reading attainment of pupils and the amount of collaboration between teachers.
The mean reading scores of pupils whose teachers are ‘Very collaborative’, ‘Collaborative’ and ‘Somewhat collaborative’ are (512, 513 and 510) respectively.

93 PIRLS 2011 7.7 Instruction to engage pupils in learning Figure 7.6: Engaging pupils in learning during lessons To assess how much teachers engage pupils in learning, a scale score was generated by using teachers’ responses to how often they used each of six instructional practices displayed in Table 7.8.
Pupils with teachers who used engagement practices in most lessons had a score on the scale of at least 9.1, which corresponds to their teachers using three of the six practices ‘every or almost every lesson’ and using the other three in ‘about half the lessons’, on average.
Pupils with teachers who used engagement practices in some lessons had a score no higher than 5.9, which corresponds to their teachers using three of the six practices in ‘some lessons’ and using the other three in ‘about half the lessons’, on average.

All other pupils had teachers who used engagement practices in about half the lessons.

94 PIRLS 2011 Table 7.8: Engaging Maltese pupils in learning during lessons How often do you do the following in teaching this class?
Summarise what pupils should learn from lesson Relate the lesson to pupils’ daily lives Use questioning to elicit reasons and explanations Encourage all pupils to improve their performance Praise pupils for good effort Bring interesting materials to class Every or almost every lesson 72.2% 56.0% 89.0% 95.2% 94.7% 37.3% Almost half the lesson 15.8% 30.6% 9.6% 4.3% 4.3% 38.8% Some lessons 11.5% 13.4% 1.4% 0.5% 1.0% 23.9% Never 0.5% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 81% of Maltese teachers reported that they engage pupils in learning in most lessons, which is 10% higher than the international average proportion (71%).
Romania ranks first (94%) followed by Lithuania (93%), England (91%), Bulgaria (90%) and Hungary (90%).

Denmark (23%), Finland (33%), Norway (38%) and Chinese Taipei (39%) have the lowest proportions of teachers who engage pupils in learning in almost all the lessons.

The scale score that measures how much teachers engage pupils in learning during lessons ranges from 11.4 (Romania) to 7.7 (Denmark).

Malta’s scale score (10.3) is significantly above the international average.
Some high performing countries, including Chinese Taipei, Hong Kong, Singapore and Finland have lower percentages of teachers who engage pupils frequently during lessons.

Moreover, the relationship between pupils reading attainment and the degree to which teachers engage pupils in learning is a weak one and not significant.
7.8 Pupils’ engagement in reading lessons To assess how much teachers engage pupils in reading lessons a scale score was generated by using pupil responses to how much they agree with seven statements related to reading at school, which are displayed in Table 7.9.

Pupils engaged in reading lessons have a score on the scale of at least 10.5, which corresponds to their ‘agreeing a lot’ with four of the seven statements and ‘agreeing a little’ with the other three, on average.
Pupils who were not engaged had a score no higher than 7.4, which corresponds to their ‘disagreeing a little’ with four of the seven statements and ‘agreeing a little’ with the other three, on average.

All other pupils were Somewhat Engaged in reading lessons.

Table 7.9: Engaging Maltese pupils in reading lessons Think about reading at school.

How much do you agree with the statements about your reading lessons?
I like what I read about in school My teacher gives me interesting things to read I know what my teacher expects me to do I think of things not related to the lesson My teacher is easy to understand I am interested in what my teacher says My teacher gives me interesting things to do Agree a lot 59.0% 64.2% 68.8% 15.9% 65.9% 70.4% 70.0% Agree a little 29.0% 22.4% 20.8% 20.9% 22.2% 20.6% 18.1% Disagree a little 6.3% 7.6% 5.6% 18.6% 6.4% 5.5% 7.0% Disagree A lot 5.6% 5.7% 4.8% 44.5% 5.5% 3.4% 4.9% 55% of Maltese pupils reported that they are engaged in reading lessons, which is 13% higher than the international average proportion (42%).
Indonesia tops the list (71%), followed 95 PIRLS 2011 by Georgia (68%) and Azerbaijan (67%).

Finland (15%), Denmark (18%), the Netherlands (20%) and Hong Kong (24%) have the lowest proportions of pupils who reported that they are frequently engaged in reading lessons.

The scale score that measures how much pupils are involved in reading lessons ranges from 11.3 (Indonesia) to 8.7 (Finland).

Malta’s scale score (10.6) is significantly above the international average.
Some high performing countries, including Chinese Taipei, Hong Kong, Singapore, and Finland have lower percentages of pupils who reported that they are engaged in reading lessons.

There exists a positive relationship between pupils’ reading attainment and the degree to which teachers engage pupils in reading lessons.

The mean attainment reading score of pupils who were ‘Engaged’, ‘Somewhat engaged and ‘Not engaged’ are (519, 510 and 494) respectively.
Figure 7.7: Engaging pupils in reading lessons 96 PIRLS 2011 7.9 Teachers’ impact to develop pupils’ comprehension skills Figure 7.8 shows that for most of the tasks the contribution of Maltese teachers to pupils in developing their comprehension skills and strategies is above international averages.
The three comprehension skills that need to be given more weight by Maltese teacher are - making generalisations and draw inferences based on what pupils read; describe the style or structure of the text they have read; determine the author’s perspective or intention.
Figure 7.8: Teachers’ contribution to develop pupils’ comprehension skills and strategies 97 PIRLS 2011 7.10 Effect on learning due to pupils’ lack of prerequisite knowledge Figure 7.9 shows that the proportion of Maltese teachers reporting excessive instruction limitation caused by pupils who lack prerequisite knowledge/skills (17%) exceeds the international average (11.%).
Conversely, the proportion of Maltese teachers reporting minimal instruction limitation (19%) is considerably lower than the international average (28%).

There is a strong negative relationship between reading attainment and the lack of prerequisite knowledge/skills.
Figure 7.9: Effect on learning due to pupils’ lack of prerequisite knowledge and skills 98 PIRLS 2011 7.11 Effect on learning due to pupils’ lack of sleep and nutrition Figure 7.10 shows that the incidence of students suffering from a lack of nutrition and a lack of sleep is quite uncommon in Malta.
The proportion of Maltese pupils who have adequate basic nutrition (88%) and adequate sleep (73%), as reported by the teachers, exceeds the corresponding international average proportions (73% and 51%) by a large margin.

There is evidence that lack of basic nutrition and lack of sleep is associated with a poorer reading attainment.
Figure 7.10: Effect on learning due to student’s lack of sleep and nutrition 99 PIRLS 2011 7.12 Effect on learning by disruptive and uninterested students Figure 7.11 shows that the proportion of Maltese disruptive pupils who hamper instruction in class (16%) exceeds the international average proportion (12%); however, the proportion of uninterested Maltese pupils in class is identical to the international average (10%).
Proportions of very disruptive, uninterested pupils are higher in Colombia, France, Morocco, Oman, Lithuania, Italy and the French-speaking Belgian community.

There is very strong evidence that attainment in reading tends to be lower where disruptive, uninterested pupils prevail.
Figure 7.11: Effect on learning caused by disruptive and uninterested pupils 100 PIRLS 2011 7.13 Computer activities during reading lessons Figure 7.12 shows that 73% of Maltese teachers reported that computers are available for reading lessons, which is significantly higher than the international average (45%).

Moreover, Maltese teachers make frequent use of these computers during reading lessons.
The availability or otherwise of computers during reading lessons does not seem to result in any significant rise in the mean reading attainment scores of pupils.

The international mean score of 513 is the same for those pupils who have computers available for reading lessons as well as those who do not.
Figure 7.12: Computer use during reading lessons 101 PIRLS 2011 7.14 Classroom libraries Figure 7.13 shows that 90% of pupils in Malta have a library or reading corner available in the classroom, which is significantly higher than the international average (72%) but not as high as the proportions of United States (99%), New Zealand (99%) and Ireland (98%).
Figure 7.13: Classroom libraries 102 PIRLS 2011 Moreover, teachers were asked to specify the number of books and magazine titles that were available in the reading corner/library; the time pupils are allowed to use the library; who can borrow books and the frequency of visits to other libraries within and outside the school.

The proportion of Maltese teachers reporting that their classroom library has at least 50 books, and has at least 3 magazine titles, are (49% and 35%) respectively.
These are well above the international averages (32% and 31%).

Moreover, the proportion of Maltese teachers who give time to students to use classroom library at least once a week, allow pupils to borrow books from the classroom library and take pupils to other libraries within and outside the school at least once a month are (82%, 76% and 75%) respectively.

These exceed by large margins the corresponding international average proportions (60%, 56% and 68%).
The importance of school libraries was highlighted in Chapter 4 where it resulted that the bigger the school library the higher the achievement of pupils.

Figure 7.13 shows that there is a weak positive relationship between reading attainment and the availability of a classroom library.

The mean reading score of students who have a class library facility (514) exceeds the mean reading score of pupils who do not have such facilities (507).
However in some countries, including Malta and England, the mean reading scores are in the reverse order indicating that the availability of a classroom library is not a good predictor of reading attainment.

7.15 Resources teachers use for teaching reading There are a range of methods for teaching reading which can be supported through the use of different teaching materials, such as textbooks, reading series and workbooks and teachers were asked to indicate how often they used each reading source.
Figure 7.14 shows that Maltese teachers make more use of children’s books as a supplement (72%) rather than as a basis for instruction (24%).

These proportions are similar to international averages (69%, 27%) respectively.

Teachers in Malta, on average, make heavy use of the textbooks as a basis for instruction rather than a supplement.

86% of Maltese teachers use textbooks as a basis for instruction, which is significantly higher than the international average (72%).
Saudi Arabia makes the most use of textbooks for instruction (99%), followed by Bulgaria (98%), Georgia (98%), Hungary (97%), Lithuania (97%) and Hong Kong (96%).

On the other hand, Northern Ireland makes more use of textbooks as a supplement (66%) followed by England (62%), French-speaking Belgian community (51%), Canada (50%) and Sweden (50%).

Maltese teachers make more use of reading series as a basis for instruction (59%) rather than as a supplement (34%).
This is in contrast to international trends where foreign teachers make more use of reading series as a supplement (59%) rather than as a basis for instruction (27%).

A slightly higher proportion of Maltese teachers use workbooks and worksheets as a supplement (50%) rather than as a basis for instruction (45%), which is similar to international trends (56% and 40%) respectively.

Computer software for reading instruction has widespread use as a supplement.
16% of Maltese teachers use computer software as a basis for instruction; whereas 55% use it as a supplement.

These proportions exceed international averages (8% and 48%) by large margins indicating that Maltese teachers, on average, make more use of computer software for learning instruction than foreign teachers.
103 PIRLS 2011 Figure 7.14: Resources teachers use for teaching reading 104 Appendix 105 Appendix A. Maltese Students’ Responses Gender of student Student’s year of birth Female Male Before 2001 2001 After 2001 How often do you speak English at home?

Always Sometimes Never How many books are there in your home?

0-10 books 11-25 books 26-100 books 101-200 books More than 200 books Do you have any of these things at home?
Computer Study desk / table for your use Books of your very own Your own room Internet connection Video game console Mobile phone Mp3 player / iPod Digital camera Laptop / Netbook / PDA DVD player Frequency 1755 1843 Frequency 204 3343 51 Frequency 620 2081 890 Frequency 297 995 1411 526 345 Yes 94.6% 82.7% 91.4% 70.8% 94.1% 83.0% 74.9% 64.7% 78.3% 64.3% 93.4% Percentage 48.8% 51.2% Percentage 5.7% 92.9% 1.4% Percentage 17.3% 58.0% 24.7% Percentage 8.3% 27.8% 39.5% 14.7% 9.7% No 5.4% 17.3% 8.6% 29.2% 5.9% 17.0% 25.1% 35.3% 21.7% 35.7% 6.6% How often do you use a computer in each of these places?
At home At school Some other place How often do the following things happen at home?
My parents ask me what I am learning at school I talk about my schoolwork with my parents My parents make sure that I allow time for homework My parents check if I do my homework Every day or almost every day 63.0% 14.9% 14.7% Every day or almost every day 68.1% 53.9% 79.6% 69.5% Once or twice a week 28.7% 50.3% 23.4% Once or twice a month 4.4% 15.1% 21.8% Never or almost never 3.9% 19.7% 40.1% Once or twice a week 17.1% 25.6% 8.7% 12.6% Once or twice a month 6.6% 7.2% 3.2% 5.2% Never or almost never 8.2% 13.3% 8.5% 12.8% 106 Appendix What do you think about your school?
Tell how much you agree with these statements I like being at school I feel safe when I am at school I feel like I belong at this school Agree a lot 50.8% 58.9% 59.4% Agree a little 30.1% 26.6% 20.1% Disagree a little 8.7% 7.9% 9.3% Disagree a lot 10.4% 6.6% 11.2% How often do you experience these at school?
I was made fun of or called names I was left out of games/activities by other students Someone spread lies about me Something was stolen from me I was hit or hurt by other student(s) I was made to do things I didn’t want to do to others At least once a week 20.4% 14.7% 15.6% 8.0% 16.4% 9.7% Once or twice a month 11.1% 13.5% 12.9% 8.3% 14.6% 8.5% A few times a year 23.9% 19.5% 24.7% 20.8% 30.2% 15.8% Never or almost never 44.6% 52.2% 46.9% 62.9% 38.8% 66.0% How much time do you spend reading outside school on a normal school day?
Less than 30 minutes 30 minutes to 1 hour 1-2 hours More than 2 hours Yes 1192 1725 337 348 No 33.1% 47.9% 9.4% 9.7% How often do you do these things outside of school?

I read for fun I read things that I choose myself I read to find out about things I want to learn How often do you read these things outside of school (in print or on the internet?
I read stories or novels I read books that explain things I read magazines I read comic books I read game instructions I read posters and leaflets Every day or almost every day 47.0% 64.6% 54.8% Every day or almost every day 38.7% 42.2% 19.2% 23.8% 32.4% 25.8% Once or twice a week 28.4% 22.0% 24.5% Once or twice a month 9.6% 7.5% 12.5% Never or almost never 15.0% 6.0% 8.2% Once or twice a week 32.7% 31.6% 22.5% 18.9% 19.0% 20.7% Once or twice a month 13.7% 15.5% 20.7% 20.2% 21.4% 22.8% Never or almost never 14.9% 10.6% 37.7% 37.1% 27.2% 30.7% How often do you borrow books from your school or local library?
At least once a week Once or twice a month A few times a year Never or almost never Frequency 2230 637 379 310 Percentage 62.7% 17.9% 10.7% 8.7% 107 Appendix Think about reading at school.

How much do you agree with the statements about your reading lessons?
I like what I read about in school My teacher gives me interesting things to read I know what my teacher expects me to do I think of things not related to the lesson My teacher is easy to understand I am interested in what my teacher says My teacher gives me interesting things to do Agree a lot 59.0% 64.2% 68.8% 15.9% 65.9% 70.4% 70.0% Agree a little 29.0% 22.4% 20.8% 20.9% 22.2% 20.6% 18.1% Disagree a little 6.3% 7.6% 5.6% 18.6% 6.4% 5.5% 7.0% Disagree A lot 5.6% 5.7% 4.8% 44.5% 5.5% 3.4% 4.9% In school, how often do these things happen in relation to reading?
I read silently on my own I read books that I choose myself Every day or almost every day 62.2% 62.3% Once or twice a week 25.5% 22.5% Once or twice a month 5.8% 6.7% Never or almost never 6.5% 8.5% What do you think about reading?
Tell how much you agree with each of these statements I read only if I have to I like talking about what I read with other people I am happy if someone gives me a book as a present I think reading is boring I would like to have more time for reading I enjoy reading How well do you read?
Tell how much you agree with each of these statements I usually do well in reading Reading is easy for me Reading is harder for me than most of my classmates I don’t care how hard it is to read an interesting book I have trouble reading stories with difficult words My teacher tells me I am a good reader Reading is harder for me than any other subject Do you read for any of the following reasons?
Tell how much you agree with each of these statements I like to read things that make me think It is important to be a good reader My parents like it when I read I learn a lot from reading I need to read well for my future I like it when a book helps me imagine other worlds Agree a lot 26.4% 46.7% 58.5% 13.1% 50.1% 61.7% Agree a lot 68.6% 61.6% 13.4% 61.5% 23.6% 50.8% 13.3% Agree a lot 63.5% 84.0% 88.0% 79.9% 78.3% 80.2% Agree a little 16.3% 27.3% 20.6% 11.6% 23.4% 19.3% Agree a little 24.0% 26.7% 14.6% 18.6% 28.5% 30.7% 13.1% Agree a little 22.7% 11.0% 7.2% 13.0% 13.7% 11.9% Disagree a little 16.4% 11.6% 9.6% 15.1% 12.7% 8.5% Disagree a little 3.9% 7.0% 17.4% 9.1% 16.8% 10.4% 14.6% Disagree a little 6.6% 2.4% 2.5% 3.8% 3.6% 3.4% Disagree A lot 40.8% 14.4% 11.3% 60.2% 13.8% 10.5% Disagree A lot 3.6% 4.7% 54.5% 10.9% 31.1% 8.1% 59.1% Disagree A lot 7.3% 2.6% 2.3% 3.4% 4.5% 4.6% 108 B. Maltese Teachers’ Responses By the end of this year, how many years will you have been teaching altogether?
1-5 6-10 11-15 16-20 21-25 26-30 31-42 Female Male Under 25 25-29 30-39 40-49 50-59 60 or more Gender of teacher How old are you?

What is the highest level of formal education you have completed?

Did not complete ISCED level 3 Completed ISCED level 3 Completed ISCED level 4 Completed ISCED level 5B Completed Bachelor’s Degree Completed Master’s, PhD During your tertiary education, what was your major or main area(s) of study?
Primary Education Secondary Education Mathematics Science English Maltese If your major or main area study was education did you have a specialisation in any of the following?
Mathematics Science Language Reading Other Subject Frequency 43 63 50 27 10 8 8 Frequency 171 41 Frequency 19 35 92 32 27 7 Frequency 2 17 1 20 145 22 Yes 70.1% 32.0% 10.1% 10.6% 20.8% 56.1% Yes 8.4% 7.9% 36.5% 47.1% Appendix Percentage 20.6% 30.2% 23.8% 12.8% 4.8% 3.9% 3.9% Percentage 80.7% 19.3% Percentage 9.0% 16.5% 43.4% 15.1% 12.7% 3.3% Percentage 1.0% 8.2% 0.5% 9.7% 70.0% 10.6% No 29.9% 68.0% 89.9% 89.4% 79.2% 43.9% No 91.6% 92.1% 63.5% 52.9% 109 Appendix How would you characterise each of the following within your school?
Job satisfaction Understanding of school’s curriculum goals Degree of success in implementing curriculum Expectations for student achievement Parental support for student achievement Parental involvement in school activities Students’ regard for school property Students’ desire to do well in school Thinking about your current school, indicate the extent to which you agree or disagree with each of the following statements?
This school is located in a safe neighbourhood I feel safe at school The school’s security policies are sufficient The students behave in an orderly manner The students are respectful of the teachers In your current school, how severe is each problem?
The school building needs significant repair Classrooms are crowded Teachers have too many teaching hours Teachers do not have adequate workspace Teachers do not have adequate instructional material Very High 25.2% 29.5% 18.9% 22.6% 10.8% 6.1% 4.3% 11.8% Agree a lot 73.5% 78.2% 49.5% 35.1% 35.5% Not a problem 35.5% 37.4% 42.6% 27.8% 32.2% High 54.3% 58.6% 65.6% 62.7% 29.7% 37.3% 37.9% 47.4% Medium 19.0% 11.9% 15.1% 14.6% 50.5% 44.3% 51.2% 35.1% Low 1.4% 0.0% 0.5% 0.0% 8.0% 10.4% 5.7% 5.2% Very Low 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.9% 1.9% 0.9% 0.5% Agree a little 21.8% 20.4% 38.6% 45.0% 41.2% Minor problem 35.5% 28.4% 33.5% 31.1% 41.8% Disagree a little 4.7% 1.4% 11.0% 17.1% 16.1% Moderate problem 22.7% 22.3% 17.7% 27.3% 22.6% Disagree a lot 0.0% 0.0% 1.0% 2.8% 3.8% Serious Problem 6.2% 11.8% 6.2% 13.9% 3.4% Do you use computers in your teaching in any of the following ways?
For preparation For administration In your classroom instruction Yes 97.6% 78.3% 88.2% No 2.4% 21.7% 11.8% If you use computers for classroom instruction, how much do you agree with the following statements?
I feel comfortable using computers in my teaching When I have technical problems, I have ready access to computer support staff in my school I receive adequate support for integrating computers in my teaching activities Agree a lot 84.5% 26.7% 34.9% Agree a little 13.4% 34.2% 38.7% Disagree a little 1.1% 21.4% Disagree a lot 1.1% 17.6% 18.3% 8.1% How often do you have the following types of interactions with other teachers?
Discuss how to teach a particular topic Collaborate in planning and preparing material Share what I have learned about teaching experience Visit another classroom to learn about teaching Work together to try out new ideas Never or almost never 28.0% 31.4% 27.0% 91.5% 40.0% 2-3 times per month 40.3% 38.1% 39.8% 6.1% 38.6% 1-3 times Per week 26.1% 22.4% 23.2% 1.4% 15.2% Daily or almost daily 5.7% 8.1% 10.0% 0.9% 6.2% 110 Appendix How much do you agree with the following statements?
I am content with my profession as a teacher I am satisfied with being a teacher at this school I had more enthusiasm when I began teaching I do important work as a teacher I plan to continue as a teacher for as long as I can I am frustrated as a teacher Agree a lot 76.3% 79.1% 12.8% 92.4% 63.5% 0.5% Agree a little 19.9% 17.5% 21.3% 7.6% 27.0% 14.3% Disagree a little 3.8% 3.3% 24.2% 0.0% 8.5% 15.7% Disagree a lot 0.0% 0.0% 41.7% 0.0% 0.9% 69.5% How many students in the class experience difficulties understanding spoken language?
How many students are in this class?

0 7-8 9-10 11-20 5-10 11-15 26 27 28-31 Frequency 45 17 29 27 18 22 15 11 8 10 Frequency 6 21 18 20 22 13 17 13 9 5 8 12 19 13 13 Percentage 22.2% 8.4% 14.3% 13.4% 8.9% 10.9% 7.4% 5.5% 4.0% 5.0% Percentage 3.0% 10.0% 8.6% 9.6% 10.5% 6.2% 8.1% 6.2% 4.3% 2.4% 3.8% 5.7% 9.1% 6.2% 6.2% How often do you do the following in teaching this class?
Summarise what students should learn from lesson Relate the lesson to students’ daily lives Use questioning to elicit reasons and explanations Encourage all students to improve their performance Praise students for good effort Bring interesting materials to class Every or almost every lesson 72.2% 56.0% 89.0% 95.2% 94.7% 37.3% Almost half the lesson 15.8% 30.6% 9.6% 4.3% 4.3% 38.8% Some lessons 11.5% 13.4% 1.4% 0.5% 1.0% 23.9% Never 0.5% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 111 Appendix Which of the following subjects do you teach to this class?
I teach the class English / Maltese reading I teach the class mathematics I teach the class science Yes 93.2% 86.4% 73.8% No 6.8% 13.6% 26.2% In your view, to what extent do the following limit how you teach this class?
Students lacking prerequisite knowledge or skills Students suffering from lack of basic nutrition Students suffering from not enough sleep Students with special needs Disruptive students Uninterested students Not applicable 6.7% 66.0% 42.8% 26.8% 9.5% 7.6% Not at all 15.2% 22.5% 30.3% 28.7% 20.0% 27.1% Some 61.4% 9.6% 24.5% 42.6% 54.3% 54.8% A lot 16.7% 1.9% 2.4% 1.9% 16.2% 10.5% In a week, how much time do you spend on English language instruction and/or activities with the students?
0-2 3 4 5 6 7-8 9-10 11-15 17-21 Frequency 7 23 57 41 30 14 8 6 7 Percentage 3.6% 11.9% 29.4% 21.1% 15.5% 7.2% 4.1% 3.0% 4.0% What proportion of the time spent on language instruction or activities is spent on the following skills?
Reading Grammar and spelling Writing composition Speaking and listening Other 0-20% 71.5% 25.4% 55.4% 60.1% 97.4% 21-40% 26.4% 64.8% 43.6% 37.3% 1.6% 41-60% 0.0% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 1.0% 61-80% 0.0% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 0.0% In a typical week, how much time do you spend on language instruction and/or activities with the students?
0 8-10 11-15 Frequency 11 68 39 17 13 9 6 5 5 10 Percentage 6.0% 37.2% 21.3% 9.3% 7.1% 4.9% 3.3% 2.7% 2.7% 5.4% 112 Appendix For the typical student in this class, how often do you do these things?
Meet or talk individually with the student’s parents to discuss his/her learning progress Send home a progress report on the student’s learning At least once a week 1.9% Once or twice a month 6.3% 4-6 times a year 11.5% 1-3 times a year 79.8% Never 0.5% 2.4% 6.7% 16.7% 64.1% 10.0% When you have reading instructions and/or do reading activities, how often do you organise students in the following way?
I teach reading as a whole-class activity I create same-ability groups I create mixed-ability groups I use individualized instruction for reading Students work individually on an assigned plan / goal Students work independently on a goal they choose Always or almost always 29.7% 4.1% 9.2% 4.1% 2.6% 6.2% Often 43.6% 16.4% 29.7% 29.9% 10.8% 26.8% Sometimes 25.6% 55.9% 52.8% 53.1% 50.0% 54.1% Never 1.0% 23.6% 8.2% 12.9% 36.6% 12.9% How many students in class need remedial / complementary instruction in reading 0 8-23 How many students in class receive remedial / complementary instruction in reading 0 6-8 Frequency 15 17 28 34 30 32 17 11 11 Frequency 68 16 30 25 24 16 14 Percentage 7.7% 8.7% 14.4% 17.4% 15.4% 16.4% 8.7% 5.6% 5.6% Percentage 35.2% 8.3% 15.5% 13.0% 12.4% 8.3% 7.2% When you have reading instructions and / or do reading activities with the students, how do you use the following resources?
Textbooks Reading series Workbooks or worksheets A variety of children’s books Material from different curricular areas Children’s newspapers and / or magazines Computer software for reading instruction Reference material Basis for instruction 84.6% 59.6% 46.9% 25.8% 19.1% 8.8% 16.4% 13.8% Supplement 13.3% 33.7% 48.5% 70.6% 73.2% 57.7% 58.5% 83.6% Not used 2.1% 6.7% 4.6% 3.6% 7.7% 33.5% 25.1% 2.6% 113 Appendix Is there any provision for advanced readers to receive additional or more challenging reading instructions in your school?
Yes No Frequency 83 114 Percentage 42.1% 57.9% When you have reading instructions and/or do reading activities, how often do you have students read literary reading materials?
Short stories Longer fiction books with chapters Plays Others Every day or almost every day 21.0% 7.2% 0.5% 11.3% Once or twice a week 63.6% 38.7% 6.7% 17.9% Once or twice a month 14.9% 33.5% 48.5% 43.5% Never or almost never 0.5% 20.6% 44.3% 27.4% When you have reading instructions and/or do reading activities, how often do you have students read informational reading materials?
Nonfiction subject area books or textbooks Longer nonfiction books with chapters Nonfiction articles that describes about people and things, people, events or how things work Every day or almost every day 20.7% 5.2% 5.2% Once or twice a week 40.4% 18.1% 32.1% Once or twice a month 33.7% 47.7% 54.4% Never or almost never 5.2% 29.0% 8.3% When you have reading instructions and/or do reading activities with students, how often do you do the following?
Read aloud to the class Ask student to read aloud Ask students to read silently on their own Give students time to read books of their own choice Teach students strategies for decoding sounds/words Teach students new vocabulary systematically Teach or model skimming or scanning strategies Every day or almost every day 70.9% 74.5% 44.4% 37.8% 28.4% 34.9% 12.5% Once or twice a week 26.0% 24.0% 43.9% 44.9% 38.1% 53.3% 34.4% Once or twice a month 2.0% 1.5% 9.7% 16.8% 25.8% 9.2% 35.4% Never or almost never 1.0% 0.0% 2.0% 0.5% 7.7% 2.6% 17.7% How often do you ask the students to do the following things to help develop reading comprehension skills or strategies?
Locate information within the text Identify the main ideas of what they have read Explain or support their understanding of what they have read Compare what they have read with experiences they have had Compare what they have read with other things they have read Make predictions about what happens next in the the text they are reading Make generalisations and draw inferences based on what they have read Describe the style or structure of the text they have read Determine the author’s perspective or intention Every day or almost every day 38.5% 41.5% 50.3% Once or twice a week 60.5% 57.4% 49.2% Once or twice a month 1.0% 1.0% 0.5% Never or almost never 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 29.9% 24.6% 26.8% 14.9% 12.8% 10.3% 51.5% 46.7% 51.0% 54.9% 48.2% 44.4% 16.0% 24.1% 19.1% 21.0% 31.3% 31.3% 2.6% 4.6% 3.1% 9.2% 7.7% 14.4% 114 Appendix After students have read something, how often do you ask them to do the following?
Write something about or in response to what they have read Answer oral questions about or orally summarise what they have read Talk with each other about what they have read Take a written quiz or test about what they have read Every day or almost every day 11.9% Once or twice a week 54.1% Once or twice a month 29.4% Never or almost never 4.6% 50.5% 22.2% 4.1% 44.3% 41.2% 27.8% 5.2% 28.4% 41.8% 0.0% 8.2% 26.3% Do the students in this class have computers available to use during their reading lessons?
Yes No Frequency 142 2 Percentage 98.6% 1.4% How often do you have students do the following computer activities during their reading lessons?
Look up information Read stories or other texts on the computer Use instructional software to develop reading skills Use the computer to write stories or other texts Every day or almost every day 6.9% 8.3% 4.2% 4.2% Once or twice a week 37.5% 29.9% 30.6% 32.6% Once or twice a month 45.1% 46.5% 34.7% 45.8% Never or almost never 10.4% 15.3% 30.6% 17.4% Do you have a library or reading corner in your classroom?

Yes No How many books are in your classroom library?
0-25 26-50 51-100 More than 100 How many magazines with different titles are in your classroom library?

0 1-2 3-5 More than 5 How often do you give students in your class time to use the classroom library or reading corner?
Every day or almost every day Once or twice a week Once or twice a month Never or almost never Frequency 189 18 Frequency 15 68 71 33 Frequency 59 54 41 31 Frequency 87 84 12 3 Percentage 91.3% 8.7% Percentage 8.0% 36.4% 38.0% 17.6% Percentage 31.9% 29.2% 22.2% 16.8% Percentage 46.8% 45.2% 6.5% 1.6% 115 Appendix Can the students borrow books from the classroom library or reading corner to take home?

Yes No How often do you take or send students to the library other than your classroom library?
At least once or twice a week Once or twice a month A few times a year Never or almost never How often do you take or send students to the library other than your classroom library?

No reading homework assignment Less than once a week 1-2 a week 3-4 a week Everyday In general how much time do you expect your students to spend on homework involving reading for any subject each time you assign it?
15 minutes or less 16-30 minutes 31-60 minutes More than 60 minutes Frequency 156 30 Frequency 120 32 24 29 Frequency 9 13 67 31 70 Frequency 23 120 39 0 Percentage 83.9% 16.1% Percentage 58.5% 15.6% 11.7% 14.1% Percentage 4.7% 6.8% 35.3% 16.3% 36.8% Percentage 12.6% 65.9% 21.4% 0.0% How often do you do the following with reading homework assignments for this class?
Correct assignments and give feedback to students Discuss the homework in class Monitor whether or not the homework was completed Always or almost always 66.3% 62.4% 86.7% Sometimes 25.4% 28.7% 11.1% Never or almost never 8.3% 8.8% 2.2% Are the following resources available to you to work with students who have difficulty with reading?
A specialised professional A learning support assistant An adult / parent volunteer Always 29.3% 52.9% 1.5% Sometimes 47.8% 21.6% 3.9% Never 22.9% 25.5% 94.6% What do you usually do if a student begins to fall behind in reading?
Have the student work with a specialised professional Wait to see if performance improves with maturation Spend more time working or reading individually with student Ask the parents to help the student with reading Yes 67.0% 50.7% 75.5% 96.7% No 33.0% 49.3% 24.5% 3.3% 116 Appendix How much emphasis do you place on the following sources to monitor students’ progress in reading?
Evaluation of students’ ongoing work Classroom tests National achievement tests Major emphasis 80.2% 41.5% 35.0% Some emphasis 18.8% 53.7% 40.9% Little or no emphasis 1.0% 4.9% 24.1% As part of your formal education and / or training, to what extent did you study the following areas?
Language test English / Maltese) Pedagogy/ teaching reading Educational psychology Remedial reading Reading theory Special education Second language learning Assessment methods in reading Not at all 3.9% 7.3% 6.3% 26.8% 22.9% 20.1% 21.1% 22.4% Overview or introduction to topic 30.9% 29.6% 29.1% 59.5% 60.0% 57.4% 51.5% 60.0% It was an area of emphasis 65.2% 63.1% 64.6% 13.7% 17.1% 22.5% 27.5% 17.6% In the past two years, how many hours in total have you spent in in-service workshops or seminars that dealt directly with reading or teaching reading?
None Less than 6 hours 6-15 hours 16-35 hours More than 35 hours For your professional development, about how often do you read children’s books?

At least once a week Once or twice a month Once or twice a year Never or almost never Frequency 48 58 62 24 14 Frequency 58 92 34 15 Percentage 23.3% 28.2% 30.1% 11.7% 6.8% Percentage 29.1% 46.2% 17.1% 7.5% 117 Appendix C. Maltese Heads’ of School Responses Approximately what percentages of students in your school have the following background?
Come from economically disadvantaged homes Come from economically affluent homes 0-10% 62.1% 34.4% 11-25% 21.8% 14.4% 26-50% 4.6% 24.4% 51-100% 11.5% 26.7% Approximately what percentages of students in your school have English as their native language?

More than 90% 76-90% 51-77% 26-50% 25% or less How many people live in the city, town or area where your school is located?
More than 50000 people 15001-50000 people 3001-15000 people 3000 people or fewer Which best describes the immediate area in which your school is located?

Urban – Densely populated Suburban – Outskirts of urban area Medium size city or large town Small town or village Remote rural Which best characterizes the average income level of the school’s immediate area?

High Medium Low What is the total instructional time, excluding breaks, in a typical day?
3 hours 4 hours 5 hours 6 hours Does your school have a science laboratory that can be used by Year 5 students?
Yes No 118 Frequency 6 6 4 5 68 Frequency 0 9 56 27 Frequency 29 6 14 41 3 Frequency 0 79 13 Frequency 1 4 85 1 Frequency 15 77 Percentage 6.7% 6.7% 4.5% 5.6% 76.4% Percentage 0.0% 9.8% 60.9% 29.3% Percentage 31.2% 6.5% 15.1% 44.1% 3.2% Percentage 0.0% 85.9% 14.1% Percentage 1.1% 4.4% 93.4% 1.1% Percentage 16.3% 83.7% What is the total number of computers that can be used for instructional purposes by Year 5 students?
1-5 6-10 11-15 16-20 21-25 26-30 Approximately how many books with different titles does your school library have?

250 or fewer 251-550 501-2000 2001-5000 5001-10000 More than 10000 Approximately how many titles of magazines and other periodicals does your school library have?
0 1-5 6-10 11-30 31 or more Frequency 30 19 15 20 5 3 Frequency 5 13 30 19 7 2 Frequency 13 40 14 6 3 Appendix Percentage 32.6% 20.7% 16.3% 21.8% 5.4% 3.2% Percentage 6.6% 17.1% 39.5% 25.0% 9.2% 2.6% Percentage 17.1% 52.6% 18.4% 7.9% 3.9% How much is your school’s capacity to provide instruction affected by a shortage or inadequacy of general school resources?
Instructional material (textbooks) Supplies (paper, pencils) School building and grounds Heating / cooling and lighting systems Instructional space (classrooms) Technologically competent staff Computers for instruction How much is your school’s capacity to provide instruction affected by a shortage or inadequacy of resources for reading instruction?
Teachers with a specialisation in reading Computer software for reading instruction Library books Audio-visual resources for reading instruction How often does your school ask parents to do the following?
Volunteer for school projects, programmes and trips Serve on school committees Not at all 66.3% 80.2% 41.3% 40.7% 40.2% 23.1% 21.3% Not at all 21.3% 21.6% 53.4% 18.0% Never 6.5% 5.6% A little 17.4% 6.6% 33.7% 34.1% 29.3% 42.9% 47.2% A little 47.2% 44.3% 23.9% 57.3% Once a year 9.8% 43.3% Some 6.5% 6.6% 13.0% 17.6% 20.7% 28.6% 24.7% Some 24.7% 30.7% 13.6% 21.3% A lot 9.8% 6.6% 12.0% 7.7% 9.8% 5.5% 6.7% A lot 6.7% 3.4% 9.1% 3.4% 2-3 times a year 38.0% 10.0% More than 3 times a year 45.7% 41.1% 119 Appendix How much is your school’s capacity to provide instruction affected by a shortage or inadequacy of resources for mathematics instruction?
Teachers with a specialisation in mathematics Computer software for mathematics instruction Library material relevant to mathematics instruction Audio-visual resources for mathematics instruction Calculators for mathematics instruction How much is your school’s capacity to provide instruction affected by a shortage or inadequacy of resources for science instruction?
Teachers with a specialisation in science Computer software for science instruction Library material relevant to science instruction Audio-visual resources for science instruction Science equipment and materials How often does your school do the following for parents concerning individual students?
Inform parents about their child’s learning progress Inform parents about the behaviour and well-being of their child at school Discuss parents’ concern or wishes about their child’s learning Support individual parents in helping their child with schoolwork How would you characterise each of the following within your school?
Teachers’ job satisfaction Teachers’ understanding of school’s curricular goals Teachers’ degree of success in implementing the school’s curriculum Teacher’s expectations for student achievement Parental support for student achievement Parental involvement in school activities Students’ regard for school property Students’ desire to do well in school Not at all 22.0% 23.1% 19.8% 18.7% 53.8% Not at all 21.3% 21.3% 20.2% 18.0% 22.7% Never 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 7.8% Very high 15.2% 22.8% 20.7% 30.4% 12.1% 6.5% 6.5% 17.4% A little 47.3% 41.8% 41.8% 49.5% 17.6% A little 33.7% 32.6% 40.4% 36.0% 31.8% Once a year 1.1% 1.1% 3.3% 7.8% Some 25.3% 28.6% 33.0% 26.4% 18.7% Some 33.7% 32.6% 34.8% 34.8% 33.0% A lot 5.5% 6.6% 5.5% 5.5% 9.9% A lot 11.2% 13.5% 4.5% 11.2% 12.5% 2-3 times a year 54.8% 34.8% 37.4% 16.7% More than 3 times a year 44.1% 64.1% 59.3% 67.8% High 69.6% 67.4% 68.5% 53.3% 44.0% 41.3% 54.3% 47.8% Medium 15.2% 9.8% 10.9% 14.1% 37.4% 37.0% 35.9% 31.5% Low 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 1.1% 5.5% 12.0% 3.3% 2.2% Very low 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 1.1% 1.1% 3.3% 0.0% 1.1% In your school, are any of the following used to evaluate the practice of Year 5 teachers?
Observations by the Head of School or SMT Observations by EOs or others external to your school Student achievement Teacher peer review Yes 89.2% 55.4% 93.5% 19.4% No 10.8% 44.6% 6.5% 80.6% 120 Appendix To what degree is each of the following problems among teachers in your school?

Arriving late or leaving early Absenteeism To what degree is each of the following problems among Year 5 students in your school?
Arriving late at school Absenteeism Classroom disturbance Cheating Swearing Vandalism Theft Intimidation or verbal abuse among students Physical fights among students Intimidation or verbal abuse of teachers or staff Not a problem 73.9% 71.7% Not a problem 42.9% 64.8% 40.2% 68.5% 71.7% 79.1% 81.3% 41.1% 42.9% 87.0% Minor problem 22.8% 23.9% Minor problem 46.2% 26.4% 44.6% 26.1% 18.5% 14.3% 14.3% 43.3% 45.1% 7.6% Moderate problem 1.1% 2.2% Moderate problem 7.7% 6.6% 14.1% 3.3% 7.6% 4.4% 2.2% 11.1% 9.9% 4.3% Serious problem 2.2% 2.2% Serious problem 3.3% 2.2% 1.1% 2.2% 2.2% 2.2% 2.2% 4.4% 2.2% 1.1% During the past year, approximately how much time have you spent on the following school leadership activities in your role as a Head of School?
Promoting the school’s educational vision or goals Develop the school’s curricular and educational goals Monitoring teachers’ implementation of the school’s educational goals in their teaching Monitoring students’ learning progress to ensure that the school’s educational goals are reached Keeping an orderly atmosphere in the school Ensure that there are clear rules for student behaviour Addressing disruptive student behaviour Creating a climate of trust among teachers Initiating a discussion to help teachers who have problems in the classroom Advising teachers who have questions or problems with their teaching Visiting other schools or attending educational conferences for new ideas Initiating educational projects or improvements Participating in professional development activities specifically for Heads of School No time 0.0% 0.0% 2.2% 0.0% 1.1% 1.1% 4.4% 0.0% 8.9% 4.4% 17.8% 3.3% 6.6% Some time 40.7% 35.2% 66.7% A lot of time 59.3% 64.8% 31.1% 58.2% 24.4% 37.4% 52.7% 34.1% 58.9% 60.0% 72.2% 56.0% 62.6% 41.8% 74.4% 61.5% 42.9% 65.9% 32.2% 35.6% 10.0% 40.7% 30.8% About how many of the students in your school can do the following when they begin primary school?
Recognise most of the letters of the English alphabet Read some English words Read sentences in English Write letters of the English alphabet Write some English words Count up to 100 or higher Recognise all 10 written numbers for 1 to 10 Write all ten numbers from 1 to 10 Less than 25% 33.7% 48.3% 68.5% 41.1% 56.7% 57.8% 11.1% 22.2% 25-50% 13.5% 16.9% 14.6% 17.8% 20.0% 18.9% 21.1% 22.2% 51-75% 16.9% 14.6% 10.1% 12.2% 8.9% 14.4% 22.2% 18.9% More than 75% 36.0% 20.2% 6.7% 28.9% 14.4% 8.9% 45.6% 36.7% 121 Appendix In which Year group do the following reading skills and strategies first receive a major emphasis in the instruction of English in your school?
Knowing letters of the alphabet Knowing letter-sound relationships Reading words Reading isolated sentences Reading connected text Locating information within the text Identifying the main idea of a text Explaining of supporting understanding of a text Comparing a text with personal experience Comparing different texts Make predictions about what will happen next in a text Make generalisations and drawing inferences on text Describe the style or structure of a text Determine the author’s perspective or intention Year 2 or earlier 97.8% 97.8% 96.7% 93.3% 67.8% 24.7% 20.0% 15.7% 12.5% 4.5% 15.6% 7.9% 2.2% 3.4% Year 3 1.1% 1.1% 3.3% 6.7% 31.1% 59.7% 48.9% 40.4% 25.0% 16.9% 14.4% 16.9% 7.8% 5.6% Year 4 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 1.1% 14.6% 27.8% 31.5% 33.0% 27.0% 33.3% 12.4% 16.7% 9.0% Year 5 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 1.1% 3.3% 12.4% 29.5% 37.1% 32.2% 34.8% 25.6% 30.3% Not in these grade 1.1% 1.1% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 14.6% 4.4% 28.1% 47.8% 51.7% Compared with other areas of the curriculum (mathematics and science), how much emphasis does your school place on teaching the following English language and literary skills to students in Years 1 to 5?
Reading Writing (not handwriting) Speaking / listening (oral language) More emphasis 68.1% 62.6% 46.2% Same emphasis 31.9% 37.4% 42.9% Less emphasis 0.0% 0.0% 11.0% For Year 5 pupils and below, does your school make provisions for reading instruction in mother tongue for students whose mother tongue is not English?
Yes No Frequency 63 26 Percentage 70.8% 29.2% 122 Appendix D. Maltese Parents’ Responses This survey was completed by: Mother Father Other Frequency 2979 902 61 Percentage 75.6% 22.9% 1.5% Before your child began primary school, how often did you or someone else in your home do the following activities with him or her?
Read books Tell stories Sing songs Play with alphabet toys Talk about things you had done Talk about things you had read Play word games Write letters or words Read aloud signs and labels Say counting rhymes or sing counting songs Play with number toys Count different things Play games involving shapes Play with building blocks or construction toys Play board games or card games What language did your child speak before he/she began school?
English Maltese Italian German Arabic Other How long was he / she in Kindergarten?

3 years or more Between 2 and 3 years 2 years Between 1 and 2 years 1 year or less How old was your child when he / she began primary school?
5 years old or younger 6 years old 7 years old 8 years old or older Often 52.6% 53.5% 53.4% 57.1% 63.9% 35.5% 44.0% 50.3% 38.4% 45.9% 51.7% 58.2% 61.2% 58.1% 43.8% Sometimes 44.5% 42.2% 36.0% 34.9% 32.7% 54.0% 45.8% 41.2% 44.4% 36.6% 38.2% 34.9% 33.1% 31.4% 46.1% Never or almost never 2.9% 4.3% 10.6% 8.0% 3.4% 10.4% 10.3% 8.5% 17.2% 17.6% 10.1% 6.9% 5.8% 10.5% 10.1% Yes 44.7% 86.6% 2.9% 0.8% 1.1% 3.0% Frequency 379 595 2148 219 94 Frequency 3122 278 16 12 No 55.3% 13.4% 97.1% 99.2% 98.9% 97.0% Percentage 11.0% 17.3% 62.5% 6.4% 2.7% Percentage 91.1% 8.1% 0.5% 0.4% 123 Appendix How well could your child do the following in English when he / she began primary school?
Recognise most of the letters of the alphabet Read some words Read sentences Write letters of the alphabet Write some words Very well 48.6% 29.6% 16.1% 43.5% 24.5% Moderately well 39.1% 46.0% 39.0% 41.6% 43.6% Not very well 9.4% 17.7% 29.3% 10.9% 21.4% Not at all 2.9% 6.6% 15.6% 3.9% 10.5% Did your child attend Kindergarten (ISCED 0)?

Yes No Could your child count by himself / herself when he / she began primary school?
Up to 100 or higher Up to 20 Up to 10 Not at all Could your child recognise different shapes (square, triangle, circle) when he / she began primary school?

More than 4 shapes 3-4 shapes 1-2 shapes None Could your child recognise all written numbers from 1 to 10 when he / she began primary school?

All 10 numbers 5-9 1-4 None Could your child write the numbers from 1 to 10 when he / she began primary school?

All 10 numbers 5-9 1-4 None On average, how much time does your child spend on homework in a day?
My child does not have homework 15 minutes or less 16-30 minutes 31-60 minutes More than 60 minutes 124 Frequency 3458 28 Frequency 1329 1582 504 36 Frequency 1847 1243 308 61 Frequency 3021 233 152 52 Frequency 2781 296 210 100 Frequency 26 127 683 1437 1191 Percentage 99.2% 0.8% Percentage 38.5% 45.8% 14.6% 1.0% Percentage 53.4% 35.9% 8.9% 1.8% Percentage 87.4% 6.7% 4.4% 1.5% Percentage 82.1% 8.7% 6.2% 3.0% Percentage 0.8% 3.7% 19.7% 41.5% 34.4% Appendix Could your child do the following when he / she began primary school?
Do simple addition Do simple subtraction Yes 74.2% 63.9% No 25.8% 36.1% How often do you or someone else in your home do the following things with your child?
Discuss my child’s schoolwork with him / her Help my child with his / her schoolwork Make sure my child sets aside time to do homework Ask my child what he / she learned in school Check if my child has done his / her homework Help my child practise his / her reading Talk with my child about what he / she is reading Every day or almost every day 73.7% 51.7% 88.1% 77.9% 84.0% 44.7% 48.8% Once or twice a week 21.2% 28.4% 7.7% 18.8% 9.9% 37.7% 38.9% Once or twice a month 2.9% 8.0% 1.4% 1.9% 2.0% 7.1% 8.6% Never or almost never 2.2% 11.9% 2.8% 1.4% 4.1% 10.4% 3.8% What do you think of your child’s school?
My child’s school includes me in my child’s education My child’s school should make a greater effort to include me in my child’s education My child’s school provides a safe environment My child’s school cares about my child’s progress in school My child’s school should do better at keeping me informed of his / her progress My child’s school does a good job in helping him / her become better in reading My child’s school does a good job in helping him / her become better in mathematics My child’s school does a good job in helping him / her become better in science Agree a lot 72.6% 39.1% 76.3% 82.8% 45.9% 71.3% 72.8% 58.4% Agree a little 22.1% 28.4% 17.2% 14.0% 25.3% 21.3% 20.4% 28.6% Disagree a little 4.0% 18.6% Disagree a lot 1.3% 14.0% 4.7% 2.6% 1.8% 0.6% 14.0% 14.8% 5.9% 5.5% 9.6% 1.5% 1.3% 3.4% In a typical week, how much time do you usually spend reading for yourself at home, including books, magazines, newspapers and materials for work?
Less than 1 hour a week 1-5 hours a week 6-10 hours a week More than 10 hours a week When you are at home, how often do you read for your own enjoyment?

Every day or almost every day Once or twice a week Once or twice a month Never or almost never Frequency 854 1595 577 422 Frequency 1427 1285 369 382 Percentage 24.8% 46.3% 16.7% 12.2% Percentage 41.2% 37.1% 10.7% 11.0% 125 Appendix Indicate how much you agree with the following statements about reading?
I read only if I have to I like talking about what I read with other people I like to spend my spare time reading I read only if I need information Reading is an important activity in my home I would like to have more time for reading I enjoy reading Agree a lot 8.4% 48.7% 61.8% 12.7% 61.5% 79.2% 78.1% Agree a little 15.4% 34.1% 24.5% 18.7% 27.0% 14.0% 15.9% Disagree a little 18.1% 10.5% 8.8% 22.2% 8.8% 3.9% 3.1% Disagree a lot 58.2% 6.7% 4.9% 46.3% 2.8% 2.9% 2.9% About how many books are there in your home?
0-10 11-25 26-100 101-200 More than 200 About how many children’s books are there in your home?

0-10 11-25 26-50 51-100 More than 100 Are these books mainly in English?

Yes No Frequency 373 591 1190 575 729 Frequency 108 352 962 1154 882 Frequency 2747 451 Percentage 10.8% 17.1% 34.4% 16.6% 21.1% Percentage 3.1% 10.2% 27.8% 33.4% 25.5% Percentage 85.9% 14.1% When talking at home with your child, what language does the child’s father and mother use most often?
Father Mother English Maltese Italian German Arabic Other Not applicable 14.1% 82.7% 0.8% 0.3% 0.4% 1.1% 0.6% 15.9% 81.9% 0.3% 0.3% 0.1% 1.2% 0.2% How far in his / her education do you expect your child to go?
ISCED 2 (Secondary education) ISCED 3 (Post-Secondary education) ISCED 4 (Diploma from MCAST / ITS) ISCED 5B (Diploma from university ISCED 5A (Bachelor’ Degree from university) Beyond ISCED 5A (Master’s, PhD) Frequency 480 618 281 673 803 429 Percentage 14.6% 18.8% 8.6% 20.5% 24.5% 13.1% 126 What is the highest level of education completed by the child’s father and mother?
No schooling ISCED 1 (Primary education) ISCED 2 (Secondary education) ISCED 3 (Post-Secondary education) ISCED 4 (Diploma from MCAST / ITS) ISCED 5B (Diploma from university ISCED 5A (Bachelor’ Degree from university) Beyond ISCED 5A (Master’s, PhD) Not applicable Father 0.6% 4.2% 54.7% 15.0% 4.9% 5.8% 6.5% 7.1% 1.3% Appendix Mother 0.3% 2.4% 54.3% 18.1% 5.1% 6.9% 8.1% 4.2% 0.7% Which best describes the employment situation of the child’s father and mother?
Father Mother Working at least full-time for pay Working part-time only for pay Not working for pay Other Not applicable 87.5% 2.5% 1.9% 4.7% 3.3% 33.4% 22.1% 25.5% 6.3% 12.8% 127 PISA 2009+ Malta Report Programme for International Student Assessment Ministry for Education and Employment Directorate for Quality and Standards in Education Research and Development Department 2013 PISA 2009+ Programme for International Student Assessment Malta Report Ministry for Education and Employment Directorate for Quality and Standards in Education Research and Development Department 2013 PISA 2009+: Achievement of 15-year-olds in Malta Contents Contents Acknowledgements Executive Summary Chapter 1: Background and Overview 1.1 Introduction 1.2 What does PISA measure 1.2.1 Mathematical Literacy 1.2.2 Scientific Literacy 1.2.3 Reading Literacy Development of the survey Selection criteria and test administration Proficiency levels Data analysis Report structure 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 Chapter 2: Preliminary Results 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 Introduction Family and home backgrounds Reading activities and attitudes to reading Learning time School climate and effectiveness Classroom climate and teaching strategies Use of libraries Reading strategies and understanding text Summary Chapter 3: Attainment in Mathematics 3.1 3.2 Introduction The PISA Mathematics framework iii v vi 1 1 2 27 27 27 iii PISA 2009+: Achievement of 15-year-olds in Malta 3.3 Proficiency levels in mathematical literacy 3.4 Mathematics attainment in Malta 3.5 3.6 3.7 Gender differences in mathematics attainment Socio-economic status and attainment in mathematics Summary Chapter 4: Attainment in Science 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 Introduction The PISA Science framework Proficiency levels in scientific literacy Science attainment in Malta Gender differences in science attainment Socio-economic status and attainment in science Summary Chapter 5: Attainment in Reading 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 5.8 Introduction The PISA reading framework Proficiency levels in reading literacy Reading attainment in Malta Gender differences in reading attainment Factor analysis (Reading subscales) Socio-economic status and attainment in reading Summary References Appendix iv 29 30 34 38 41 43 43 43 45 46 51 55 58 59 59 60 62 66 80 85 86 87 89 90 PISA 2009+: Achievement of 15-year-olds in Malta Acknowledgements v PISA 2009+: Achievement of 15-year-olds in Malta Executive Summary The Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) is an international comparative survey of educational achievement of 15-year-olds.
The purpose of this programme is to assess the knowledge and skills in reading, mathematical and scientific literacy of students as they near the end of their compulsory schooling.

PISA seeks to assess students’ competences to address real-life challenges involving reading, science and mathematics and measure how well these young adults have mastered this knowledge and skills gained at school, at home and elsewhere to function as successful members of society.
This is in contrast to assessments that seek to measure the extent to which students have mastered a specific curriculum.

Background and overview  The survey takes place every three years.

The first was carried out in 2000 and PISA  2009 was the fourth survey.

In PISA 2009, there were 64 participating countries, including all 33 OECD countries and almost all EU countries.

26 of these countries were neither EU nor OECD members.
 Malta, together with nine additional partner participants, was unable to participate within the PISA 2009 project timeframe; however, participated in the PISA 2009+ project on a reduced and delayed timeline.

 The ten PISA 2009+ participants administered the same assessments as their PISA 2009 counterparts, but in 2010.

These countries or economies were required to meet the same technical and quality standards as their PISA 2009 counterparts.
 The PISA surveys assess students in reading, mathematics and science.

In each survey one of these is the main subject.

In PISA 2009 the main subject was reading.

 Reading attainment is reported on three reading processes: access and retrieve, integrate and interpret and reflect and evaluate.

In addition, reading attainment is reported for two text formats: continuous texts and non-continuous texts.

 As well as tests for students, the PISA survey includes questionnaires for participating students.
In PISA 2009 these included some general questions, most related to socio- economic background; students’ attitudes to reading and aspects of the teaching and learning of reading.

The questionnaires also included aspects of school and classroom climate and effectiveness of teaching strategies.

Participation rate in Malta  The 3453 Maltese students that participated in the PISA study included 1839 females and 1614 males.
The sample comprised almost the whole population of 15-year olds and guaranteed a maximum margin of error of approximately 1% using a 95% degree of confidence.

 These students were selected randomly from 53 schools ensuring a good geographical representation.

920 students were selected from seven Junior Lyceums, 1049 students were selected from eighteen area secondary schools, 1176 students were selected from twenty church schools and 308 were selected from eight private schools.
vi PISA 2009+: Achievement of 15-year-olds in Malta Social, economic and cultural status in Malta The student questionnaire provides information on pupils’ demographic and socio-economic backgrounds including parents’ level of education, their qualifications and their main occupations.

Other questions provide information about family structure, family members and family possessions.
The questionnaire also provides information about the students’ study habits, and attitudes to reading and reading activities at school.

 The proportion of Maltese mothers living with their children (97.6%) is marginally higher than EU (96.4%) and OECD (95.8%) averages.

 The proportion of Maltese fathers living with their children (92.7%) is significantly higher than EU (86.2%) and OECD (86.0%) averages.
 The proportion of two-parent family structures in Malta (92.1%) exceeds EU and OECD averages by more than 10%.

 The proportion of Maltese mothers doing home duties (49.7%) is more than double EU and OECD averages.

 The proportion of Maltese mothers doing a full time job (27.5%) is approximately half EU and OECD averages; however, the proportion of mothers doing a part-time job (18.0%) is comparable to EU and OECD averages.
 The proportion of Maltese fathers doing a full time job (88.7%) exceeds EU and OECD averages by more than 7%; however, there is significantly lower proportion of fathers doing home duties.

Compared to other countries, Maltese fathers are more likely to be breadwinners and mothers to be house carers.

 The majority of Maltese parents (around 40%) have highest educational level at ISCED 2.
 The proportion of Maltese parents with highest educational level at ISCED 3A or above (55.3%) is significantly lower than both the EU average (78.6%) and OECD average (77.6%).

Indeed, this deficit will decrease considerably for Malta in the near future as more adults are engaging in tertiary education and lifelong learning.
In Malta, the proportion of mothers doing a white collar high skilled job (38.6%) is significantly lower to EU and OECD averages; whereas the proportion of mothers doing a blue collar low skilled job (18.6%) is significantly higher.

  The proportion of fathers in Malta doing a white collar job (59.0%) is significantly higher than the EU and OECD averages; whereas, the proportion of fathers doing a blue collar job (41.0%) is significantly lower.
 Compared to EU and OECD averages, Maltese students are more likely to have a computer to use for school work, an internet link, educational software, a DVD player, poetry books and books to help with school work but less likely to have a room of their own and a quiet place to study, classical literature and a dishwasher.

 Maltese students tend to have more books at home.
Over 83% of Maltese students own more than 25 books which is significantly higher to both the OECD average (72.1%) and EU average (72.2%).

 Maltese families own more cars, computers, televisions and rooms with baths/showers than EU and OECD averages.

 Around 88% of Maltese 15-year old students speak their native language at home; whereas, most of the remaining 12% speak English.
vii PISA 2009+: Achievement of 15-year-olds in Malta Reading attitudes in Malta  Over 66% of pupils in Malta spend some time reading for enjoyment, while about 34% only read if they have to.

Responses to statements measuring attitudes to reading were marginally more positive to EU and OECD averages.
 18.6% of Maltese students believe that reading is a waste of time; however, this is significantly lower to EU (26.0%) and OECD (24.2%) averages  Attitude to reading is positively correlated with reading scores.

Both internationally and in Malta, there was a large difference in reading attainment scores between those who never read for enjoyment and those who do, even for a short time daily.

 For pupils in Malta the most popular reading materials were magazines (53.8%) and newspapers (45.3%).
Pupils read fiction (39.3%) more often than non-fiction books (24.1%).

Compared to EU and OECD averages, higher proportions of Maltese students read fiction and non-fiction books and lower proportions read magazines, newspapers and comic books.

 Pupils in Malta spent significantly more time chatting online and reading emails than the OECD and EU averages but were similar to their EU and OECD counterparts in the frequency of other online activities.
Learning time in Malta  Learning time at school does not vary much between countries.

Most students have on average 4 to 5 lessons weekly in mathematics, science and test language (English in the case of Malta) and the duration of each lesson ranges from 45 to 60 minutes.

 The proportion of Maltese pupils attending additional lessons outside school hours is significantly higher than EU and OECD averages.
 Malta has the highest proportion (58.2%) of students in EU and OECD countries who take additional lessons in Mathematics, followed by Greece (53.0%), Israel (41.1%), Korea (38.7%), Portugal (31.1%) and Japan (29.6%).

 Malta also has the highest proportion (43.9%) of students who take extra lessons in Science, followed Greece (42.9%), Mexico (21.8%), Poland (18.4%) and Korea (17.3%).
 Malta has the fourth largest proportion (21.2%) of pupils taking additional lessons outside school time in the test language (English) following by Greece (32.0%), Korea (27.0%) and Mexico (22.4%) and the third largest proportion (28.7%) of pupils who take extra lessons in other school subjects following Poland (40.3%) and Israel (33.1%).

  The proportions (9.4%) of Maltese students taking extra lessons to improve study skills are below the EU average (10.6%) and OECD average (11.3%).
Japan (46.9%) leads the list followed by Mexico (24.1%).

Interestingly, those pupils taking additional lessons outside school time in Science and English scored significantly lower in the PISA science and reading tests than their counterparts who did not take additional lessons outside school time.

In Mathematics, the mean attainment scores were comparable between the two groups taking/not taking additional lessons outside school time.
viii PISA 2009+: Achievement of 15-year-olds in Malta School and classroom climate and use of libraries  School effectiveness perceived by Maltese students appears to be more positive overall.

Compared to EU and OECD averages there is a higher proportion of Maltese students who believe that the school has helped them gain confidence to make decisions and taught them facts that may be useful in future jobs; and a lower proportion of Maltese students who think that school is a waste of time.
However, a higher proportion of Maltese pupils believe that their school could do much more to prepare students for adult life.

 Students’ perception of their teachers in Malta is more positive compared to EU and OECD averages.

The proportions of Maltese students who agree that most of their teachers are interested in their well-being, listen to what they have to say and assist them when they need extra help exceed OECD and EU averages by more than 10%.
Higher proportions of Maltese students also agree that most of their teachers treat them fairly and they get along well with them.

 About a third of Maltese students stated that disruptions occur quite often during lessons.

Around a quarter of the students stated that they start working well after the lesson starts and around 18% said that disruptions in class hinder them to work well.

However, these proportions are comparable to EU and OECD.
 The proportion of Maltese students who visit libraries for reading activities is significantly higher than EU and OECD averages.

Compared to EU and OECD averages there is higher proportion of Maltese students who borrow books for school work but significantly lower proportions who visit libraries to work on homework, to read magazines, to read for fun, to learn things and to use the internet.

Attainment in Mathematics in Malta  Mathematics was a minor subject in the PISA 2009 survey.
This implies that only around 70% of the pupils who took part in the study were assessed in this subject.

 Thirty seven countries performed at a level significantly higher than Malta, while thirty three countries performed significantly less well.

In Russia, Greece and Croatia, attainment in Mathematics was not significantly different from that of Malta.

 Most of the countries scoring significantly higher than Malta are either OECD or/and EU countries.
This implies that the mean mathematics score for Malta was significantly lower than the EU and OECD averages.

 Shanghai-China, Singapore, Hong Kong-China, Liechtenstein, Chinese Taipei and Macao-China are non-OECD and non-EU members that scored significantly higher than Malta in Mathematics.

Israel, Turkey, Chile and Mexico (OECD countries) and Bulgaria and Romania (EU countries) scored significantly lower than Malta in Mathematics.
  Of the ten countries participating in PISA 2009+, Malta performed significantly better than all the rest in Mathematics.

 Around 7% of Maltese students are estimated to perform at or above proficiency level 5 on the mathematical literacy scale.

At this high proficiency level students can answer ix PISA 2009+: Achievement of 15-year-olds in Malta very intricate and demanding questions.

Across OECD countries 12.7% of 15-year-old students are estimated to perform at this level of proficiency.
 Around 59% of Maltese students are estimated to perform at levels 2, 3 or 4 on the mathematical literacy scale.

At these middling proficiency levels a student can only perform moderately difficult tasks.

PISA estimates that around two-thirds of students in OECD countries are at these levels of proficiency.

 Malta has around 34% of its students estimated to be performing at level 1 or below.

At this low proficiency level, students can only answer test questions that focus on simple tasks.
Across the OECD countries, 22% of students are estimated to perform at this basic level of mathematical literacy.

 Of the seventy-four countries participating in PISA 2009, forty-five countries had a statistically significant difference in gender performance.

In thirty-seven countries the difference was in favour of boys and in eight countries, including Malta, the difference was in favour of girls.

Malta had the biggest gender difference in favour of girls.
In contrast to the PISA finding, Maltese boys tend to do marginally better than girls in MATSEC Mathematics examinations.

A plausible reason for this disparity is that local examination questions are often organised around content strands; whereas PISA questions seek to assess students’ competences to address real-life challenges involving Mathematics.

  Student attainment in mathematics differs significantly between schools.
Students attending private schools and boys attending church schools are scoring significantly higher in mathematics than EU and OECD averages; whereas, mean attainment scores for girls attending Church schools and Junior Lyceums are comparable to EU and OECD averages.

By stark contrast, students attending Area secondary schools and boys attending Junior Lyceums are scoring around 100 points less on the mathematical literacy scale than their counterparts.
 The main challenge is to reduce this deficit but at the same time retain the good standard of the high-performing students.

If 10% of the students performing at level 1 or below are shifted to the middling proficiency levels 2 to 5, Malta’s performance in Mathematics would be comparable to EU and OECD averages.

 There is a significant positive relationship between attainment in Mathematics and socio, economic and cultural status (ESCS).
This implies that a higher level of social, economic and cultural status enhances better attainment in Mathematics at Secondary level of education.

Attainment in Science in Malta  Science was a minor subject in the PISA 2009 survey.

Thirty nine countries performed at a level significantly higher than Malta, while thirty one countries performed significantly less well.

Science attainment in Greece, Israel and Turkey was not significantly different from that of Malta.
 Most of the countries scoring significantly higher Malta are either OECD or/and EU countries.

This implies that the mean Science score for Malta was significantly lower than the EU and OECD averages.
x PISA 2009+: Achievement of 15-year-olds in Malta  Shanghai-China, Hong Kong-China, Singapore, Chinese Taipei Liechtenstein, and Macao-China are non-OECD and non-EU countries that scored significantly higher than Malta in Science literacy Israel, Turkey, Chile and Mexico (OECD countries) and Bulgaria and Romania (EU countries) scored significantly lower than Malta in Science.
  Of the ten countries participating in PISA 2009+, Malta performed significantly better than all the other countries in Science.

 6.4% of Maltese students are estimated to perform at or above proficiency level 5 on the science literacy scale.

Across OECD countries 8.5% of 15-year-old students are estimated to perform at this level of proficiency.

 61.5% of Maltese students are estimated to perform at levels 2, 3 or 4 on the science literacy scale.
PISA estimates that around three-quarters of students in OECD countries are at these levels of proficiency.

 Malta has around 32% of its students estimated to be performing at level 1 or below.

Across the OECD countries, 18% of students are estimated to perform at this basic level of science literacy.

 Of the seventy-four countries participating in PISA 2009, forty-one countries had a statistically significant difference in gender performance.
In thirteen countries the difference was in favour of boys and in twenty-eight countries, including Malta, the difference was in favour of girls.

Malta had the second largest gender difference, following Jordan, in favour of girls.

In contrast to the PISA finding, boys outperform girls in the local MATSEC Biology examination and girls perform marginally better than boys in Chemistry.

On average, boys and girls perform similarly in Physics.
  Student attainment in science differs significantly between schools.

Students attending private schools and boys attending church schools are scoring significantly higher in science than EU and OECD averages; whereas, mean attainment scores for girls attending Church schools and Junior Lyceums are comparable to EU and OECD averages.

Students attending Area secondary schools and boys attending Junior Lyceums are scoring more than 100 points less on the science literacy scale than their counterparts.
If 14% of the students performing at level 1 or below are shifted to the middling proficiency levels 2 to 5, Malta’s performance in Science would be comparable to EU and OECD averages.

  There is a significant positive relationship between attainment in science and socio, economic and cultural status (ESCS).

Attainment in Reading in Malta  Reading was the main focus in PISA 2009.

All PISA 2009+ participants, including Malta, scored significantly lower in reading than EU and OECD averages.
 On average, students in Malta, performed statistically the same as Chile and significantly better than Mexico (both OECD countries).

The mean reading level of Maltese students was also significantly higher than the two EU countries, Romania and Bulgaria.

xi PISA 2009+: Achievement of 15-year-olds in Malta  Around 5% of Maltese students are estimated to perform at or above proficiency level 5 on the reading literacy scale.
Across OECD countries, around 8% of 15-year-old students are estimated to perform at this level of proficiency.

 59% of Maltese students are estimated to perform at levels 2, 3 or 4 on the reading literacy scale.

PISA estimates that around three-quarters of students in OECD countries are at these levels of proficiency.

 Malta has around 36% of its students estimated to be performing at level 1 or below.
Across the OECD countries, 19% of students are estimated to perform at this basic level of reading literacy.

 There was substantial variation in Malta’s performance across the three reading processes and the two text formats.

Malta’s highest reading process score was attained on the reflect and evaluate scale, followed by the integrate and evaluate and the access and retrieve scales.

 Malta achieved a higher mean reading score on the non-continuous texts scale than on the continuous texts scale.
 The spread of attainment in Malta was wider than the OECD average.

Malta had a slightly smaller proportion of pupils at the highest levels and a considerably larger proportion of students at the lowest levels of attainment than the average for OECD countries.

 Girls scored significantly higher than boys in reading in all participating countries.
Malta had by far the largest scale point difference between girls and boys, with a difference of 72 scale points compared to an OECD average of 39 scale points.

 Female students tend to perform marginally better than boys in the local MATSEC English examinations; however, this result tells a different story about gender differences when compared to the PISA findings.

 Student attainment in reading differs significantly between schools.
Female students attending private schools are scoring significantly higher in reading than EU and OECD averages; whereas, the mean reading attainment scores of students attending Church schools, male students attending private schools and female students attending Junior Lyceums are comparable to EU and OECD averages.

Students attending Area secondary schools and boys attending Junior Lyceums are scoring more than 100 points less on the reading literacy scale than their counterparts.
If 17% of the students performing at level 1 or below are shifted to the middling proficiency levels 2 to 5, Malta’s performance in reading would be comparable to EU and OECD averages.

  There is a significant positive relationship between attainment in reading and socio, economic and cultural status (ESCS).
xii Background and Overview 1 1.1 Introduction The Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) organised by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) is an international comparative survey of educational achievement of 15-year-olds.

The purpose of this programme is to assess the knowledge and skills in reading, mathematical and scientific literacy of students as they near the end of their compulsory schooling.
PISA seeks to assess students’ competences to address real-life challenges involving reading, science and mathematics and measure how well these young adults have mastered this knowledge and skills gained at school, at home and elsewhere to function as successful members of society.

This is in contrast to assessments that seek to measure the extent to which students have mastered a specific curriculum.
PISA adopts this approach because a focus on curriculum content would restrict attention to curriculum elements common to all countries.

This would force many compromises and result in an assessment too narrow to be of value for governments wishing to learn about the strengths and innovations in the education systems of other countries.

As part of the PISA survey, students complete an assessment on reading literacy, mathematical and scientific literacies as well as an extensive background questionnaire.
School principals complete a survey describing the context of education at their school, including the level of resources in the school and staff qualifications.

The purpose is to identify influences of all school, home and societal factors on educational outcomes.

The reporting of the findings from PISA is then able to focus on issues such as:  How well are young adults prepared to meet the challenges of the future?

Can they analyse, reason and communicate their ideas effectively?
What skills do they possess that will facilitate their capacity to adapt to rapid societal change?

 How equitable is the provision of education within a country or across countries?

 What student attitudes and behaviours are normally associated with proficient reading performance?

 Are some ways of organising schools or school learning more effective than other methods?

1 PISA 2009+: Achievement of 15-year olds in Malta PISA is carried out on a three-year cycle.
The first PISA study was conducted in 2000 (supplemented in 2002) in which 43 countries participated in the study.

The survey was repeated in 2003 (41 participating countries) and 2006 (57 participating countries).

In PISA 2009, 64 countries took part, in which all 34 OECD countries participated plus 30 partner countries and economies.

Each round of PISA focuses on one of the three areas of literacy in which knowledge and skills are assessed: reading, mathematics and science.
The main focus for the 2009 round was reading, with mathematics and science as minor domains.

Malta, together with nine additional partner participants, was unable to participate within the PISA 2009 project timeframe; however, participated in the PISA 2009+ project on a reduced and delayed timeline.

The ten PISA 2009+ participants administered the same assessments as their PISA 2009 counterparts, but in 2010.
The PISA 2009+ countries or economies were required to meet the same technical and quality standards as their PISA 2009 counterparts.

The ten PISA 2009+ participants are Costa Rica, Georgia, Himachal Pradesh – India, Malta, Mauritius, Malaysia, Miranda –Venezuela, Republic of Moldova, Tamil Nadu–India and the United Arab Emirates.

PISA 2009+ involved testing just over 46000 students across these ten countries or economies, representing a total population of about 1377000 15-year-olds.
Malta’s sample comprised 3453 students.

The data collected in the PISA 2009+ study was added to the original PISA 2009 database, so that the whole database was expanded to contain results from almost 522000 students, tested across 74 countries or economies and who are representing a population of approximately twenty-four million 15-year-olds in total.

1.2 What does PISA measure PISA assesses outcomes primarily in the areas of mathematical literacy, scientific literacy and reading literacy.
The emphasis on ‘literacy’ refers to ‘the capacity of students to apply knowledge and skills in key subject areas and to analyse, reason and communicate effectively as they pose, solve and interpret problems in a variety of situations’.

Definitions of these literacies are given below.

1.2.1 Mathematical literacy Mathematics was the main focus in PISA 2003, and a minor domain in PISA 2000, 2006 and 2009.

It will be the main subject in the next PISA survey in 2012.
Mathematical literacy, described in more detail in Chapter 3, aims to assess pupils’ ability to put their mathematical knowledge to functional use in different situations in adult life and is defined as the individual’s capacity to identify and understand the role that mathematics plays in the world, to make well-founded judgements and to use and engage with mathematics in ways that meet the needs of that individual’s life as a constructive, concerned and reflective citizen.
In other words, mathematical literacy is concerned with the ability of students to analyse, reason, and communicate ideas as they 2 Background and Overview pose, formulate, solve, and interpret solutions to mathematical problems in a variety of situations.
The PISA mathematics assessment has been designed in relation to:  Mathematical content: This is defined mainly in terms of four overarching ideas (quantity, space and shape, change and relationships, and uncertainty) and only secondarily in relation to curricular strands (such as numbers, algebra and geometry).

 Mathematical processes: These are defined by individual mathematical competencies.

These include the use of mathematical language, modelling and problem-solving skills.
Such skills, however, are not separated out in different test items, since it is assumed that a range of competencies will be needed to perform any given mathematical task.

Rather, questions are organised in terms of competency clusters defining the type of thinking skill needed.

 Situations: These are defined in terms of the ones in which mathematics is used, based on their distance from the students.

The framework identifies five situations: personal, educational, occupational, public and scientific.
Most of PISA mathematical tasks are context-based questions which require the pupil to use their mathematical knowledge to identify correct methodologies for solving real-life problems.

Some more abstract questions that are purely mathematical are also included in the PISA survey.

In the PISA 2009 survey, pupils were asked to show their responses to questions in different ways.

About a third of the questions were open responses, which required the pupils to develop their own responses.
These questions tended to assess broad mathematical constructs.

A question in this category typically accepted several different responses as correct and worthy of marks.

The remaining questions, which tended to assess lower-order skills, were either simple open response questions or multiple choice questions, with approximately the same number of each.

1.2.2 Scientific literacy Science was the main focus in PISA 2006, and a minor domain in PISA 2000, 2003 and 2009.
It will be the main subject in the 2015 PISA survey.

Science literacy, described in more detail in Chapter 4, is defined as the ability to use scientific knowledge and processes not only to understand the natural world but to participate in decisions that affect it.
Science literacy, in PISA aims to assess pupils’ scientific understanding which is needed in adult life and is defined as the individual’s scientific knowledge and use of that knowledge to identify questions, to acquire new knowledge, to explain scientific phenomena, and to draw evidence based conclusions about science-related issues, understanding of the characteristic features of science as a form of human knowledge and enquiry, awareness of how science and technology shape our material, cultural environments and intellectual, and willingness to engage in science-related issues, and with the ideas of science, as a reflective citizen.
The PISA assessment is designed to measure scientific knowledge as well as scientific competency and understanding of scientific contexts.

3 PISA 2009+: Achievement of 15-year olds in Malta  Scientific knowledge constitutes the links that aid understanding of related phenomena.
In PISA scientific tasks, pupils are not simply expected to recall facts but to be familiar with scientific concepts related to physics, chemistry, biological sciences, and earth and space science and able to apply them to the content of the test items.
In fact, the term “scientific literacy” rather than “science” underlines the importance that the PISA science assessment places on the application of scientific knowledge in the context of life situations, compared with simple reproduction of traditional school science knowledge.

 Scientific competencies are centred on the student’s ability to acquire, interpret and act upon evidence.
Three processes are identified in PISA – firstly identify, describe, explain and predict scientific phenomena; secondly understand scientific investigation and thirdly interpret scientific evidence and conclusions.

A student’s ability to carry out scientific competencies involves both knowledge of science and an understanding of the characteristics of science as a way of acquiring knowledge.
Moreover, the definition also recognises that the disposition to carry out these competencies depends upon an individual’s attitudes towards science and a willingness to engage in science- related issues.

 Scientific contexts concern the application of scientific knowledge and the use of scientific processes.

The framework identifies three main areas: science in life and health, science in Earth and environment, and science in technology.
The science tasks in the PISA 2009 survey were of three types: open constructed response items required pupils to write longer answers; short open response required answers of a few words; and closed response (for example, multiple choice).

Around a third of the items were of the longer constructed type, which required pupils to develop and explain their response.

Such questions were generally two or three mark items.
1.2.3 Reading literacy: Reading was the main focus in PISA 2000 and 2009, and a minor domain in PISA 2003 and 2006.

Reading literacy, described in more detail in Chapter 5, is defined in terms of students’ ability to understand, use and reflect on written text to achieve their purposes.

However, PISA takes this aspect of literacy further by the introduction of an active element – the capacity not just to understand a text but to reflect on it, drawing on one’s own thoughts and experiences.
In PISA, reading literacy is assessed in relation to:  Text format: Often students’ reading assessments have focused on continuous texts or prose organised in sentences and paragraphs.

From its inception, PISA has used in addition non-continuous texts that present information in other ways, such as in lists, forms, graphs, or diagrams.

It has also distinguished between a range of prose forms, such as narration, exposition and argumentation.
In PISA 2009, the framework encompasses both print and electronic texts, and the distinctions outlined above are applied to both.

These distinctions are based on the principle that individuals will encounter a range of written material in their civic and work-related adult life and that it is not sufficient to be able to read a limited number of types of text.
4 Background and Overview  Reading processes (aspects): Students are not assessed on the most basic reading skills, as it is assumed that most 15-year-old students will have acquired these.

Rather, they are expected to demonstrate their proficiency in accessing and retrieving information, forming a broad general understanding of the text, interpreting it, reflecting on its contents and reflecting on its form and features.

 Situations: These are defined by the use for which the text was constructed.
For example, a novel, personal letter or biography is written for people’s personal use; official documents or announcements for public use; a manual or report for occupational use; and a textbook or worksheet for educational use.
Since some groups may perform better in one reading situation than in another, it is desirable to include a range of types of reading in the assessment items 1.3 Development of the survey The Australian Council for Educational Research (ACER) led the international consortium to design and implement the PISA 2009 survey on behalf of the OECD.

A second international consortium led by CITO developed the survey questionnaires.

The PISA 2009 survey built on the experiences of the three previous cycles.
By using standardised survey procedures and tests, the survey aimed to collect data from around the world that could be compared despite differences in language and culture.

The framework and specification for the survey were agreed internationally and both the consortium and participants submitted test questions for inclusion in the survey.
After the questions were reviewed by an expert panel, countries were invited to comment on the difficulty, cultural appropriateness, and curricular and non-curricular relevance.

A field trial was carried out in each of the ten countries participating in PISA 2009+ and the outcomes were used to finalise the contents and format of the tests and questionnaires for the main survey in 2010.
Strict international quality standards were applied to all stages of the PISA survey to ensure equivalence in translation and adaptation of instruments, sampling procedures and survey administration in all participating countries.

In Malta, the field trial was administered in October 2009 to test the assessment items and the procedures of the survey.

Malta surveyed 16 year olds otherwise the required sampled size for the main study would not be met.
The age of students, rather than the class or form, was the critical sampling criterion.

Students from different forms were assessed as long as they satisfied the age criterion (i.e.

16 year old for the field trial).

Eligible students were those enrolled in Form 1 or higher and those born between 1st January, 1993 and 31st December, 1993.

A total of 727 students coming from 30 different state and non-state schools (including post-secondary schools) were eligible to participate in the field trial.
A maximum of 35 students from each school were sampled to complete a two-hour booklet and a student background questionnaire.

Test items were organised into thirteen test booklets.

The total number of participating students was 571 i.e.

79%.

Survey instruments included a School Questionnaire which was filled in by Heads of School.
5 PISA 2009+: Achievement of 15-year olds in Malta 1.4 Selection criteria and test administration The PISA sample is drawn from the population of students aged between 15 years and three months (completed) and 16 years and two months (complete) who attend educational institutions.

For convenience this population is referred to as 15-year-olds.

Age, rather than year group, was used as one of the selection criteria because grade levels and policies on grade promotion vary considerable around the world.
In Malta, the main study was administered in March 2010.

All 15 year olds pupils (i.e.

3,453 students coming from all state and non-state secondary schools) were eligible to participate.

Students from different forms were assessed as long as they satisfied the age criterion (i.e.

15 year old for the main study).

Eligible students were those enrolled in Form 1 or higher and those born between 1st January, 1994 and 31st December, 1994.
The Maltese group participating in the PISA study comprised 1839 (53.3%) females and 1614 (46.7%) males and guaranteed a maximum margin of error of approximately 1% using a 95% degree of confidence.

These students were selected randomly from 53 schools ensuring a good geographical representation.
920 (26.6%) students were selected from 7 Junior Lyceums, 1049 (30.4%) students were selected from 18 area secondary schools, 1176 (34.1%) students were selected from 20 church schools and 308 (8.9%) were selected from 8 private schools.

These sample proportions are comparable to the population proportions of students attending these school types ensuring a representative sample.

Test items were organised into thirteen test booklets with items repeated across booklets.
Approximately half the total test items assessed reading while the others were divided between mathematics and science.

Since the focus of PISA 2009 and 2009+ assessments was on reading, about two-thirds of the questions in each booklet were on this subject.

Moreover, a proportion of the questions used in the two-hour test were selected from previous cycles, firstly to ensure continuity between cycles and secondly these questions can be used to measure change in attainment.
Each student was provided with a test booklet and had to complete the tasks under test conditions.

In addition, students were also asked to complete a student background questionnaire.

The student questionnaire provides information on pupils’ demographic background including gender and age; pupils’ socio-economic background including parents’ level of education, their qualifications and their main occupations.
Other questions provide information about items owned by the family and the people (siblings, grand-parents and other relatives) living with the family.

The questionnaire also provides information about the students’ study habits, and attitudes to reading and reading activities at school.

1.5 Proficiency levels Performance in reading, mathematics and science can be examined in two ways.
One can either compare a country’s mean scale score to those of other countries and economies or against the OECD and EU averages.

This comparison provides an insight of 6 Background and Overview the strengths and weaknesses of a country’s student population in reading, mathematics and science.

Alternatively, one can categorise these scale scores into a number of proficiency levels and then investigate the relative proportions of students in each proficiency level within the scale.
In lower proficiency levels students can only answer test questions that focus on simple tasks; whereas in higher proficiency levels students can answer more demanding questions.

Apart from the difficulty aspect, test questions take into account views on the specific cognitive demands.

The proficiency level is the highest level at which a pupil can answer more than half of the questions correctly.
This implies that a student allotted to a particular level not only demonstrates the knowledge and skills associated with that level but also the proficiencies required at lower levels.

Pupils proficient at level 4 are also considered to be proficient at levels 1, 2 and 3.

For both PISA 2009 and 2009+ the range of difficulty of tasks allows for the description of eight levels of reading proficiency and seven proficiency levels for Science and Mathematics.
Tables 1.1 and 1.2 display the score ranges for each proficiency level in Reading, Mathematics and Science.

Students at Level 1 are the least proficient and are likely to be able to successfully complete Level 1 tasks, but are unlikely to be able to complete tasks at higher levels.

Students at level 6 are the most proficient and are able to complete tasks that present the greatest challenge in terms of skills and knowledge.
Table 1.1: Score ranges for each proficiency level in reading Proficiency Level Below level 1b Level 1b Level 1a Level 2 Level 3 Level 4 Level 5 Level 6 Range Below 262 262-335 335-407 407-480 480-553 553-626 626-698 Above 698 Table 1.2: Score ranges for each proficiency level in Mathematics and Science Proficiency Level Below level 1 Level 1 Level 2 Level 3 Level 4 Level 5 Level 6 Mathematics range Below 358 358-420 420-482 482-545 545-607 607-669 Above 669 Science range Below 335 335-410 410-484 484-559 559-633 633-708 Above 708 1.6 Data Analysis Comparing the sixty-four participating countries in PISA 2009 with the ten PISA 2009+ participants is a very unwieldy task.
The report compares the achievements of 15- year olds in Malta with a selected subset of countries; mainly countries that participated 7 PISA 2009+: Achievement of 15-year olds in Malta in PISA 2009+, OECD members and EU members.

Table 1.3 displays the participating countries that are presently members of the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) and European Union (EU).
Table 1.3: OECD and EU countries OECD countries Australia, Austria, Belgium, Canada, Chile, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Iceland, Ireland, Israel, Italy, Japan, Korea, Luxembourg, Mexico, Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Slovak Republic, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, United Kingdom and United States EU countries Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, Netherlands, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Slovak Republic, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden and United Kingdom In many tables and figures, both the OECD average and EU average are reported.
The OECD and EU averages are respectively the arithmetic means of the estimates for the thirty-four OECD countries and twenty-six EU countries that participated in PISA 2009 and 2009+.

Each country contributes equally to the calculation of both averages, regardless of the number of 15-year-olds in its population.

Numbers within the text and tables of this report are rounded either to zero or one decimal places.
Statistical analysis is essential to generalize results and make inferences about the student population using the sample data.

Population mean scores are unknown because they can only be obtained if every student in every country had answered every question.

So it is necessary to take into account the degree of uncertainty of the sample estimates.

The procedure is to select random samples and then compute sample mean scores.
Estimates of population mean scores are obtained by computing confidence intervals.

In many cases, analysts are primarily interested in whether mean scores differ significantly between participating countries or between distinct groups of students within a country, for example, categorised by gender or school type.

The Two Independent samples t-test and One Way ANOVA test will be used to establish whether mean scores differ significantly between the groups using a 0.05 level of significance.
This implies that differences between mean scores are statistically significant if their magnitudes are exceeded in less than 5% of all the samples drawn from corresponding populations assuming that no differences actually exist.

Where observed differences do not meet this criterion, they are described as not being statistically significantly different, or as ‘statistically the same’.
Correlation analysis will be used to relate the scores in reading, mathematics and science with socio-economic and cultural variables.

Factor analysis will be used to discover the patterns of relationships between the five reading subscales.

Moreover, the two-level data structure where individual students (Level 1) are nested within schools (Level 2) makes it possible to carry out multi-level analysis.
Multilevel modelling will be used to estimate the variance component at each level of nesting and determine the within-school and between school variance for reading scores.

8 Background and Overview 1.7 Report Structure Chapter 2 presents and analyzes the responses of Maltese students to questions related to demographic and socio-economic backgrounds.
The study also investigates reading habits, reading activities, attitudes towards reading and strategies used by Maltese students in reading and understanding texts.

Other issues that are discussed include the use of libraries to borrow and read books, the use of internet to learn about other subjects that are not course-related; the effectiveness of schools in helping, teaching and preparing students for adult life and teachers’ readiness to assist students in their difficulties.
For each aspect, the responses of Maltese students are compared with the OECD and EU averages.

Chapters 3 and 4 examine the mathematical and scientific literacies of 15-year- olds in the PISA 2009 and 2009+ countries and economies.

Moreover, these chapters describe the distribution of students across proficiency levels.

Mathematical knowledge and attainment are also compared between males and females and between students attending different school types.
The relationship between attainment in Mathematics and socio- economic background was also investigated.

Chapter 5 describes the PISA results of reading abilities for 15-year olds.

Since reading is the main focus in PISA 2009 and 2009+, this chapter includes a comparison of mean performance levels on an overall reading scale and several reading subscales with other countries as well as the OECD and EU averages.
An examination of the distribution of students across proficiency levels will provide more detail on what students can or cannot do with regard to reading literacy.
Moreover, this chapter explores other issues related to reading achievement, particularly differences in educational outcomes between boys and girls and between students attending different school types; the relationships between school policies, practice and educational outcomes; and the relationship between socio-economic background and educational outcomes.
9 PISA 2009+: Achievement of 15-year olds in Malta 10 Preliminary Findings 2 2.1 Introduction This chapter provides preliminary information about several items in the questionnaire related to the students, their families and socio-economic background.

The instrument also elicits information about the students’ reading activities, their attitudes to reading, reading strategies that they use and different ways of understanding text.
Additional items in the questionnaire provide insight of learning time, disruption during lessons, classroom and school climate and use of libraries.

This chapter compares the socio- economic and cultural backgrounds of Maltese students to other pupils in EU and OECD countries.

The sample of 3453 Maltese students comprises a large proportion of the student population who are 15-years old and includes comparable numbers of male and female students.
The sample guarantees a maximum margin of error of around 1% at the 95% degree of confidence.

The students were selected randomly from 53 different schools ensuring a good geographical representation.

Moreover, the number of students selected from state, church and private schools was proportional to their size.
2.2 Family and home backgrounds The section provides information about the family members, the educational level of parents and their current job classification, family structure, country of birth, language used at home and immigration status.

This section also investigates the availability of a number of items/commodities that are normally found in homes.

Table 2.1: Family members Who usually lives at home with you?
Mother (including stepmother or foster mother) Father (including stepfather or foster father) Brother(s) (including stepbrothers) Sister(s) (including stepsisters) Grandparent(s) Others (e.g.

cousin) Malta (%) 97.6 92.7 63.5 60.2 11.3 7.2 EU(%) 96.4 86.2 58.2 54.4 17.7 6.0 OECD(%) 95.8 86.0 61.0 57.4 14.0 6.8 11 PISA 2009+: Achievement of 15-year olds in Malta Table 2.1 shows higher proportions of mothers compared to fathers living with their children in all countries.
Moreover, the proportion of Maltese parents living with their children is significantly higher compared to EU and OECD averages.

In Malta the proportion of grandparents living with their children is significantly less compared to EU and OECD averages.

This may be attributed to the fact that Malta is a small island and grandparents can still be supported even if they do not live with the family.

Table 2.2: Family structure Who usually lives at home with you?
Single parent family Nuclear family Mixed Malta (%) 7.3 92.1 0.7 EU(%) 16.9 81.2 1.9 OECD(%) 16.7 81.3 2.0 Table 2.2 shows that the proportion of two-parent families in Malta exceeds EU and OECD averages by more than 10%; whereas, the proportion of single families are less than half EU and OECD averages.

This complements the fact that larger proportions of Maltese families are intact and parents tend to live with their children.

Table 2.3: Mother’s current job What is your mother currently doing?
Working full-time for pay Working part-time for pay Not working, but looking for a job Other (e.g.

home duties, retired) Table 2.4: Father’s current job What is your mother currently doing?

Working full-time for pay Working part-time for pay Not working, but looking for a job Other (e.g.
home duties, retired) Malta (%) 27.5 18.0 4.8 49.7 Malta (%) 88.7 5.0 2.4 3.9 EU(%) 56.9 18.3 6.2 18.6 EU(%) 80.3 8.1 4.7 6.9 OECD(%) 51.8 19.9 5.2 23.1 OECD(%) 81.1 8.0 3.9 7.0 Table 2.3 displays that the proportion of Maltese mothers doing home duties is more than double; whereas, those having a full time job is approximately half EU and OECD averages.
On the other hand, table 2.4 shows a significantly higher proportion of Maltese fathers having a full time job and a significantly lower proportion doing home duties compared to EU and OECD averages.

Compared to other countries, Maltese fathers are more likely to be breadwinners and mothers to be house carers.

Table 2.5: Mother’s education level (ISCED) What is your mother’s educational level?
None ISCED 1 ISCED 2 ISCED 3B, C ISCED 3A, ISCED 4 ISCED 5B ISCED 5A, 6 Malta (%) 0.7 2.7 54.5 1.6 19.9 11.8 8.8 EU(%) 1.2 3.4 10.6 14.5 32.0 15.7 22.6 OECD(%) 2.1 5.0 11.7 13.6 29.3 15.5 22.8 12 Preliminary Findings Table 2.6: Father’s education level (ISCED) What is your father’s educational level?
None ISCED 1 ISCED 2 ISCED 3B, C ISCED 3A, ISCED 4 ISCED 5B ISCED 5A, 6 Malta (%) 1.7 5.2 44.4 3.3 20.7 10.4 14.3 EU(%) 1.2 4.0 10.9 17.1 30.8 14.6 21.4 OECD(%) 1.8 4.9 12.2 15.4 27.6 14.1 24.0 Tables 2.5 and 2.6 display higher proportions of Maltese mothers and fathers at ISCED level 2 compared to EU and OECD averages.

The tables also show a larger proportion of Maltese fathers, rather than mothers who are either below or above ISCED level 2.
Most of these parents, who are presently aged 40 to 50 years left school at the age of 16 after completing secondary education.

Table 2.7: Highest educational level of parents (ISCED) What is your parents’ highest educational level?
None ISCED 1 ISCED 2 ISCED 3B, C ISCED 3A, ISCED 4 ISCED 5B ISCED 5A, 6 Malta (%) 0.4 1.5 39.7 3.0 23.6 14.2 17.5 EU(%) 0.6 2.2 6.6 12.0 30.1 17.8 30.7 OECD(%) 0.9 3.2 8.0 6.8 27.5 17.2 32.9 Table 2.7 shows the proportions of highest ISCED educational levels of Maltese parents compared to EU and OECD averages.

The majority of Maltese parents (around 40%) have highest educational level at ISCED 2.
The proportion of Maltese parents with highest educational level at ISCED 3A or above (55.3%) is significantly lower than both the EU average (78.6%) and OECD average (77.6%).

Indeed, this deficit will decrease considerably for Malta in the near future as more adults are presently engaging in tertiary education and lifelong learning.
Table 2.8: Mother White collar/Blue collar classification White collar high skilled White collar low skilled Blue collar high skilled Blue collar low skilled Malta (%) 38.6 38.6 4.2 18.6 Table 2.9: Father White collar/Blue collar classification White collar high skilled White collar low skilled Blue collar high skilled Blue collar low skilled Malta (%) 42.4 16.6 23.3 17.7 EU(%) 43.5 35.2 7.4 13.9 EU(%) 39.2 11.8 30.1 19.0 OECD(%) 45.9 35.2 6.0 12.9 OECD(%) 42.8 12.4 27.3 17.6 13 PISA 2009+: Achievement of 15-year olds in Malta Tables 2.8 and 2.9 show the proportions of white collar/blue collar classification of Maltese parents compared to EU and OECD averages.
In almost all EU and OECD countries, including Malta, there are higher proportions of mothers, rather than fathers, doing a white collar low skilled job and higher proportions of fathers, rather than mothers, doing a blue collar high skilled job.

In Malta, the proportion of mothers doing a white collar high skilled job is significantly lower to EU and OECD averages; whereas the proportion of mothers doing a blue collar low skilled job is significantly higher.
On the other hand, the proportion of fathers in Malta doing a white collar job is significantly higher than the EU and OECD averages; whereas, the proportion of fathers doing a blue collar job is significantly lower.
Table 2.10: Highest parent White collar/Blue collar classification White collar high skilled White collar low skilled Blue collar high skilled Blue collar low skilled Malta (%) 49.0 23.2 16.1 11.6 EU(%) 53.3 24.8 13.9 8.0 OECD(%) 56.2 23.6 12.1 8.1 Tables 2.10 shows the proportion of highest Maltese parent white collar/blue collar classification compared to EU and OECD averages.
There is a lower percentage of Maltese parents having a white collar high skilled job and a higher proportion having a blue collar job compared to EU and OECD averages Table 2.11: Country of Birth Were you born in the same country where you live?

Self Mother Father Malta (%) 95.7 91.9 92.4 EU(%) 94.7 87.1 87.0 OECD(%) 93.7 85.5 85.5 Table 2.12: Immigration status In what country were you and your parents born?
Native Second-Generation First-Generation Malta (%) 97.6 0.7 1.8 EU(%) 91.3 5.2 3.5 OECD(%) 89.9 5.8 4.5 Table 2.11 shows that, compared to EU and OECD averages, there are higher proportions of Maltese parents and children who live in the same country where they were born.

Table 2.12 shows that immigration is less prevalent in Malta compared to other countries.

Table 2.13: Language at home What language do you frequently speak at home?
Native language Another language Malta (%) 87.9 12.1 EU(%) 89.2 10.8 OECD(%) 90.0 10.0 Table 2.13 shows that around 88% of Maltese 15-year old students speak their native language; whereas, most of the remaining 12% speak English.
14 Preliminary Findings Table 2.14: Items found at home Availability of the following items found at home A desk to study at A room of your own A quiet place to study A computer you can use for school work Educational software A link to the internet Classic literature Books of poetry Works of art (e.g.
paintings) Books to help with your school work Technical reference books A dictionary A dishwasher A DVD player Malta (%) 92.7 83.3 83.4 97.4 73.8 98.1 50.2 62.4 65.9 92.6 64.3 97.5 35.7 97.1 EU(%) 95.5 86.3 91.8 94.5 58.8 91.0 56.9 56.2 63.7 87.4 67.7 96.2 65.0 93.3 OECD(%) 93.0 86.0 91.1 91.8 56.0 89.0 53.2 52.4 63.6 86.2 65.3 97.0 69.7 93.2 Table 2.14 shows that, compared to other countries, Maltese students are more likely to have a computer to use for school work, an internet link, educational software, a DVD player, poetry books and books to help with school work but less likely to have a room of their own and a quiet place to study, classic literature and technical reference books and a dishwasher.
Table 2.15: Commodities found at home Possession of at least two commodities at home Mobile phones Televisions Computers Cars Rooms with a bath or shower Malta (%) 96.7 89.7 67.3 72.3 71.7 EU(%) 97.6 85.6 58.4 51.3 40.1 OECD(%) 96.3 84.4 60.1 54.5 44.8 The proportions of Maltese students possessing at least two of each commodity displayed in table 2.15 exceed by large margins EU and OECD averages, particularly cars, computers, televisions and rooms with baths/showers.
Table 2.16: Books at home How many books are there in your home?

0-10 books 11-25 books 26-100 books 101-200 books 201-500 books More than 500 books Malta (%) 6.2 10.5 32.6 22.7 17.6 10.4 EU(%) 11.8 16.0 31.5 18.1 14.1 8.5 OECD(%) 12.2 15.7 31.0 18.3 14.4 8.4 Table 2.16 shows that, compared to EU and OECD averages, Maltese students tend to have more books at home.
Over 83% of Maltese students stated that they own more than 25 books which is significantly larger to both the OECD average (72.1%) and EU average (72.2%).

15 PISA 2009+: Achievement of 15-year olds in Malta 2.3 Reading activities and attitudes to reading In the student questionnaire, Maltese pupils were asked about the time they spent on reading for enjoyment.

Table 2.17 shows that reading for pleasure is not a popular activity among this age group.
34% of Maltese students stated that they never do so; however this is more than 2% lower than the EU and OECD averages Moreover, the proportion of Maltese students (17.1%) spending at least one hour daily on reading is marginally higher than both the EU average (16.8%) and OECD average (15.2%).

Table 2.17: Time spent reading How much time do you spend reading for enjoyment?
Malta (%) I do not read for enjoyment 30 minutes or less a day More than 30 minutes to less than 60 minutes a day 1 to 2 hours a day More than 2 hours a day 34.0 29.4 19.5 11.2 5.9 EU(%) 36.3 29.2 17.7 11.9 4.9 OECD(%) 37.3 30.3 17.2 10.7 4.5 Internationally, the time pupils spend on reading was positively related to reading attainment, but the largest difference was between those who never read for enjoyment and those who read at most for 30 minutes daily.

This was also the case in Malta.


The mean reading score for those who stated that they never read for enjoyment was 401 while the mean reading score for those who read for 30 minutes or less per day was 443.

The mean reading score for those who read between 30 and 60 minutes was 481 and the mean reading score for those who read more than one hour daily was only 9 points higher.
The direction of causality is not so obvious – it is possible that poorer readers are less likely to enjoy reading or that enjoyment of reading stimulates more reading time.

Table 2.18: Negative attitudes to reading How much do you agree with these statements I read only if I have to.

I find it hard to finish books.

For me, reading is a waste of time.

I read only to get information that I need.

I cannot sit still and read for more than a few minutes.
Table 2.19: Positive attitudes to reading How much do you agree with these statements Reading is one of my favourite hobbies.

I like talking about books with other people.

I feel happy if I receive a book as a present.

I enjoy going to a bookshop or a library.

I like to express my opinions about books I have read.

I like to exchange books with my friends.


Malta (%) 37.7 41.0 18.6 41.0 34.6 Malta (%) 40.9 38.8 41.0 47.1 51.7 41.6 EU(%) 41.3 32.6 26.0 48.6 25.7 EU(%) 31.2 36.1 45.0 40.0 58.5 35.5 OECD(%) 41.2 32.4 24.2 45.5 25.0 OECD(%) 32.9 37.6 46.6 42.1 56.5 36.2 Tables 2.18 and 2.19 reports responses to specific questions about pupils’ positive and negative attitudes to various aspects of reading and activities connected with books and reading.
The percentages display the proportion of students who agree or strongly agree with the statement.

Percentages for Malta are somewhat different to the OECD and 16 Preliminary Findings EU mean proportions; however, they appear to be slightly more positive overall.

Compared to EU and OECD averages, there are lower proportions of Maltese students who read only if they have to (37.7%), who find reading as a waste of time (18.6%) and who read solely to get the information they need (41.0%).
Moreover, there are higher proportions of students who enjoy going to a bookshop or library (47.1%), who consider reading as one of their favourite hobbies (40.9%), who exchange books with their friends (41.6%) and who like talking about books with other people (38.8%).
However, there are higher proportions of Maltese students who find it hard to finish books (41.0%) and who cannot sit still and read for an adequate amount of time (34.6%) and lower proportions of pupils who feel happy when they receive a book as a present (41.0%) and who express their opinion about books they read (51.7%).

Internationally, attitudes to reading have a positive connection with reading scores and this was again the case in Malta.
Students who tended to disagree with the positive statements and agree with the negative statements scored significantly lower in reading than their counterparts displaying contrasting views.

However, as with the responses on the time spent reading, the direct cause and effect cannot be assumed.

The weakest readers may have negative attitudes because they struggle with reading.
Table 2.20: Reading of text types Reading these materials at least several times a month Malta (%) Magazines Newspapers Fiction Non-fiction books Comic books 53.8 45.3 39.3 24.1 17.8 EU(%) 64.2 63.2 27.9 18.9 18.7 OECD(%) 58.5 62.7 30.8 18.7 22.2 Table 2.20 shows the proportion of pupils reading magazines, newspapers and books at least several times monthly, ranked in order of popularity.

The most common reading materials are magazines and newspapers.
Students are more likely to read these than to read fiction, and even less likely to read non-fiction books.

Percentages for Malta are again somewhat different to the OECD and EU averages.

Reading of fiction and non- fiction books is more prevalent in Malta than other countries; however, reading magazines, newspapers and comic books appear to be much less common in Malta than other EU and OECD countries.

Table 2.21: Online reading in Malta How often are you involved in the following reading activities?
Chatting online Reading emails Searching online information to learn about a topic Reading online news Using an online dictionary or encyclopedia Searching for practical information online Taking part in online group discussions or forums Several times daily 65.1 40.5 20.8 20.0 15.8 16.8 11.7 Several times weekly 20.1 35.1 32.9 25.4 29.5 24.7 13.1 Several times monthly 7.7 16.6 33.3 26.1 36.8 37.1 17.5 Never or almost never 7.1 7.8 13.0 28.5 17.9 21.4 57.7 17 PISA 2009+: Achievement of 15-year olds in Malta Table 2.22: Online reading Involvement in online reading at least many times weekly Malta (%) Chatting online Reading emails Searching online information to learn about a topic Reading online news Using an online dictionary or encyclopedia Searching for practical information online Taking part in online group discussions or forums 85.2 75.6 53.7 45.4 45.3 41.5 24.8 EU(%) 78.8 65.4 51.7 48.2 41.0 37.5 24.6 OECD(%) 73.4 63.7 51.3 45.6 38.9 35.4 19.5 Table 2.21 displays the proportions of Maltese pupils involved in different reading activities and are sorted to show which activities are the most frequent.
Undoubtedly, reading online is a more frequent activity than print reading for these pupils.

Table 2.22 also shows the percentage of pupils who report doing each activity at least several times weekly compared with the OECD and EU averages.

Communication through email and online chatting are by far the most popular reading activities in most countries.
The online reading activities do not discriminate between the extent of using text messaging, the internet on mobile phones and social networking sites, such as Face book, to communicate with other people.

With the exception of online reading, Maltese pupils take part in all the other activities more than the EU and OECD averages.

Proportions of Maltese students exceed EU and OECD averages by more than 10% for reading emails and by more than 6% for chatting online.
Table 2.23: Ways of studying When I study… I try to memorise everything that is covered in the text.

I start by working out what exactly I need to learn.

I try to memorise as many details as possible.

I try to relate new information to knowledge I have from other subjects.

I read the text so many times that I learn it by heart.

I check if I understand what I have read.

I read the text over and over again.

I think about how the information might be useful outside school.
I try to decide which ideas I haven’t really understood.

I try to understand the material better by relating it to my own experiences.

I make sure that I remember the most important points in the text.

I think about how the information fits in with what happens in real life.

I look for additional information to explain it if I don’t understand something.
Malta (%) 42.5 71.4 71.1 51.7 EU(%) 55.0 73.0 64.0 51.6 OECD(%) Table 2.23 displays the proportion of pupils who use frequently or almost always each of the following study methods.
Compared to EU and OECD averages, Maltese students are more likely to read the text several times to memorise many details; check whether they are understanding what they read and decide which ideas they haven’t really understood; try to understand the material better by relating it to their own 18 Preliminary Findings experiences; make sure that they remember the most important points in the text and think about how the information fits in with what happens in real life.
Maltese students are less likely to memorise everything that is covered in the text.

2.4 Learning time Learning time at school does not vary much between countries.

Most students have on average 4 to 5 lessons weekly in mathematics, science and test language and the duration of each lesson ranges from 45 to 60 minutes.

Around 22% of Maltese students who study more than one science subject stated that they have on average 8 to 12 science lessons weekly.
The ranges presented in table 2.24 are the modal number of lessons for each subject and their corresponding durations as stipulated by the vast majority of students.
Table 2.24: Learning Time Number of lessons and durations Duration of lesson (Test language) Duration of Mathematics lesson Duration of Science lesson Number of lessons per week (Test language) Number of Mathematics lessons per week Number of Science lessons per week Malta 40-45 minutes 40-45 minutes 40-45 minutes 5-6 lessons 5 lessons 3-6 lessons Other countries 40-60 minutes 40-60 minutes 40-60 minutes 3-5 lessons 3-5 lessons 2-6 lessons Table 2.25 displays the proportion of pupils who attend additional lessons outside school hours.
Malta has the highest proportion (58.2%) of students in EU and OECD countries who take additional lessons in Mathematics, followed by Greece (53.0%), Israel (41.1%), Korea (38.7%), Portugal (31.1%) and Japan (29.6%).

Malta also has the highest proportion (43.9%) of students who take extra lessons in Science, followed Greece (42.9%), Mexico (21.8%), Poland (18.4%) and Korea (17.3%).
Malta has the fourth largest proportion (21.2%) of pupils taking additional lessons outside school time in the test language (English) following Greece (32.0%), Korea (27.0%) and Mexico (22.4%) and the third largest proportion (28.7%) of pupils who take extra lessons in other school subjects following Poland (40.3%) and Israel (33.1%).
Pupils taking additional lessons outside school time in Science and English scored significantly lower in the PISA science and reading tests than their counterparts who did not take additional lessons.
Table 2.25: Additional lessons outside school time Attend other lessons outside of school time Additional English lessons which go beyond what you have learned in your ‘test language’ class Additional Mathematics lessons which go beyond what you have learned in your Mathematics class Additional Science lessons which go beyond what you have learned in your Science class Additional lessons in other school subjects which go beyond what you have learned in class Lessons to improve your study skill Malta (%) 21.2 EU(%) 8.9 OECD(%) 9.7 58.2 43.9 28.7 9.4 17.1 8.8 15.1 10.6 17.8 9.3 15.2 11.3 19 PISA 2009+: Achievement of 15-year olds in Malta Attending at least 2 hours weekly outside school time Table 2.26: Duration of additional lessons outside school time Malta (%) 13.4 46.7 37.6 24.3 Test Language Mathematics Science Other subjects EU(%) 10.3 16.3 11.6 14.6 OECD(%) 11.6 18.3 11.9 14.8 Table 2.26 displays the proportion of pupils who attend additional lessons outside school for at least 2 hours weekly.
Malta’s proportions exceed EU averages by almost 30% in Mathematics, 26% in Science, 3% in the test language and 10% in other subjects.

2.5 School climate and effectiveness School effectiveness perceived by Maltese students appears to be more positive overall compared to EU and OECD averages.
Table 2.27 shows significantly higher proportions of Maltese students who agree or strongly agree that the school has helped them gain confidence to make decisions and taught them facts that may be useful in future jobs.

Moreover, fewer Maltese students think that school is a waste of time.

However, a higher proportion of Maltese pupils believe that their school could do much more to prepare students for adult life.
Table 2.27: School effectiveness To what extent was the school effective in the following?
Malta (%) School has done little to prepare me for adult life when I leave school School has been a waste of time School has helped give me confidence to make decisions School has taught me things which could be useful in a job 7.8 83.3 91.4 27.0 EU(%) 23.9 OECD(%) 24.2 8.54 74.5 89.4 8.6 73.7 87.7 Table 2.28 also shows that students’ perception of their teachers is more positive in all aspects compared to EU and OECD averages.
The proportions of Maltese students who agree or strongly agree that most of their teachers are interested in their well-being, listen to what they have to say and assist them when they need extra help exceed OECD and EU averages by more than 10%.

Higher proportions of Maltese students also agree that most of their teachers treat them fairly and they get along well with them.

Table 2.28: Relationship with teachers To what extent do you agree with these statements?
I get along well with most of my teachers Most of my teachers are interested in my well-being Most of my teachers really listen to what I have to say If I need extra help, I will receive it from my teachers Most of my teachers treat me fairly Malta (%) 85.8 79.3 78.1 87.7 82.9 EU(%) 84.9 63.6 66.3 77.9 78.7 OECD(%) 84.6 66.4 67.0 78.8 78.7 20 Preliminary Findings 2.6 Classroom climate and teaching strategies Figure 2.1 shows the distribution of the number of students in a classroom.
Most classes in Malta have between 20 to 25 students and all classes have at most 30 students.

In some EU and OECD countries the number of students per class may exceed 30.

Figure 2.1: Distribution of the number of students in class About a third of Maltese students stated that disruptions (noise and disorder; waiting for students to settle down and students not listening to teacher) occurs in most lessons.
Around a quarter of the students stated that they start working well after the lesson starts and a fifth said that disruptions in class hinder them to work well.

However, table 2.29 shows that these proportions are comparable to EU and OECD averages but significantly higher for waiting students to settle down.

Table 2.29: Disruption during lessons How often do the following occur during lessons?
Students don’t listen to what the teacher says There is noise and disorder The teacher has to wait a long time for the students to settle down Students cannot work well Students don’t start working for a long time after the lesson begins Malta (%) 30.3 32.2 34.4 18.5 26.4 EU(%) 30.2 30.6 28.2 20.2 25.6 OECD(%) 28.6 31.5 28.0 19.4 25.5 21 PISA 2009+: Achievement of 15-year olds in Malta In the student questionnaire, pupils were asked how often teachers do various activities during lessons.
These results are reported in Table 2.30.

The test scripts also included some questions on the types of text read at school and the frequency of various reading activities in school.

These are reported in Tables 2.31 and 2.32.

Table 2.30: Stimulating reading The following occur frequently during your lessons The teacher asks students to explain the meaning of a text.

The teacher gives students enough time to think about their answers.
The teacher encourages students to express their opinion about a text.

The teacher asks difficult questions that challenge students to get a better understanding of a text.

The teacher shows students how the information in texts builds on what they already know.

The teacher helps students relate the stories they read to their lives.

The teacher recommends a book or author to read.


Malta (%) 48.5 EU(%) 52.3 OECD(%) 51.7 65.0 57.7 59.1 48.0 27.8 38.5 60.7 58.0 59.3 43.3 32.7 39.2 59.9 54.9 58.2 42.4 32.9 35.9 Table 2.30 describes several methods teachers use to stimulate reading and also show the prevalence of each method compared to EU and OECD averages.
Some methods are more prevalent in Malta than other countries, particularly the time teachers allow students to think about their answers and the instruction provided by teachers to show to students how the information in texts builds on what they already know.

However, Maltese teachers are less likely to ask students to explain the meaning of a text and encourage pupils to relate stories to their own lives.
Students’ responses for other methods to stimulate reading are quite comparable to EU and OECD averages.
Table 2.31: Teaching strategies The teacher… Explains what the students are expected to do Checks that students are concentrating while working on a reading task Discusses students’ work, after they have finished the reading task Tells students in advance how their work is going to be judged Asks whether every student has understood how to complete the reading task Marks students’ work (either during or after the lesson) Gives students the chance to ask questions about the reading task Asks questions that motivate students to participate actively Tells students how well they did on the reading task as soon as they have finished it Malta (%) 54.1 61.5 EU(%) 47.3 59.4 OECD(%) 47.8 59.3 60.3 58.2 69.1 74.9 73.8 62.7 49.5 59.2 56.0 66.7 61.8 69.5 56.7 40.7 56.4 58.1 63.5 63.0 69.2 55.7 40.1 22 Preliminary Findings In all the nine teaching strategies, described in table 2.31, Malta scored better than the EU and OECD averages, particularly in marking students’ work, allowing students to ask questions, provide feedback to students on their reading task, motivating students’ participation by asking questions, provide details of what the students are expected to do and check that the students have understood how to complete the reading task.
2.7 Use of libraries On average, Maltese pupils make more use of libraries than students from other countries.

For most reading activities, the proportion of Maltese students who never visit the library are significantly lower than both the EU and OECD averages.

This is particularly the case for using the internet, learn things, read magazines, work on homework and borrow books to read for pleasure.

Visiting libraries to borrow books for school work is less common in Malta.
Moreover, Maltese students acknowledge that libraries are available in almost all the schools.

This might explain why a higher proportion (47.1%) of Maltese students enjoys visiting a bookshop or library as displayed in table 2.19.
6 Table 2.32: Library use for reading activities Never visited a library for these activities To borrow books to read for pleasure To borrow books for school work To work on homework To read magazines To read for fun To learn things To use the internet No library is available at school Malta (%) 40.3 41.2 38.1 44.1 38.5 37.5 37.2 2.8 EU(%) 47.9 35.8 49.6 59.7 57.2 51.2 51.5 11.1 OECD(%) 47.5 36.2 47.4 58.0 55.4 50.5 48.5 9.8 2.8 Reading strategies and understanding text Strategies used by students for understanding and remembering the text and for writing a summary of the text were measured on 6-point Likert scale where 1 corresponds to ‘Not useful’ and 6 corresponds to ‘Very useful’.
Tables 2.33 and 2.34 show the proportion of students who found these strategies at least ‘Slightly useful’ by providing a rating score from 4 to 6.

Table 2.33: Strategies for understanding and remembering the text How do you rate the usefulness of the following strategies for understanding and remembering the text I concentrate on parts of the text that are easy to understand.

I quickly read through the text twice.

After reading the text, I discuss its content with other people.
I underline important parts of the text.

I summarise the text in my own words.

I read the text aloud to another person Malta (%) 49.7 53.4 51.5 69.4 67.3 43.1 EU(%) 49.9 33.4 54.9 72.7 74.0 39.0 OECD(%) 50.8 32.9 56.3 73.7 73.5 40.8 23 PISA 2009+: Achievement of 15-year olds in Malta Table 2.33 shows that some strategies for understanding and remembering the text are more used by students than others, particularly underlining important parts of the text and summarising the text in own words.
Maltese pupils are less likely to use these two strategies or discuss the content with other people after reading the text; however, they are more likely to read through the text twice and read the text aloud to another person.

Table 2.34: Strategies for writing a summary of the text How do you rate the usefulness of the following strategies for writing a summary of this text?

I write a summary, check that each paragraph is covered in the summary, because the content should be included.
I try to copy out accurately as many sentences as possible.

Before writing the summary, I read the text as many times as possible.

I carefully check whether the most important facts in the text are represented in the summary.

I read through the text, underline the most important sentences and write them in my own words as a summary.
Malta (%) 57.0 EU(%) 54.2 OECD(%) 54.8 29.9 64.0 78.2 76.9 27.5 61.4 80.0 76.4 27.3 61.4 80.2 76.7 Table 2.34 shows that copying out accurately as many sentences as possible is the least frequently used strategy by students for summarising the text.

Copying directly from text and reading the text several times before writing the summary are more frequently used by Maltese students, compared to other countries, to write a summary of the text.
Table 2.35: Reading different types texts at school During the last month, how often did you have to read the following types of texts in the classroom or for homework?
Poetry Information texts about writers or books Texts that include tables or graphs Fiction (for example, novels and short stories) Texts that include diagrams or maps Newspaper reports and magazine articles Advertising material Instructions or manuals specifying how to make something Malta (%) 72.7 72.7 62.1 58.5 51.7 43.9 40.6 30.9 EU(%) 45.7 53.7 57.8 60.1 51.9 46.6 40.3 30.3 OECD(%) 42.8 52.9 58.4 60.3 52.8 46.5 39.5 30.4 Table 2.35 shows the types of text which pupils reported reading at school at least twice in the previous month.
The type of text most frequent read in Malta was poetry, reading information about writers or books and reading texts that include tables and graphs.

The proportions of Maltese students reading poetry at school, reading information about writers/books and reading texts from tables/graphs exceed the OECD averages by almost 30%, 20% and 4% respectively.

These three types of text are more frequently read at school than reading novels, short stories, newspaper reports and magazine articles.
In fact, the proportion of Maltese students reading fiction and newspaper/magazine articles are lower than the EU and OECD averages.

The proportion of students reporting to read newspaper/magazine articles at school (43.9%) is comparable to the proportion of pupils stipulating that they read a newspaper (45.3%).

This implies that newspaper articles and magazine report are more likely to be read at school than at home.
24 Preliminary Findings Table 2.36: Doing different kinds of tasks at school During the last month, how often did you have to do the following kinds of tasks in the classroom or for homework?
Find information from a graph, diagram or table Explain the way characters behave in a text Explain the purpose of a text Explain the cause of events in a text Describe how information in a table or graph is organised Explain the connection between different parts of a text Memorize a text by heart Learn about the place of a text in the history of literature Learn about the life of the writer Malta (%) 72.7 67.0 65.3 65.1 48.6 40.9 40.3 35.2 32.9 EU(%) 57.7 61.5 63.3 62.8 33.8 37.7 26.0 32.8 42.4 OECD(%) 58.8 59.4 61.0 61.4 35.8 39.1 24.8 32.9 37.4 Table 2.36 shows pupils’ reports of the number of times they had done various activities for school.
Maltese students reported doing most tasks substantially more often than the OECD and EU averages, with the exception of the last task (Learning about the life of the writer).

2.8 Summary In Malta there is a higher proportion of intact families and higher proportions of mothers and fathers living with their children than EU and OECD averages.
The proportion of Maltese mothers doing home duties is more than double; whereas the proportion of mothers doing a full time job is approximately half EU and OECD averages.

Compared to other countries, Maltese fathers are more likely to be breadwinners and the proportion of fathers doing a full time job exceeds EU and OECD averages by more than 7%.

The vast majority of Maltese parents have highest educational level at ISCED 2.
In Malta, there are lower proportions of mothers doing white collar high skilled jobs and higher proportions of mothers doing blue collar low skilled jobs compared to EU and OECD averages.

On the other hand, there are higher proportion of fathers in Malta doing a white collar job and lower proportions doing a blue collar job.

Higher proportions of Maltese make use of facilities that enhance learning.
Compared to EU and OECD averages, Maltese students are more likely to have a computer to use for school work, an internet link, educational software, a DVD player, poetry books and books to help with school work.

Moreover, Maltese families tend to own more cars, computers, televisions and rooms with baths/showers than EU and OECD averages.

More than 65% of pupils in Malta spend some time reading for enjoyment.
Both internationally and in Malta, there was a large difference in scores between those who never read for enjoyment and those who do, even if they read for at most half an hour daily.

Similar to other countries, the most popular and frequent reading materials in Malta were magazines and newspapers.

Pupils read fiction more often than non-fiction books.

Very few ever read comic books.


Compared to EU and OECD countries, Maltese pupils read more fiction and non-fiction books and less magazines and newspapers.

They also reported using libraries to borrow books, read magazines and use internet more often than the EU and OECD averages.

25 PISA 2009+: Achievement of 15-year olds in Malta Pupils’ reports of their reading at school show that they spent more time on reading non-continuous texts (e.g.
finding and describing information from a graph, table or diagram) than the EU and OECD averages.

They also reported reading more poetry in class.

Pupils reported a high level of activity in online communication and less activity in other types of online reading.

They spent more time chatting online and reading emails than the EU and OECD averages but were similar to their counterparts in the frequency of other online activities.
This picture of 15-year-olds students spending less time reading books and articles for pleasure and more time browsing the internet or chatting online put a lot of concern whether it will help them develop the full range of reading skills they may need in the future.

51 26 Attainment in Mathematics 3 3.1 Introduction This chapter examines the mathematical literacy of 15-year-olds in the PISA 2009 and 2009+ countries and economies.
It begins by describing the task characteristics of the mathematical literacy proficiency levels and then explores attainment of Maltese students in mathematics compared with 73 other countries, describing the distribution of students’ scores across the proficiency levels.

Moreover, this chapter includes a comparison in mean performance in mathematical literacy between male and female students and between pupils attending different school types.
Mathematics was a minor domain in the PISA 2009 and 2009+ surveys.

This means that only around 70% of the pupils who took part were assessed in this subject, and that the mathematics questions did not cover the subject fully as in reading, which was the major domain.
Although the results reported for mathematics are based on the performance of pupils presented with the mathematics test tasks, the sample data still provide strong inferential statistics in which reliable predictions and other generalizations can be made for the whole population of 15-year-olds in Malta.
3.2 The PISA Mathematics framework The PISA mathematics framework describes and provides the rationale for an assessment that examines how 15-year-old students handle mathematics in a well- founded manner when confronted with real-world problems, or an assessment of how mathematically literate 15-year-old students are.
To describe the domain more clearly, three components must be distinguished:  The situations or contexts in which the problems are located;  The mathematical content used to solve the problems, organised by certain overarching ideas;  The mathematical competencies that must be activated to connect the real world, in which the problems are generated, with mathematics, and thus to solve the problems.
27 PISA 2009+: Achievement of 15-year olds in Malta Engagement with mathematics is an important aspect of mathematical literacy.

In fact mathematical literacy is a measure of one’s mathematical knowledge and skills to solve problems.

Problems (and their solutions) may occur in a variety of situations or contexts within the experience of an individual.

The situation is the part of the student’s world in which the tasks are placed.
For PISA, the closest situation is the student’s personal life, followed by school life, work life and leisure, local community and society as encountered in daily life.

Scientific situations are furthest away.

The four situation types defined and used for problems to be solved are: personal, educational/occupational, public and scientific.

The context of an item is its specific setting within a situation.

It includes all the detailed elements used to formulate the problem.
To solve real world problems a person must apply his knowledge of specific technical mathematical content.

Typically the knowledge required to solve real-world problems are somewhat different to the classroom problems, where the mathematical content under study is usually evident.

Mathematical concepts, structures and ideas are tools to understand, organize, and analyse the phenomena of the natural, social and mental world.
In most schools, the mathematics curriculum has been organised around content strands, particularly algebra, arithmetic, trigonometry and geometry.

Historically these topics reflect well established branches of mathematical thinking that assist the development of a structured teaching syllabus.

However, in the real world the phenomena that lend themselves to mathematical treatment do not come so logically organised.
Most real-world problems usually require an expanded range of thought processes and it is rather unlikely that understanding and solution can be achieved through the application of knowledge from a single content strand.

PISA identifies mathematical content by listing a small set of overarching ideas that represent broad categories of real-world phenomena through which opportunities to explore and use mathematics arise in our interactions with the world.
These four broad categories (shape and space; change and relationships, quantity and uncertainty) include the full range of mathematical topics that students are expected to learn during their mathematics studies and simultaneously meet the requirements of historical development, coverage of the domain and reflection of the major threads of school curriculum.

Cognitive mathematical competencies are the mathematical processes that pupils apply as they attempt to solve problems.
These are the mathematical processes that are typically employed when solving problems.

Thinking and reasoning involves posing questions characteristic of mathematics and knowing the kinds of answers mathematics can offer to such questions.

Argumentation involves knowing what mathematical proofs are and how they differ from other kinds of mathematical reasoning.

Communication involves expressing oneself and understanding others’ written and oral statements with a mathematical content.
Modelling involves translating reality into mathematical structures in which students are expected to gain experience in problem solving by gathering data, analyzing and interpreting information and simultaneously apply mathematics to model situations.

Gain knowledge of how to check model assumptions, validate the model and offer a critique of a model and its results.
Moreover, students are expected to learn how to use modeling techniques that are used to analyze and assess these relationships and make generalizations from these relationships.

28 Attainment in Mathematics 3.3 Proficiency levels in mathematical literacy The PISA mathematical literacy scale, which measures pupils’ ability to put their mathematical knowledge to functional use in different situations in life, is divided into six bands or proficiency levels.
Table 3.1: Task characteristics of the mathematical literacy proficiency levels Mathematical literacy proficiency levels Level 6 Students can conceptualise, generalise and utilise information based on their investigations and modelling of complex problem situations.

They can link different information sources and representations and flexibly translate between them.

Students at this level are capable of advanced mathematical thinking and reasoning.
These students can apply this insight and understanding along with a mastery of symbolic and formal mathematical operations and relationships to develop new approaches and strategies for attacking novel situations.

Students at this level can formulate and precisely communicate their actions and reflections regarding their findings, interpretations, arguments, and the appropriateness of these to the original situations.
Students can develop and work with models for complex situations, identifying constraints and specifying assumptions.

They can select, compare, and evaluate appropriate problem-solving strategies for dealing with complex problems related to these models.

Students at this level can work strategically using broad, well- developed thinking and reasoning skills, appropriately linked representations, symbolic and formal characterisations, and insight pertaining to these situations.
They can reflect on their actions and formulate and communicate their interpretations and reasoning.

Students can work effectively with explicit models for complex concrete situations that may involve constraints or call for making assumptions.

They can select and integrate different representations, including symbolic representations, linking them directly to aspects of real-world situations.
Students at this level can utilise well-developed skills and reason flexibly, with some insight, in these contexts.

They can construct and communicate explanations and arguments based on their interpretations, arguments and actions.

Students can execute clearly described procedures, including those that require sequential decisions.

They can select and apply simple problem-solving strategies.
Students at this level can interpret and use representations based on different information sources and reason directly from them.

They can develop short communications reporting their interpretations, results and reasoning.

Students can interpret and recognise situations in contexts that require no more than direct inference.

They can extract relevant information from a single source and make use of a single representational mode.
Students at this level can employ basic algorithms, formulae, procedures, or conventions.

They are capable of direct reasoning and literal interpretations of the results.

Students can answer questions involving familiar contexts where all relevant information is present and the questions are clearly defined.

They are able to identify information and to carry out routine procedures according to direct instructions in explicit situations.
They can perform actions that are obvious and follow immediately from the given stimuli.

Level 5 Level 4 Level 3 Level 2 Level 1 29 PISA 2009+: Achievement of 15-year olds in Malta These proficiency levels range from Level 6, involving advanced mathematical skills and reasoning; through to level 1 involving routine mathematical tasks and easy procedures.

The higher pupils are placed on the mathematical literacy scale the increased likelihood they have of succeeding in any task.
PISA also estimates the proportion of 15- year-olds students within each country that are performing at each proficiency level.

The mathematical task characteristics placed within each proficiency level are described in table 3.1.

The distribution of attainment scores in mathematical literacy is fairly Normal and one would expect higher proportions of students falling in levels 2, 3 and 4.
Countries attaining higher proportions in levels 5 and 6 and lower proportions in level 1 and below tend to perform above the OECD and EU averages.

On the contrary, countries attaining lower proportions in levels 5 and 6 and higher proportions in level 1 and below tend to perform below the OECD and EU averages.

3.4 Mathematics attainment in Malta Table 3.2 displays the mean scores on mathematical literacy of the 74 countries participating in PISA 2009 and 2009+.
Non-italicized countries are members of the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) and countries marked with an asterisk are members of the European Union (EU).

Malta, with 9 other countries, (shaded in grey) participated in PISA 2009+ for the first time.

Maltese pupils achieved a mean score of 463 for mathematics, which was statistically lower than both the EU average (490) and OECD average (496).
Thirty seven countries performed at a level significantly higher than Malta, while thirty three countries performed significantly lower.

Mathematics attainment in Russia, Greece and Croatia was not significantly different from that of Malta.

Figures 3.1 and 3.2 show, respectively, OECD and EU countries ranked by attainment in mathematical literacy.

Most of the countries scoring significantly above Malta are either OECD or/and EU countries.
Shanghai-China, Singapore, Hong Kong-China, Liechtenstein, Chinese Taipei and Macao-China are non-OECD and non-EU countries that scored significantly higher than Malta.

The Maltese students’ estimated mathematical literacy average was the same as that estimated for students from Greece and significantly higher than those of Israel, Turkey, Chile and Mexico (OECD countries) and Bulgaria and Romania (EU countries).

Malta performed significantly better than all the countries participating in PISA 2009+.
Across the OECD countries between 12.7% of 15-year-old students are estimated to perform at or above proficiency level 5 on the mathematical literacy scale.

A third of OECD countries have fewer than 10% of students estimated to be performing at these levels.

Malta has 7% of students estimated to be performing at these levels and all other PISA 2009+ countries have fewer than 4%.

Two OECD countries, Chile and Mexico also have fewer than 4% of students performing at these levels.
PISA estimates that almost two-thirds of students in the OECD are performing at levels 2, 3 or 4 on the mathematical literacy scale.

This ranges from 47.7% in Chile to 75.3% in Estonia.

Among PISA 2009+ countries the proportions of students estimated to be in these middle proficiency levels ranged from 11.4% in Himachal Pradesh–India through to 58.6% in Malta.
30 Attainment in Mathematics Table 3.2: Mathematics mean scores for countries participating in PISA 2009 and 2009+ Country Shanghai–China Singapore Hong Kong–China Korea Chinese Taipei Finland * Liechtenstein Switzerland Japan Canada Netherlands * Macao–China New Zealand Belgium * Australia Germany * Estonia * Iceland Denmark * Slovenia * Norway France * Slovak Republic * Austria * Poland * Sweden * Czech Republic * United Kingdom * Hungary * Luxembourg * United States Ireland * Portugal * Spain * Italy * Latvia * Lithuania * Mean Country Russian Federation Greece * Malta * Croatia Israel Turkey Serbia Azerbaijan Bulgaria * Romania * Uruguay United Arab Emirates Chile Mauritius Thailand Mexico Trinidad and Tobago Costa Rica Kazakhstan Malaysia Montenegro Republic of Moldova Miranda–Venezuela Argentina Jordan Brazil Colombia Georgia Albania Tunisia Indonesia Qatar Peru Panama Tamil Nadu–India Himachal Pradesh–India Kyrgyzstan Mean Students at proficiency level 1 on the mathematical literacy scale are performing below baseline level at which students begin to demonstrate the kind of skills that enable them to use mathematics in ways that are considered fundamental for their future development.
Across the OECD 14% of students are estimated to be performing at this basic level of mathematical literacy.

Malta has 17.4% of its students estimated to be performing at level 1, which is comparable to the estimated proportions of ten OECD countries.

Mauritius also had fewer students estimated to be at this level (25.0%) than Mexico and Chile.

The other PISA 2009+ participants had estimated proportions ranging from 28.7% in Miranda–Venezuela to 33.1% in Costa Rica.
31 PISA 2009+: Achievement of 15-year olds in Malta Figure 3.1: OECD countries ranked by attainment in mathematical literacy Figure 3.2: EU countries ranked by attainment in mathematical literacy 32 Attainment in Mathematics Figure 3.3: Proportions of students within proficiency levels for selected countries 33 PISA 2009+: Achievement of 15-year olds in Malta Approximately 8% of OECD students are unlikely to be able to perform the most basic PISA mathematical literacy tasks.
Among PISA 2009+ countries or economies, Malta has relatively few students estimated to be performing below level 1 (16.3%) which is significantly lower than four OECD countries: Turkey, Israel, Chile and Mexico.

Costa Rica and the United Arab Emirates have estimated proportions of students at this level (20.9% and 22.8%, respectively) which are statistically the same as Israel, Chile and Mexico.

Mauritius had a slightly higher proportion of 25.1% of students performing below level 1.
Georgia, Tamil Nadu–India and Himachal Pradesh–India have substantial numbers of students estimated to be performing below the basic level of mathematical literacy – 40.3%, 56.4% and 62.2% respectively.

Other countries with similar estimated proportions of students performing below level 1 include Argentina, Brazil, Colombia, Albania, Tunisia, Indonesia, Peru, Qatar, Panama and Kyrgyzstan.

Figure 3.3 shows the proportions of students within each proficiency level for thirty-four selected countries.
Although countries with low scores are not so relevant for comparison purposes, the selected countries (Shanghai-China at one end of the scale and Kyrgyzstan at the other end) have a wide range of mean attainment scores in mathematics in order to display the huge differences in proportions at each proficiency level between members and non-members of EU and OECD countries.
3.5 Gender differences in Mathematics attainment Of the seventy-four countries participating in PISA 2009 and 2009+, forty-five countries had a statistically significant difference in gender performance.

In thirty-seven countries the difference was in favour of boys and in eight countries (Malta.

Tamil Nadu – India, United Arab Emirates, Albania, Kyrgyzstan, Lithuania, Qatar and Trinidad and Tobago) the difference was in favour of girls.
On average across OECD countries, the mean mathematical literacy score for boys exceeds that of girls by 15 scale points.

This difference was found to be significant at the 0.05 level of significance.

Among the PISA 2009+ countries, boys also performed significantly better than girls in mathematics in Miranda–Venezuela (by 17 points), Costa Rica (25 points) and Himachal Pradesh–India (32 points).
By contrast, girls performed better than boys in mathematics in the United Arab Emirates (by 6 points) and Malta (15 points).

There is no evident relationship between attainment score in Mathematics and gender discrepancies.

Mean scores for males were significantly higher in Hong Kong- China (around 14 scale points) and marginally higher in Shanghai–China (around 1 scale point) even though both countries had high overall mean scores.
Similarly, mean scores for males were significantly higher in Himachal Pradesh–India (around 32 scale point) and marginally lower in Jordan (less than 1 scale point) even though both countries had low overall mean scores.

A number of countries that performed significantly better than Malta, including England, United States and Germany showed a bigger gender difference in the mean mathematics scores, favouring boys.
Figure 3.4 shows gender discrepancies for the thirty four selected countries, including Malta.

34 Attainment in Mathematics Scale point difference Figure 3.4: Gender differences in Mathematics It is interesting to compare this pattern of gender difference with that found in other assessments in Malta.

At the end of their final year in secondary schools most of the Maltese students sit for the local MATSEC Mathematics examination.
Throughout the years 2005 – 2010 the proportion of females sitting for the MATSEC examination always exceeded the proportion of boys by at least 4%.

However, in contrast to the PISA finding, boys tend to do marginally better than girls in Mathematics in all the four content areas (Numbers, Algebra, Data Handling and Shapes, Space and Measures).
The results from 35 PISA 2009+: Achievement of 15-year olds in Malta measures that are used regularly in Malta tell a different story about gender differences when compared to the PISA survey.

Table 3.3 shows the proportions of male and female students getting a pass in Mathematics for two grade ranges (1-5 and 1-7), where 1 corresponds to the highest and 7 corresponds to the lowest pass grades.
Table 3.3: Percentage of passes in the MATSEC Mathematics examination Grades 1-5 Grades 1-7 Year 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 Males 56% 55% 55% 53% 55% 53% Females 53% 52% 51% 52% 50% 52% Males 77% 74% 77% 74% 77% 74% Females 74% 73% 75% 76% 74% 75% It is important for teaching and learning purposes to know how wide the variation in performance was in Malta.

Countries with similar mean scores may nevertheless have differences in the numbers of high or low attainers.
One way of describing the spread of performance in a subject is by computing percentiles.

The 5th percentile is the score at which five per cent of pupils score lower, while the 95th percentile is the score at which five per cent score higher.

Table 3.4 shows the 5th, 10th, 25th, 75th, 90th and 95th percentile scores on the Mathematics scale categorized by gender and school type.
This table shows that 95% of female students attending Junior Lyceums are scoring higher in Mathematics than male students attending the same school type in the lower quartile.

The best 25% of female students attending Area secondary schools are doing better in Mathematics than female students attending Church and Junior Lyceums in the lower quartile.
The top 75% of male pupils attending Church schools are performing better in Mathematics than their counterparts attending Junior Lyceum that are below the upper quartile.

The top 5% of female students attending Area secondary schools are scoring comparably high in Mathematics as their counterparts attending Junior Lyceums in the upper quartile.
Table 3.4: Percentile scores on the Mathematics scale by gender and school type Percentile 5th 10th 25th 75th 90th 95th Church Junior Lyceum Area Secondary Private Male 373 409 469 575 611 634 Female Male 279 308 357 450 492 526 363 386 433 546 597 622 Female Male 247 277 331 466 529 557 357 387 432 536 581 613 Female Male 376 403 462 570 618 637 252 293 337 436 507 544 Female 390 409 455 560 604 614 The second approach of measuring dispersion is by computing 95% confidence intervals.
These provide a range of values for the actual mean score in Mathematics if the whole Maltese population of 15-year olds had to be included in the survey.

Figure 3.4 shows the 95% confidence for the actual mean score on the Mathematics scale grouped by gender and school type.

Boys attending Church schools score, on average, 30 scale points more their female counterparts; while girls attending Junior Lyceums score around 82 points more than males.
The 95% confidence intervals of the mean Mathematics 36 Attainment in Mathematics scores for male and female students attending these two school types do not overlap indicating that differences are significant and not attributed to chance.

On average, girls attending Area Secondary and Private schools do marginally better than boys.
Students attending private schools and boys attending church schools are scoring significantly higher in mathematics than EU and OECD averages; whereas, mean attainment scores for girls attending Church schools and Junior Lyceums are comparable to EU and OECD averages.

By stark contrast, students attending Area secondary schools and boys attending Junior Lyceums are scoring around 100 points less on the mathematical literacy scale than their counterparts.
This is striking fact knowing that students attending Junior Lyceums, unlike students attending Area secondary schools, has passed the 11+ examinations.

Figure 3.4: Attainment scores in Mathematic categorized by gender and school type The third way of examining the spread of attainment is by looking at performance on each of the six PISA proficiency levels.
In all PISA countries there were some pupils at or below the lowest level of achievement (level 1), while in most countries (including all the comparison countries) at least some pupils achieved the highest level (level 6).

Table 3.5 displays the proportions of Maltese students, categorized by gender and school type, within each proficiency level.

Around 66% male and 65% female pupils attending Area Secondary schools are at or below level 1.
The proportion of male pupils attending Junior Lyceums (56%) attaining this lowest level of achievement is significant higher than the corresponding proportion of females (19%) attending the same school type.

On the other hand, the proportion of male pupils attending Church schools (10.5%) attaining this lowest level of achievement is significant lower than the corresponding proportion of females (18.5%) attending the same school type.
37 PISA 2009+: Achievement of 15-year olds in Malta More than 10% of male and female students attending Church and Private schools and roughly 6% of female students attending Junior Lyceums are at or above level 5.

The proportion of male (1.6%) and female (1.8%) students attending Area Secondary schools attaining this highest level of achievement exceeds the proportion of male students attending Junior Lyceums (0.5%).
Table 3.5: Proportions of students within proficiency levels by gender and school type Gender Proficiency Level Female Below Level 1 Level 1 Level 2 Level 3 Level 4 Level 5 Level 6 Below Level 1 Level 1 Level 2 Level 3 Level 4 Level 5 Level 6 Male Church School Type Junior Lyceum Area Secondary Private Socio-economic status and attainment in mathematics One of the predictors of attainment in Mathematics is undoubtedly the family economic, social and cultural status.
To investigate this relationship an index was generated to measure the social, economic and cultural status (ESCS) for each participant.

The data used to construct this index came from the responses to a variety of items within the student questionnaire.

These items included parental levels of education, parental occupation, the number of books at home and a variety of items measuring family wealth, the presence of cultural possessions in the home, and the presence of educational resources in the home.
A large positive ESCS score corresponds to a high socio, economic and cultural status, while a large negative ESCS score corresponds to a low socio, economic and cultural status.

Figure 3.5 displays the distribution of ESCS scores for Maltese students.

The mean ESCS score is marginally greater than zero and the distribution is right- skewed.

The first task was to measure the relationship between attainment in Mathematics and ESCS using Pearson correlation.
The correlation coefficient (0.348) for the Maltese data set indicates that attainment in Mathematics is positively related to ESCS.

This implies that students with a high socio, economic and cultural status tend to attain better scores in Mathematics than students with a low socio, economic and cultural status.

Moreover, this relationship is significant at the 0.05 level of significance, implying that it is not attributed to chance.
Attainment in Mathematics was also positively and significantly related with 38 Attainment in Mathematics each item of ESCS - father level of education (0.235), mother level of education (0.178), father occupation status (0.284), mother occupation status (0.315), family wealth (0.113), educational resources at home (0.363) and cultural possessions at home (0.323).

This implies that all aspects of social, economic and cultural status enhance better attainment in Mathematics at Secondary level of education.
Figure 3.5: Distribution of ESCS scores The ESCS index was also used as a predictor in a multilevel model to unpack the amount of variance in performance that is, firstly, due to social, economic and cultural factors; and secondly, due to school level factors.

The focus of discussion will be on the degree to which the factors explain between-school variance, because this is the portion of variance that is most affected by the constructs measured in PISA.
Multilevel models are hierarchical linear mixed models that facilitate the analysis of hierarchical data particularly when observations are nested within higher levels of classification.

They accommodate well the levels of the PISA clustered data set in which students are nested within schools.

This two-level random intercept model accommodates random effect within each level of nesting and also examines the contribution of ESCS score in explaining variations in the Mathematics attainment scores.
In this application, the Mathematics score is the dependent variable and the ESCS index is the predictor.

The contribution of a predictor in the model fit is assessed by recording the change in deviance when comparing the log-likelihoods of the one-predictor model and the minimal model that includes no predictors.

Predictors that reduce the log-likelihood by a large amount contribute significantly in improving the model fit.
Since the change in 39 PISA 2009+: Achievement of 15-year olds in Malta deviance has a chi square distribution, then a p-value can be computed given the degrees of freedom.

The contribution of a predictor in explaining variations in the Mathematics attainment scores increases with a decrease in the p-value.

Table 3.6 shows that ESCS is a strong predictor of Mathematics scores since this explanatory variable effected a large change in deviance that is significant at the 0.05 level of significance.
Table 3.6: Log-likelihood, change in deviance and p-values Predictor None (Minimal model) ESCS (1-predictor model) Log-likelihood 20015.3 19377.6 Change in deviance / 637.1 Degrees of freedom P-value 1 0.000 Moreover, using the variances at each level of nesting, intra-cluster correlations between school clusters can be computed for each predictor.
In the context of a two-level hierarchical model with random intercepts the intraclass correlation coefficient is a measure that gauges the similarity of observed responses within a given cluster.

The school-level intraclass correlation is defined as the proportion of the total random variation in the observed responses due to the variance of the random school effect.
If the Mathematics scores of students in the same school are relatively homogenous, but tend to vary considerably across schools, then the school-level intraclass correlation is high.

This intraclass correlation is low if there is considerable variation in the Mathematics scores of students within the same school compared to the variation between schools.
Table 3.7: Variances between students and school clusters Predictor None (Minimal model) ESCS (1-predictor model) Student level-1 variance 5979.57 5677.40 School level-2 variance 1760.70 1536.02 Table 3.7 shows that the student level-1 variance is more than three times the school level-2 variance in both the minimal and one-predictor models.

The inclusion of ESCS as a fixed effect in the model fit reduced the estimated residual variance of the minimal model by 6.8%.
The estimated student-level variance was reduced by 5.1% and the estimated school level variance was reduced by 12.8%.

This suggests that ESCS is effectively explaining a considerable amount of the random variation in the Mathematics scores, particularly at the school level.

The magnitude of the variance components at both the student and school levels suggests that there is still unexplained random variation in the Mathematics scores at both levels.
Table 3.8: Intra cluster correlations at student and school levels Predictor None (Minimal model) ESCS (1-predictor model) Intra cluster correlation at student level 77.25% 78.71% Intra cluster correlation at school level 22.75% 21.29% Table 3.8 displays the intra cluster correlations at the student and school levels for both the minimal and one-predictor models.
The fact that the intra cluster correlations are sizeable at the school levels justifies the use of multilevel models and indicates that the variation in the Mathematics scores between schools is substantial.

40 Attainment in Mathematics The parameter estimate (regression coefficient) for ESCS (18.378) is significant and indicates that for every 1-unit increase in the ESCS score the Mathematics score is expected to increase by approximately 18 scale points.
The 95% confidence interval for this regression coefficient ranges from 15.47 to 21.28.

3.7 Summary In Malta, 66% of students are proficient in mathematics at least to the baseline level; however this is significantly lower to both the EU and OECD averages (around 75%).

The Maltese students’ estimated mathematical literacy average was the same as that estimated for students from Greece, and higher than those from the OECD countries Israel, Turkey, Chile and Mexico.
Malta had a relatively large difference between the score points of the lowest-scoring pupils and the highest-scoring pupils compared with other countries.

The proportion of pupils at each level of achievement tended to be considerably higher than the OECD and EU averages for low-level results and marginally lower than the EU and OECD averages for high level results.
In contrast to most PISA participating countries, in Malta females performed significantly better in Mathematics than their male counterparts and the difference was one of the largest amongst participating countries.

This gender difference does not appear in the local MATSEC mathematics examinations.

Moreover, there is no clear relationship between a country’s mean score and whether it had a low or a high gender difference.
Attainment in mathematics was also found to be positively and significantly related to the social, economic and cultural status of the child’s family.

Parents with a high socio economic status are more likely to pay for their children’s education; whereas, parents with a low socio economic status are more likely to send their children to state schools which do not charge fees.

In general students attending Church and Private schools tend to perform better than student attending state schools.
The multilevel model relating attainment in mathematical literacy to socio-economic and cultural status of the child’s family identifies substantial school-level variance in the Mathematics attainment scores.

This indicates that attainment scores in Mathematics tend to vary considerably between schools.
This is partly explained by the fact that most of the boys and girls who pass the 11+ examinations go to Church schools and Junior Lyceums respectively; whereas, parents with high socio-economic status are more likely to send their children to Private schools.

This will all change in the future due to the introduction of the College system which enhances a more comprehensive and less-streamed education system.
41 PISA 2009+: Achievement of 15-year olds in Malta 42 Attainment in Science 4 4.1 Introduction This section examines the scientific literacy of 15-year-olds in the PISA 2009 and 2009+ countries and economies.

It begins by describing the task characteristics of the scientific literacy proficiency levels and then it explores attainment in Science in Malta compared with 73 other countries.
This chapter also provides the relative proportions of students estimated to be at each of the proficiency levels for each country.

Moreover, this chapter compares the mean performance in scientific literacy between male and female Maltese students attending different school types.

Science was a minor domain in the PISA 2009 and 2009+ surveys.
This means that only approximately 70% of the pupils who took part were assessed in this subject, and that the science questions did not cover the subject as fully as in reading, which was the major domain.

The results reported for science are estimates for the whole population of 15-year-olds in Malta, based on the performance of pupils who were presented with science test items.

These estimates take into account information about how pupils with specific characteristics performed.
These characteristics cover a wide range of variables from the student questionnaires.

Inference about the actual performance in science of 15- year-olds in Malta is carried out by either providing 95% confidence intervals for the mean attainment scores in Science or by conducting appropriate hypothesis tests mainly by using the Independent samples t-test or One-Way ANOVA test.
Correlation analysis is used to measure the relationship between attainment in Science and social, economic and cultural status (ESCS).

The ESCS score is also used as a predictor in a multilevel model to account for the amount of variance in science attainment scores explained by social, economic and cultural factors and by school level factors.

4.2 The PISA Science framework This framework describes and illustrates the definition of scientific literacy as used in PISA and sets the context for the items.
In this framework, the term science literacy denotes an overarching competency comprising a set of three specific scientific competencies.

It includes the capacity to mobilize cognitive and non-cognitive resources in any given context.
43 PISA 2009+: Achievement of 15-year olds in Malta Rather than assuming scientific literacy as a variable with a nominal scale (literate, illiterate) it would be more appropriate to assume a metric scale where a student with less developed scientific literacy might be able to recall simple scientific factual knowledge and to use common scientific knowledge in drawing or evaluating conclusions, while a student with more developed scientific literacy will demonstrate the ability to create and use conceptual models to make predictions and give explanations, analyse scientific investigations, relate data as evidence, evaluate alternative explanations of the same phenomena, and communicate conclusions with precision.
For assessment purposes, the PISA definition of scientific literacy is characterized by four interrelated aspects:  Situation and context: recognizing life situations involving science and technology.

 Competencies: demonstrating scientific competencies in identifying scientific issues, explaining phenomena scientifically, and drawing conclusions based on evidence.
 Knowledge: understanding the natural world on the basis of scientific knowledge that includes both knowledge of the natural world, and knowledge about science itself.

 Attitudes: indicating an interest in science, support for scientific enquiry, motivation to act responsibly towards, for example, natural resources and environments.

An important aspect of the PISA science assessment is engagement with science in a variety of situations.
In dealing with scientific issues, the choice of methods and representations is often dependent on the situations in which the issues are presented.

The situation is the part of the student’s world in which the tasks are placed.

In the PISA science assessment, the focus of the item is on situations relating to the self, family and peer groups (personal), to the community (social) and to life across the world (global).
A further type of setting is the historical one, in which understanding of the advances in scientific knowledge can be assessed.

PISA assesses important scientific knowledge relevant to the science education curricula of participating countries without being constrained to the common aspects of participants’ national curricula.
The assessment does this by requiring evidence of the successful use of science knowledge and skills in important situations reflecting the world and in accordance with PISA’s focus.

This, in turn, involves the application of selected knowledge about the natural world, and about science itself, and evaluation of students’ attitudes towards scientific matter.
The PISA science assessment gives priority to the following three competencies: the ability to identify scientifically-oriented issues (Recognize the issues that are possible to investigate scientifically; identify keywords to search for scientific information and recognize the key features of a scientific investigation); describe, explain or predict phenomena based on scientific knowledge (Apply knowledge of science in a given situation; describe or interpret phenomena scientifically, predict changes and identify appropriate descriptions, explanations and prediction); interpret evidence and conclusions and use scientific evidence to make and communicate decisions (Interpret scientific evidence and make and communicating conclusions; identify the assumptions, evidence and reasoning behind conclusions and reflect on the societal implications of science and technological development).
These competencies require students to demonstrate, on one hand, knowledge and cognitive abilities, and on the other, attitudes, values and motivations, as they meet and respond to science-related issues 44 Attainment in Science Demonstrating these competencies in the PISA assessment involves applying scientific knowledge – both knowledge of science and knowledge about science itself as a form of knowledge and an approach to enquiry.
The assessed knowledge is selected from the major fields of Physics (Structure of matter, properties of matter, motions and forces, energy and its transformation, interactions of energy and matter); Chemistry (Chemical changes of matter); Biology (Living cells, humans, populations, ecosystems and biosphere); Earth and space science (Structures of Earth systems, Earth’s history, energy in Earth systems, change in Earth systems, Earth in space) and technology (Role of science-based technology, relationships between science and technology, concepts and important principles).
The knowledge selected has relevance to real-life situations, represents important scientific concepts and thus has enduring utility and is appropriate to the developmental level of 15-year-old students Undoubtedly, individuals’ attitudes play a significant role in their interest and response to science and technology in general and to issues that affect them in particular.
One goal of science education is for students to develop attitudes that make them likely to attend to scientific issues and subsequently to acquire and apply scientific and technological knowledge for personal, social, and global benefit.

PISA’s attention to attitudes towards science is based on the belief that a person’s scientific literacy includes certain attitudes, beliefs, motivational orientations, sense of self-efficacy, values, and ultimate actions.
The PISA 2009 student questionnaire excluded items about students’ general attitudes towards science or attitudes alongside the testing of cognitive abilities and knowledge, as was the case in PISA 2006 when Science was a major domain.
4.3 Proficiency levels in scientific literacy The PISA scientific literacy scale provides a snapshot of the population ability in scientific literacy by examining mean performance of 15-year-old students alongside that of other countries or economies participating in PISA 2009 and 2009+.

Like the PISA mathematics literacy scale, the scientific literacy scale is divided into six proficiency levels.

Students with high scale scores are more likely to succeed in the provided tasks.
PISA also estimates the proportion of 15-year-olds students within each country that are performing at each proficiency level.

Proficiency levels are described by examining the characteristics of tasks placed within each level.
The proficiency levels in scientific literacy range from Level 6, involving the application of scientific knowledge and knowledge about science to complex life situations to Level 1 involving applications that require only limited scientific knowledge to be applied to familiar situation.

The characteristics of tasks at each level are described in Table 4.1.
The distribution of attainment scores in scientific literacy is fairly Normal and one would expect higher proportions of students falling in levels 2, 3 and 4.

Countries attaining higher proportions in levels 5 and 6 and lower proportions in level 1 and below tend to perform above the OECD and EU averages.

On the contrary, countries attaining lower proportions in levels 5 and 6 and higher proportions in level 1 and below tend to perform below the OECD and EU averages.
45 PISA 2009+: Achievement of 15-year olds in Malta Table 4.1: Task characteristics of the scientific literacy proficiency levels Scientific literacy proficiency levels Level 6 Students can consistently identify, explain and apply scientific knowledge and knowledge about science in a variety of complex life situations.

They can link different information sources and explanations and use evidence from those sources to justify decisions.
They clearly and consistently demonstrate advanced scientific thinking and reasoning, and they demonstrate willingness to use their scientific understanding in support of solutions to unfamiliar scientific and technological situations.

Students at this level can use scientific knowledge and develop arguments in support of recommendations and decisions that centre on personal, social or global situations.
Students can identify the scientific components of many complex life situations, apply both scientific concepts and knowledge about science to these situations, and can compare, select and evaluate appropriate scientific evidence for responding to life situations.

Students at this level can use well-developed inquiry abilities, link knowledge appropriately and bring critical insights to situations.

They can construct explanations based on evidence and arguments based on their critical analysis.
Students can work effectively with situations and issues that may involve explicit phenomena requiring them to make inferences about the role of science or technology.

They can select and integrate explanations from different disciplines of science or technology and link those explanations directly to aspects of life situations.

Students at this level can reflect on their actions and they can communicate decisions using scientific knowledge and evidence.
Students can identify clearly described scientific issues in a range of contexts.

They can select facts and knowledge to explain phenomena and apply simple models or inquiry strategies.

Students at this level can interpret and use scientific concepts from different disciplines and can apply them directly.

They can develop short statements using facts and make decisions based on scientific knowledge.
Students have adequate scientific knowledge to provide possible explanations in familiar contexts or draw conclusions based on simple investigations.

They are capable of direct reasoning and making literal interpretations of the results of scientific inquiry or technological problem solving.

Students have such a limited scientific knowledge that it can only be applied to a few, familiar situations.

They can present scientific explanations that are obvious and follow explicitly from given evidence.
Level 5 Level 4 Level 3 Level 2 Level 1 4.4 Science attainment in Malta Table 4.2 displays the mean scores on scientific literacy of the 74 countries participating in PISA 2009 and 2009+.

Non-italicized countries are OECD members and countries marked with an asterisk are EU members.

Shaded Countries participated in PISA 2009+, while the remaining countries participated in PISA 2009.
Maltese pupils achieved a mean score of 461 in Science, which is significantly lower than both the EU average (497) and OECD average (501).

Thirty nine countries performed at a level significantly higher than Malta, while thirty one countries performed significantly lower.

Science attainment in Israel and Turkey was comparable to Malta’s.

46 Attainment in Science Figures 4.1 and 4.2 show, respectively, OECD and EU countries ranked by attainment in scientific literacy.
Most of the countries scoring significantly above Malta are either OECD or/and EU countries.

Shanghai-China, Hong Kong-China, Singapore, Chinese Taipei Liechtenstein, Macao-China, Croatia and Russian Federation are non- OECD and non-EU countries that scored significantly higher than Malta.

The countries that scored significantly lower than Malta include Israel, Turkey, Chile and Mexico (OECD countries) and Bulgaria and Romania (EU countries).
The seventy-four participating PISA countries present similar scenarios in Mathematics and Science when ranked by attainment.
Table 4.2: Science mean scores for countries participating in PISA 2009 and 2009+ Country Shanghai–China Finland* Hong Kong–China Singapore Japan Korea New Zealand Canada Estonia * Australia Netherlands * Chinese Taipei Germany * Liechtenstein Switzerland United Kingdom * Slovenia * Macao–China Poland * Ireland * Belgium * Hungary * United States Czech Republic * Norway Denmark * France * Iceland Sweden * Austria * Latvia * Portugal * Lithuania * Slovak Republic * Italy * Spain * Croatia Mean Country Luxembourg * Russian Federation Greece * Malta * Israel Turkey Chile Serbia Bulgaria * United Arab Emirates Costa Rica Romania * Uruguay Thailand Malaysia Miranda–Venezuela Mauritius Mexico Jordan Republic of Moldova Trinidad and Tobago Brazil Colombia Montenegro Argentina Tunisia Kazakhstan Albania Indonesia Qatar Panama Azerbaijan Georgia Peru Tamil Nadu–India Kyrgyzstan Himachal Pradesh–India Mean PISA 2009+: Achievement of 15-year olds in Malta Figure 4.1: OECD countries ranked by attainment in scientific literacy Figure 4.2: EU countries ranked by attainment in scientific literacy 48 Attainment in Science Malta performed significantly better than all the countries participating in PISA 2009+.
Students from the United Arab Emirates, Costa Rica and Malaysia had estimated scientific literacy means higher than one OECD country, Mexico.

While students in Miranda–Venezuela, Marius and the Republic of Moldova were estimated to have means statistically the same as Mexico’s students.

The scientific literacy means of students from Georgia, Tamil Nadu–India and Himachal Pradesh–India were all significantly below any OECD country.
The proportions of students within each country estimated to be performing at each of the scientific literacy proficiency levels is presented in Figure 4.3.

These include the PISA 2009+ participants together with 24 chosen comparison countries ordered by their attainment in scientific literacy.

Across the OECD, on average 8.5% of students are estimated to be proficient at levels 5 or 6 in scientific literacy.
There are 14 OECD countries with 7% or fewer pupils estimated to be performing at these advanced levels.

In Malta, 6.4% of students are estimated to be performing at levels 5 or 6.

All other PISA 2009+ countries have fewer than 3% of students proficient at these levels.

Three OECD countries, Turkey, Chile and Mexico, also have fewer than 3% of students estimated to be performing at levels 5 or 6 in scientific literacy.
Almost three-quarters of students in the OECD are estimated to be performing at levels 2, 3 or 4 on the scientific literacy scale.

These estimates range from 82.0% in the Republic of Korea to 52.4% in Mexico.

For most PISA 2009+ participating countries the proportions of students estimated to be in these middle proficiency levels was above 50%, from 52.4% in the Republic of Moldova through to 61.5% in Malta.
However, in Georgia, Tamil Nadu–India and Himachal Pradesh–India the estimated proportions were much lower (34.2%, 15% and 10.9% respectively).

Students performing at level 1 are below the baseline level, at which students begin to demonstrate the science competencies that will enable them to participate actively in life situations related to science and technology.

It is estimated that 13.0% of OECD students are performing at this basic level of scientific literacy.
Three OECD countries have more than a fifth of students estimated to be performing at level 1.

These include Turkey (23.0%), Chile (23.9%) and Mexico (32.8%).

Malta has 18.0% of pupils estimated to be performing at level 1, a proportion which is statistically the same as those estimated in the OECD countries Luxembourg, Greece and Israel.
All other PISA 2009+ countries also have substantial proportions of students estimated to be performing at level 1 on the scientific literacy scale – ranging from 24.3% in Miranda–Venezuela through to 39.6% in Tamil Nadu–India.

On average, 5% of students across the OECD are estimated to be performing below level 1 on the scientific literacy scale.
Costa Rica has 9.6% of students estimated to be performing below level 1, which is statistically similar to the estimates in the OECD countries Austria, Turkey, Greece, Chile and Luxembourg.

Malaysia (12.7%), United Arab Emirates (13.8%) and Malta (14.1%) have similar proportion of students estimated to be performing below level 1 as the OECD countries Israel and Mexico.

All other PISA 2009+ countries have more than 15% of students estimated to be performing below level 1.
However, Georgia, Tamil Nadu–India and Himachal Pradesh–India stand out with 33.5% 45.3% and 57.1% of students, respectively who are unlikely to be able to perform the most basic tasks on the PISA scientific literacy assessments.
49 PISA 2009+: Achievement of 15-year olds in Malta Figure 4.3: Proportions of students within proficiency levels for selected countries 50 Attainment in Science 4.5 Gender differences in Science attainment Of the 74 participating countries, there are 41 countries in which gender discrepancies in science attainment are significant, 13 favouring boys and 28 favouring girls.
Among the PISA 2009+ countries, boys performed significantly better than girls in science in Himachal Pradesh–India, by 22 points and Costa Rica (15 points).

Girls performed significantly better than boys in science in Malta (35 points), United Arab Emirates (31 points), Georgia (19 points), the Republic of Moldova (14 points), Mauritius (12 points), Tamil Nadu–India (11 points) and Malaysia (10 points).
Figure 4.4: Gender differences in Science 51 PISA 2009+: Achievement of 15-year olds in Malta On average, there was no statistically significant difference in the performance of boys and girls in scientific literacy across OECD countries.

Jordan and Malta had the largest gender discrepancies in favour of girls (around 35 points) and Himachal Pradesh– India had the largest gender discrepancies in favour of boys (around 22 points).
There is no evident relationship between attainment score in Science and gender discrepancies.

Mean scores for females were significantly higher in Finland (around 15 points) and marginally higher in Singapore (around 1 point) even though both countries had high overall mean scores.

Similarly, mean scores for females were significantly higher in Qatar (around 26 point) and marginally higher in Panama (around 2 points) even though both countries had low overall mean scores.
Figure 3.4 shows gender discrepancies for the thirty four selected countries, including Malta.
Table 4.3: Percentage of passes in the MATSEC Physics examination Grades 1-5 Grades 1-7 Year 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 Males 75% 65% 77% 76% 67% 64% Females 71% 68% 79% 76% 63% 63% Males 89% 85% 92% 89% 85% 83% Females 86% 88% 92% 91% 87% 83% Table 4.4: Percentage of passes in the MATSEC Biology examination Grades 1-5 Grades 1-7 Year 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 Males 79% 69% 73% 77% 64% 67% Females 69% 58% 66% 67% 59% 55% Males 86% 80% 83% 84% 73% 76% Females 77% 72% 75% 77% 72% 68% Table 4.5: Percentage of passes in the MATSEC Chemistry examination Grades 1-5 Grades 1-7 Year 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 Males 72% 71% 74% 76% 73% 72% Females 77% 71% 76% 72% 81% 71% Males 77% 765 79% 81% 82% 76% Females 83% 78% 81% 78% 89% 77% It is hard to make comparisons with the MATSEC science performance of boys and girls because of the range of science subjects on offer in Malta.
Pupils can sit for separate science subjects including Physics Biology and Chemistry.

Throughout the years 2005 – 2010 the proportion of females sitting for the Biology MATSEC examination always exceeded twice the proportion of boys; however the proportions of males and females sitting for the Physics and Chemistry MATSEC examination were comparable.
52 Attainment in Science The number of students sitting for the Physics examination is about 2 to 3 times larger the number of students sitting for Biology and 4 to 5 times larger the number of students sitting for Chemistry.

Tables 4.3 to 4.5 show the proportion of male and female students getting a pass in Physics Biology and Chemistry for two grade ranges (1-5 and 1-7), where 1 corresponds to the highest and 7 corresponds to the lowest pass grades.
Throughout 2005 – 2010 boys outperformed girls in Biology and girls performed marginally better than boys in Chemistry.

On the whole boys and girls perform similarly in Physics.

These results tell a different story about gender differences when compared to the PISA findings.

A possible reason for this disparity is that the items/questions devised by MATSEC and PISA vary in format.
Local examination questions are often organised around content strands; whereas PISA questions seek to assess students’ competences to address real-life challenges involving science and measure how well these students have mastered this knowledge and skills gained at school and at home to function as successful members of society.

It is essential for teaching and learning purposes to assess the spread of attainment between the highest- and lowest-scoring pupils.
Countries with similar mean scores may nevertheless have differences in the numbers of high or low attainers.

Table 4.6 shows the 5th, 10th, 25th, 75th, 90th and 95th percentile scores on the Science scale categorized by gender and school type.

This table shows that 95% of female students attending Junior Lyceums are scoring higher in Science than male students attending the same school type in the lower quartile.
The top 25% of female students attending Area secondary schools are doing better in Science than female students attending Church and Junior Lyceums in the lower quartile.

The top 25% of male students attending Area secondary schools are doing better in Science than male students attending Private schools in the lower quartile.

75% of male pupils attending Church schools are performing better in Science than their counterparts attending Junior Lyceum which are below the upper quartile.
The top 10% of male students attending Area secondary schools are scoring comparably as high in Science as the top 5% of male students attending Junior Lyceums.
Table 4.6: Percentile scores on the Science scale by gender and school type Percentile 5th 10th 25th 75th 90th 95th Male 359 391 463 574 613 639 Church Female Male 251 287 337 436 481 517 353 383 438 563 612 645 Junior Lyceum Female 348 384 434 548 601 631 Area Secondary Female Male 225 205 284 245 331 307 438 455 514 522 553 554 Private Male 360 395 447 578 637 660 Female 377 405 456 578 629 664 Figure 4.5 shows the 95% confidence for the actual mean score on the Science scale grouped by gender and school type.
Students attending private schools and boys attending church schools are scoring significantly higher in science than EU and OECD averages; whereas, mean attainment scores for girls attending Church schools and Junior Lyceums are comparable to EU and OECD averages.

Boys attending Church schools score, on average, 14 scale points more their female counterparts; while girls attending Junior 53 PISA 2009+: Achievement of 15-year olds in Malta Lyceums score 107 points more than their male counterparts.
The 95% confidence intervals of the mean Science scores for male and female students attending these two school types do not overlap indicating that differences are significant and not attributed to chance.

On average, girls attending Area Secondary and Private schools do marginally better than boys.

The performance of boys and girls attending Area Secondary schools is comparable to boys attending Junior Lyceums.
This is a striking fact knowing that most of the students who pass the 11+ examination go to Junior Lyceums and those who fail go to Area Secondary schools.

Figure 4.5: Mean attainment scores in Science categorized by gender and school type In all PISA countries there were some pupils at or below the lowest level of achievement (level 1), while in most countries (including all the comparison countries) at least some pupils achieved the highest level (level 6).
Looking at performance science literacy on each of the six PISA proficiency levels gives some indication of the spread in attainment.

Figure 4.3 clearly displays that Malta has a wider spread of attainment than Russian Federation and Chile even though these countries have similar attainment in scientific literacy.

Malta has a longer tail of underachievement (below proficiency level 1) as well as a longer tail of high achievers (proficiency level 5 or above).
Russian Federation and Chile have fewer very high achievers and also fewer very low achievers, thus having less spread at the tails of the score distribution in science attainment.

Malta has a larger proportion of underachievers when compared with the highest-scoring countries and a larger proportion of high achievers when compared with the lowest- scoring countries.
However, compared to EU and OECD averages, Malta has a greater proportion of low achievers and a marginally lower proportion of high achievers.

54 Attainment in Science Table 4.7 displays the proportions of Maltese students, categorized by gender and school type, within each proficiency level in Science literacy.

Around 60% female and 55% male pupils attending Area Secondary schools are at or below level 1.
The proportion of male pupils attending Junior Lyceums (56%) attaining this lowest level of achievement is significant higher than the corresponding proportion of females (14.6%) attending the same school type.

On the other hand, the proportions of male pupils attending Church schools (12.3%) and Private schools (10.9%) attaining this lowest level of achievement are comparable to the corresponding proportions of females (13.3% and 8.5%) attending the same school types.
More than 11% of male and female students attending Private schools; around 8% of male and female students attending Church schools and roughly 7% of female students attending Junior Lyceums are at or above level 5.

The proportion of male (0.6%) and female (1.3%) students attending Area Secondary schools attaining this highest level of achievement exceeds the proportion of male students attending Junior Lyceums (0.1%).
Table 4.7: Proportions of students within proficiency levels by gender and school type Gender Proficiency Level Female Below Level 1 Level 1 Level 2 Level 3 Level 4 Level 5 Level 6 Below Level 1 Level 1 Level 2 Level 3 Level 4 Level 5 Level 6 Male Church School Type Junior Lyceum Area Secondary Private Socio-economic status and attainment in Science Family economic, social and cultural status is undeniably one of the predictors that influence attainment in Science.
The relationship between attainment in Science and ESCS is again investigated using correlation analysis and multilevel models.

The Pearson correlation coefficient (0.346) for the Maltese data set indicates that attainment in Science is positively and significantly related to ESCS.

This implies that students with a high socio, economic and cultural status tend to attain higher scores in Science than students with a low socio, economic and cultural status.
Attainment in Science was also positively and significantly related with each item of ESCS - father level of education (0.234), mother level of education (0.186), father occupation status (0.273), mother 55 PISA 2009+: Achievement of 15-year olds in Malta occupation status (0.302), family wealth (0.097), educational resources at home (0.364) and cultural possessions at home (0.324).
This implies that all aspects of social, economic and cultural status enhance better attainment in Science at Secondary level of education.

Figure 4.6: Mean ESCS index categorized by gender and school type Figure 4.6 shows the mean ESCS index categorized by school type and gender.

Families of students attending Private schools tend to have significantly higher economic, social and cultural status than other students.
Families of students attending State schools (Area Secondary and Junior Lyceums) tend to score lower than the average ESCS index for Malta; whereas, families of students attending Church schools tend to score higher than the average ESCS.

This scenario matches the positive relationship between attainment in Science and ESCS index since pupils attending Private and Church schools tend to perform better in Science than students attending state schools, particularly Area secondary schools.
The ESCS index was also used as a predictor in a multilevel model firstly to examines the contribution of ESCS score in explaining variations in Science attainment scores and secondly to measure the school level variance.
Since pupils are nested within schools, a two-level random intercept model would be appropriate to accommodate the random effect within each level of nesting and also examines the contribution of ESCS 56 Attainment in Science score in explaining variations in the Science attainment scores (dependent variable).
The procedure used is similar to the multilevel model employed in section 3.6 in which a minimal model (including no predictors) and a one-predictor model (including ECSC) are fitted and their log-likelihoods are recorded.

The change in deviance (twice change in the log-likelihoods) has a chi square distribution and will be used to determine whether the contribution of ECSC in explaining the variance in attainment scores is significant.
Table 4.8 shows that ESCS is a strong predictor of attainment in science literacy since this explanatory variable effected a significant change in deviance at the 0.05 level of significance.
Table 4.8: Log-likelihood, change in deviance and p-values Predictor None (Minimal model) ESCS (1-predictor model) Log-likelihood 20364.0 19717.9 Change in deviance / 646.1 Degrees of freedom P-value 1 0.000 Table 4.9 shows that the student level-1 variance in the minimal model is 2.65 times the school level-2 variance; whereas, the student level-1 variance in the 1-predictor model is 1.5 times the school level-2 variance.
The inclusion of ESCS as a fixed effect in the model fit increased the estimated residual variance of the minimal model by 17.3%.

The estimated student-level variance was decreased by 3.1% and the estimated school level variance was increased by 71.2%.

The magnitude of the variance components at both the student and school levels suggests that there is still unexplained random variation in the Science scores at both levels.
Table 4.9: Variances between students and school clusters Predictor None (Minimal model) ESCS (1-predictor model) Student level-1 variance 7344.2 7119.4 School level-2 variance 2773.5 4749.2 Table 4.10 displays the intra cluster correlations at the student and school levels for both the minimal and one-predictor models.

The fact that the intra cluster correlations are sizeable at the school levels justifies the use of multilevel models.
The intra cluster correlation (0.4002) measuring the degree of dependence among attainment scores within schools after controlling for the effect of ESCS is very high indicating that the variation in the Science scores between schools is substantial.
Table 4.10: Intra cluster correlations at student and school levels Predictor None (Minimal model) ESCS (1-predictor model) Intra cluster correlation at student level 72.59% 59.98% Intra cluster correlation at school level 27.41% 40.02% The parameter estimate (regression coefficient) for ESCS (20.802) is significant and indicates that for every 1-unit increase in the ESCS score the Science score is expected to increase by approximately 21 scale points.
The 95% confidence interval for this regression coefficient ranges from 17.64 to 23.96.

57 PISA 2009+: Achievement of 15-year olds in Malta 4.7 Summary Maltese students were estimated to have an average score on the scientific literacy scale that was statistically the same as those observed in the OECD countries Turkey and Israel and significantly higher than those estimated for two other OECD countries, Chile and Mexico.
In Malta, two-thirds of students are proficient in science at least to the baseline level at which they begin to demonstrate the science competencies that will enable them to participate actively in life situations related to science and technology.
Malta had a marginally lower proportion of high attainers than OECD and EU averages; however it had a significantly larger proportion of low attainers, thus lowering Malta’s average performance score in science significantly below the EU and OECD mean threshold scores.

In Malta, there was a statistically significant gender difference in scientific literacy, favouring girls.
This was the largest gender gap in scientific literacy among all PISA 2009 and PISA 2009+ participants, along with those observed in Jordan and the United Arab Emirates.

Attainment in Science was also found to be positively and significantly related to the economic, social and cultural status of the child’s family.

In general students attending Church and Private schools tend to have a higher socio economic status than student attending state schools and on average attain better results in Science.
The multilevel model relating attainment in scientific literacy to social, economic and cultural status of the child’s family identifies substantial school-level variance in the Science attainment scores.

This is partly explained by the continuous sifting of high achievers and students with high socio-economic status into Private and Church schools and Junior Lyceums, particularly between primary and secondary education.
It is expected that this substantial school-level variance will decrease considerably in subsequent PISA studies due to the suspension of the 11+ examinations and the introduction of colleges that enhance inclusive education and reduce streaming.

58 Attainment in Reading 5 5.1 Introduction This chapter focuses on pupils’ attainment in reading in Malta comparing how well they can read to other PISA 2009+ countries and economies.
This will include comparing mean performance levels on an overall reading scale and several reading subscales with other countries in the PISA 2009 study as well as the OECD and EU averages.

An examination of the distribution of students across proficiency levels will also be provided to assess students’ performance in reading literacy.

This chapter is more elaborate than preceding chapters since reading was the main focus of PISA 2009.
This chapter will firstly provide a description of the PISA reading framework summarising the characteristics of the texts that are used in measuring reading literacy.

These characteristics are grouped into five categories: text medium, format, aspect, type and situation.
The subsequent sections provide descriptions of text characteristics that have differing demands of proficiency and compare student performance in reading across all countries and analyses the differences in educational outcomes between boys and girls.

These sections also assess the mean performance in reading literacy of male and female Maltese students attending different school types.
The final sections identify the relationship between socioeconomic background and educational outcomes; and the relationships between school policies and practice and educational outcomes.

Several statistical methods will be employed to make inferences about the actual performance in reading of 15-year-olds in Malta using the sample data.

The One-Way ANOVA test will be used to compare mean reading scores between countries and between Maltese students clustered by gender and school type.
Factor analysis will be used to analyse the structure of the interrelationships between the five reading subscales.

Correlation analysis will be used to measure the relationship between reading attainment and social, economic and cultural status (ESCS).

Multilevel models will be used to measure the proportion of between-school variance in reading performance that is accounted for by socioeconomic factors and school governance.
While findings for all countries are reported in this chapter where relevant, most findings relate to a sub-group of countries.

This comparison group includes all the PISA 2009+ countries or economies, alongside a number of comparison countries most of which are OECD countries or EU countries.

59 PISA 2009+: Achievement of 15-year olds in Malta 5.2 The PISA Reading framework Reading was the main focus in the first PISA study in 2000 and 2009 and a minor domain in PISA 2003 and 2006.
Reading in PISA focuses on pupils’ ability to use information from texts in real-life situations and is defined as the individual’s capacity to understand, use, reflect on and engage with written texts in order to achieve one’s goals, to develop one’s knowledge and potential and to participate in society.

This section provides an overview of the characteristics of the texts, which are clustered into five dimensions: text medium, aspect, format, type and situation.
The first dimension identifies two distinct media to assess reading literacy – print and digital media.

In print reading the text appears in printed form, such as in books, magazines, manuals, brochures and timetables.

In essence, printed texts have a fixed or static existence.

On the other hand, in digital reading the text is displayed in electronic form, typically via a computer.
Essentially, electronic texts have an unfixed, dynamic existence where only a fraction of the available text can be seen at any one time.

Digital reading literacy was assessed in PISA 2009 through a study that involved simulated web- based texts administered via a computer interface, incorporating both navigation search and selection functions.

Due to a reduced project timeline, the digital reading assessment was not available to PISA 2009+ participants.
The second dimension defines the cognitive approach that determines how readers engage with a text and is categorised into three reading aspects - retrieval of information interpretation of texts, and reflection on and evaluation of texts.

Access and retrieve focuses on the skills associated with finding and collecting information from texts.
While retrieving describes the process of selecting the required information, accessing describes the process of getting to the place where the required information is located.

In access and retrieve tasks, readers must scan, search for, locate and select relevant information from a source.

About one-quarter of the PISA assessment was made up of such tasks where pupils were expected to retrieve information that involve finding single or multiple pieces of information in the text.
Integrate and interpret involves processing what is read to make sense of the information available, sometimes across different parts of a text.

Integrating involves understanding the consistency and unity of the text.

It can range from recognizing local coherence between two adjacent sentences or understanding the relationship between several paragraphs or recognizing connections across multiple texts.
In each case, integrating involves connecting various pieces of information to make meaning of the text.

Interpreting involves identifying similarities and differences, making comparisons or recognizing cause and effect relationships that are not explicit stated.

About half of the PISA assessment was made up of such tasks were pupils were expected to construct meaning and draw inferences from written information.
Reflect and evaluate involves drawing on information, ideas or values external to the text, including judgement of the text drawing on personal experience or knowledge of the world.

Reflect items may be thought of as those that require readers to consult their own experience or knowledge to compare, contrast or hypothesize.

Evaluate items may ask readers to make a judgment drawing on standards beyond the text.
Reflecting on and evaluating the content of a text requires the reader to connect information in a text to knowledge from outside sources.

60 Attainment in Reading Readers must also assess the claims made in the text against their own knowledge of the world.

About one-quarter of the PISA assessment was made up of such tasks where pupils were expected to reflect on and evaluate texts and relate information in the text to their prior knowledge, ideas and experiences.
A score was generated for each of the three subscales of reading literacy using the results obtained.

The third characteristic identifies two reading formats - continuous text and non- continuous text.

Continuous text refers to text that is typically ordered into sentences and paragraphs; and possibly sections and chapters.

In the print medium, continuous text format include newspaper reports, essays, novels, short stories, reviews and letters.
In the electronic medium the continuous text format group includes reviews, blogs and reports in prose.

Electronic continuous texts tend to be short because of the limitations of screen size and the need for piecemeal reading, which make long texts unattractive to many online readers.

Non-continuous text refers to texts that are typically composed of one or more lists, combined in various layouts.
Non-continuous text objects occur in both print and electronic media and include lists, tables, graphs, catalogues, diagrams, schedules, advertisements, indices and forms.

About one-third of the PISA reading tasks related to non-continuous texts and the results from these tasks were used to form another subscale of reading literacy.

In addition PISA uses the term ‘mixed text’ to apply to sets of coherent texts that have both continuous and non-continuous elements (e.g.
a table with associated explanatory prose).

Another term that is used is ‘multiple texts’ to refer to collections of independently generated texts, such as a set of linked websites.

A score was generated for the continuous and non-continuous text reading subscales but not for the mixed and multiple texts.

The fourth dimension identifies six text types – description, narration, exposition, argumentation, instruction and transactional.
This wide range of texts ensures coverage of the definition of reading literacy and the types of text and that people are likely to encounter in adult life.

Description refers to properties of objects in space, typically answering ‘what’ questions.

Descriptions might be impressionist, such as the description of a place in a diary, or technical, such as a map.

Narration refers to properties of objects in time, typically answering ‘when’ questions.
Novels, plays, comic strips and newspaper reports are examples of narrative.

Exposition presents information as composite concepts or mental constructs, often answering ‘how’ questions.

Examples of expository texts include scholarly essays, minutes from a meeting, concept maps and encyclopedia entries.

Argumentation presents the relationship among concepts or propositions, often answering ‘why’ questions.
Argumentation includes persuasion, opinion and comment such as advertisements, letters to the editor, and book reviews.

Instruction provides directions on what to do.

Examples of instruction include recipes, procedural diagrams, operational guidelines for technical equipment, and regulations.

Transactional texts exchange information in an interaction with the reader.

Such texts include invitations and questionnaires.

The text types were not used to form reading subscales.
The fifth dimension is the situation or context of a text and refers to its intended use from the author’s point of view.

The texts in the PISA assessment were categorised as personal, public, educational and occupational.

Personal texts are intended to satisfy the 61 PISA 2009+: Achievement of 15-year olds in Malta reader’s personal interests, both practical and intellectual.

These include personal letters, fiction and informational texts read as part of leisure or recreational activity.
This category also includes texts that are intended to maintain or develop personal connections with other people.

Public texts refer to activities and concerns of society as a whole, such as official documents and information about public events.

In general, the texts associated with this category assume a more or less anonymous contact with others; they also therefore include forum-style blogs, news websites and public notices that are encountered both on line and in print.
Educational texts are typically for the purpose of instruction, including text books and interactive learning software that is usually assigned by an instructor rather than chosen by the reader.

Educational reading normally involves acquiring information as part of a larger learning task.

Occupational texts are associated with the workplace, usually the ones that support the accomplishment of some specific task.

They also include job advertisements found in newspapers.
Although these situations were not used to form reading subscales a variety of situations ensured coverage of a wide range of texts, with regard to the audiences and purposes for which they were written and that people are likely to encounter in adult life.

The reading items were of three types: open constructed response, short open response or closed response (for example, multiple choice).

Approximately half the questions were of the open response type, while the rest were closed response.
Around a third of the reading items were of the longer constructed type, which required pupils to develop and explain their response.

Such questions were generally two or three mark questions.

The remainder of the open response questions required only short answers.

5.3 Proficiency levels in reading literacy This section outlines the characteristics of tasks at each proficiency level of the three aspect subscales: access and retrieve, integrate and interpret; and reflect and evaluate.
The access and retrieve aspect of reading involves the ability to find and collect information.

The PISA access and retrieve tasks, were assessed on a metric scale and students who were able to retrieve information that usually involved matching identically worded or synonymous information in a text and then were able to use this to find new information requested score significantly higher than students who were not capable in carrying out these access and retrieve tasks.
The access and retrieve reading subscale scores are also clustered into seven proficiency levels ranging from advanced proficiency (Level 6) to very basic proficiency (Level 1b).

PISA also estimates the proportion of 15-year-olds students within each country that are performing at each proficiency level.

The task characteristics of access and retrieve are described in Table 5.1 for each proficiency level.
Table 5.1: Task characteristics of access and retrieve proficiency levels Access and retrieve Proficiency levels Level 6 Access and retrieve tasks at proficiency level 6 require students to combine multiple pieces of independent information, from different parts of a mixed text, in an accurate and precise sequence, working in an unfamiliar context.
62 Attainment in Reading Level 5 Level 4 Level 3 Level 2 Level 1a Level 1b Tasks at this level ask students to locate and possibly combine multiple pieces of deeply embedded information, some of which may be outside the main body of the text.

Students may need to deal with strongly distracting competing information.

These tasks require the student to locate several pieces of embedded information, each of which may need to meet multiple criteria, in a text with unfamiliar context or form.
Students may have to combine verbal and graphical information and/or deal with extensive or prominent competing information.

Locate several pieces of information, each of which may need to meet multiple criteria.

Combine pieces of information within a text.

Deal with competing information.

Students are required to locate one or more pieces of information, each of which may need to meet multiple criteria.

Students may encounter and have to deal with some competing information.
This level of tasks requires the location of one or more independent pieces of explicitly stated information meeting a single criterion, by making a literal or synonymous match.

The target information may not be prominent in the text but there is little or no competing information.
Tasks at this very basic level are straightforward, involving the location of a single piece of explicitly stated information in a prominent position in a simple text, by making a literal or synonymous match, where there is no competing information.

Students may be asked to make simple connections between adjacent pieces of information.
Students are asked to either recognise a simple idea that is reinforced several times in the text (possibly with picture cues), or interpret a phrase, in a short text on a familiar topic.

Another aspect of reading measured by PISA in 2009 was the ability to integrate and interpret information from texts.

This aspect refers to the reader’s ability to process what is read in order to make internal sense of the text.
Interpretation involves the reader identifying the underlying assumptions or implications of a text.

Integrating involves understating the relations between distinct parts of a text.

The task characteristics at each proficiency level are described in Table 5.2, ranging from advanced proficiency (Level 6) to very basic proficiency (Level 1b).
Table 5.2: Task characteristics of integrate and interpret proficiency levels Integrate and interpret Proficiency levels Level 6 Students are asked to either recognise a simple idea that is reinforced several times in the text (possibly with picture cues), or interpret a Tasks at this level are complex.

They require students to make multiple inferences, comparisons and contrasts that are both detailed and precise.
Students must demonstrate a full and detailed understanding of the whole text or specific sections.

The tasks may involve integrating information from more than one text and/or dealing with unfamiliar abstract ideas, in the presence of prominent competing information.

Students may be required to generate abstract categories for interpretations.

Students are required to demonstrate a full and detailed understanding of a text, including construing the meaning of nuanced language.
They may be asked to apply criteria to examples scattered through a text, using high level inference.

Students may be asked to generate categories to describe relationships between parts of a text or deal with ideas that are contrary to expectations.
Level 5 63 PISA 2009+: Achievement of 15-year olds in Malta Level 4 Level 3 Level 2 Level 1a Level 1b Tasks at this level ask students to use text-based inferences to understand and apply categories in an unfamiliar context, and to construe the meaning of a section of text by taking into account the text as a whole.

Students may have to deal with ambiguities and ideas that are negatively worded.
Students are required to integrate several parts of a text in order to identify the main idea, understand a relationship or construe the meaning of a word or phrase.

They may be asked to compare, contrast or categorise taking many criteria into account and deal with competing information.
These tasks require students to identify the main idea in a text, understand relationships, form or apply simple categories, or construe meaning within a limited part of the text when the information is not prominent and low-level inferences are required.

Tasks at this level require the student to recognise the main theme or author’s purpose in a text about a familiar topic, when the required information in the text is prominent.
Students are asked to either recognise a simple idea that is reinforced several times in the text (possibly with picture cues), or interpret a phrase, in a short text on a familiar topic.

The final aspect of reading for evaluation in PISA 2009 was reflecting on and evaluating information within a text.

Students were expected to engage with the text while drawing on information, ideas or values external to the text.
Reflecting involved the reader relating personal experience to the text and evaluating involved making a judgement on the text drawing on personal experience or knowledge of the world.

The task characteristics at each proficiency level are described in Table 5.3, ranging from advanced proficiency (Level 6) to very basic proficiency (Level 1b).
Table 5.3: Task characteristics of reflect and evaluate proficiency levels Reflect and evaluate Proficiency levels Level 6 Students are asked to hypothesise about or critically evaluate a complex text on an unfamiliar topic, taking into account multiple criteria or perspectives, and applying sophisticated understandings from beyond the text.

Students may have to generate categories for evaluating text features in terms of appropriateness for an audience.
Tasks at this level require students to hypothesise about a text, drawing on specialised knowledge, and on deep understanding of long or complex texts that contain ideas contrary to expectations.

Students are required to critically analyse and evaluate potential or real inconsistencies, either within the text or between the text and ideas outside the text.
Students are asked to use formal or public knowledge to hypothesise about or critically evaluate a text and show accurate understanding of long or complex texts.

These tasks require students to make connections or comparisons, give explanations, or evaluate a feature of a text.

They must demonstrate a detailed understanding of the text in relation to familiar, everyday knowledge, or draw on less common knowledge.
Students must make a comparison or connections between the text and outside knowledge, or explain a feature of the text by drawing on personal experience or attitudes.

Level 5 Level 4 Level 3 Level 2 64 Attainment in Reading Level 1a Students are required to make a simple connection between information in the text and common, everyday knowledge.
Level 1b As there are no questions at this level in the existing reading question pool it is not possible to provide a description of the requirements of the tasks.

However, it is still possible to estimate the proportion of the population that would be placed at level 1b of the scale.

This section outlines the characteristics of tasks at each proficiency level of the two text format reading subscales: continuous text and non-continuous text.
In continuous texts, organisation occurs graphically or visually, for example by the separation of parts of the text into paragraphs or by the breakdown of text into a hierarchy signalled by headings that help readers to recognise the organisation of the text, or the use of formatting features such as different font sizes and types.
The task characteristics of continuous text are described in Table 5.4 for each proficiency level, ranging from advanced proficiency (Level 6) to very basic proficiency (Level 1b).

Table 5.4: Task characteristics of continuous text proficiency levels Continuous text Proficiency levels Level 6 Level 5 Level 4 Level 3 Level 2 Negotiate single or multiple texts that may be long, dense or deal with highly abstract and implicit meanings.
Relate information in texts to multiple, complex or counterintuitive ideas Negotiate texts whose discourse structure is not obvious or clearly marked, in order to discern the relationship of specific parts of the text to the implicit theme or intention.

Follow linguistic or thematic links over several paragraphs, often in the absence of clear discourse markers, in order to locate, interpret or evaluate embedded information.
Use conventions of text organisation, where present, and follow implicit or explicit logical links such as cause and effect relationships across sentences or paragraphs in order to locate, interpret or evaluate information.

Follow logical and linguistic connections within a paragraph in order to locate or interpret information; or synthesize information across texts or parts of a text in order to infer the author’s purpose.
Level 1a Use redundancy, paragraph headings or common print conventions to identify the main idea of the text, or to locate information stated explicitly within a short section of text.

Level 1b Recognise information in short, syntactically simple texts that have a familiar context and text type, and include ideas that are reinforced by pictures or by repeated verbal cues.

Non-continuous texts are organised differently to continuous texts, and therefore require a different kind of reading approach.
All non-continuous texts include lists, tables, graphs, catalogues, diagrams, schedules, advertisements, indices and forms.

Some non- continuous texts are single, simple lists, but most consist of several simple lists combined.

The task characteristics for non-continuous text are described in Table 5.5 for each proficiency level, ranging from advanced proficiency (Level 6) to very basic proficiency (Level 1b).
65 PISA 2009+: Achievement of 15-year olds in Malta Table 5.5: Task characteristics of non-continuous text proficiency levels Non-continuous text Proficiency levels Level 6 Identify and combine information from different parts of a complex document that has unfamiliar content, sometimes drawing on features that are external to the display, such as footnotes, labels and other organisers.

Demonstrate a full understanding of the text structure and its implications.
Identify patterns among many pieces of information presented in a display that may be long and detailed, sometimes by referring to information that is in an unexpected place in the text or outside the text.

Scan a long, detailed text in order to find relevant information, often with little or no assistance from organisers such as labels or special formatting, to locate several pieces of information to be compared or combined.
Consider one display in the light of a second, separate document or display, possibly in a different format, or draw conclusions by combining several pieces of graphical, verbal and numeric information.

Demonstrate a grasp of the underlying structure of a visual display such as a simple tree diagram or table, or combine two pieces of information from a graph or table.
Focus on discrete pieces of information, usually within a single display such as a simple map, a line graph or bar graph that presents only a small amount of information in a straightforward way, and in which most of the verbal text is limited to a small number of words or phrases.

Identify information in a short text with a simple list structure and a familiar format.
Level 5 Level 4 Level 3 Level 2 Level 1a Level 1b 5.4 Reading attainment in Malta Performance in reading is first examined by comparing the mean reading scale scores between countries on the main reading scale and five reading subscales.

Table 5.6 displays the mean scores on reading literacy of the 74 countries participating in PISA 2009 and 2009+.

Non-italicized countries are OECD members and countries marked with an asterisk are EU members.
Shaded countries participated in PISA 2009+, while the remaining countries participated in PISA 2009.

For overall reading, OECD average (493) exceeds EU average (485) by 8 scale points.

Table 5.6 provides the estimated mean of 15-year-olds on the overall reading scale and the five reading subscales.

All participants in PISA 2009 or PISA 2009+ are included.

The table is ordered from the highest reading mean to the lowest.
Because of different strengths in the various aspects and formats of texts the reading subscale means are not strictly ordered.

For example, Maltese students perform significantly better than Costa Rican students on non-continuous texts but the reverse is true for continuous texts.

OECD and EU averages are respectively 495 and 486 for access and retrieve; 493 and 486 for integrate and interpret; 494 and 484 for reflect and evaluate; 494 and 485 for continuous text and 493 and 484 for non-continuous text.
This comparison will be helpful in identifying strengths and weaknesses of a country’s student population in the different areas of reading.

Figures 5.1 and 5.2 show, respectively, OECD and EU countries ranked by attainment in reading literacy.
66 Attainment in Reading Table 5.6: Mean performance on the overall reading scale and five reading subscales Country Shanghai-China Korea Finland * Hong Kong Singapore Canada New Zealand Japan Australia Netherlands * Belgium * Norway Estonia * Switzerland United States Iceland Poland * Liechtenstein Germany * Sweden * Ireland * France * Chinese Taipei Denmark * United Kingdom * Hungary * Portugal * Macao-China Italy * Latvia * Greece * Slovenia * Spain * Czech Republic * Slovak Republic * Croatia Israel Luxembourg * Austria * Overall Reading Scale Access and retrieve Reading sub-scales Reflect Integrate and and evaluate interpret Continuous Non- continuous PISA 2009+: Achievement of 15-year olds in Malta Country Lithuania * Turkey Russian Fed.
Chile Costa Rica Malta * Serbia U.A.E Bulgaria * Uruguay Mexico Romania * Miranda Thailand Trinidad &Tobago Malaysia Colombia Brazil Montenegro Mauritius Jordan Tunisia Indonesia Argentina Kazakhstan Rep of Moldova Albania Georgia Qatar Panama Peru Azerbaijan Tamil Nadu Himachal Pradesh Kyrgyzstan Overall Reading Scale Access and retrieve Reading sub-scales Reflect Integrate and and evaluate interpret Continuous Non- continuous Malta, together with the other nine participants in PISA 2009+, had mean overall reading ability that was significantly lower than both the EU and OECD averages.
On average, students in Malta, performed statistically the same as one OECD country, Chile, and significantly higher than one other OECD county, Mexico.

The mean reading level of Malta’s students was also significantly higher than the two EU countries, Romania and Bulgaria.

Most of non-EU and non-OECD members are amongst the lowest performing countries in the list of PISA participants.
68 Attainment in Reading Figure 5.1: OECD countries ranked by attainment in reading literacy Figure 5.2: EU countries ranked by attainment in reading literacy 69 PISA 2009+: Achievement of 15-year olds in Malta Figure 5.3: EU countries ranked by attainment in reading aspects and reading text format Figure 5.3 shows that in all three reading aspect subscales - access and retrieve, integrate and interpret; and reflect and evaluate and all two text format reading subscales - continuous and non-continuous texts, Maltese students performed better than students from two EU countries - Bulgaria and Romania.
Figures 5.4 to 5.6 compare Malta’s attainment in reading aspects and text format to three selected groups of countries.
70 Attainment in Reading Figure 5.4: Selected Mediterranean countries ranked by attainment in reading aspects and reading text format 71 PISA 2009+: Achievement of 15-year olds in Malta Figure 5.5: Selected EU countries ranked by attainment in reading aspects and reading text format 72 Attainment in Reading Figure 5.6: Selected European and Middle East countries ranked by attainment in reading aspects and reading text form 73 PISA 2009+: Achievement of 15-year olds in Malta Reading performance is also examined by investigating the relative proportions of students in each proficiency level within each subscale.
Of the seven proficiency levels in reading, Level 6 is the highest level and involves sophisticated reading tasks that are generally only able to be completed by highly competent readers; whereas Level 1b is the lowest involving elementary tasks that require only very basic reading skills.

Level 2 is considered a baseline level of proficiency, at which students begin to demonstrate the reading skills that will enable them to participate effectively and productively in life.
Figure 5.7 shows the proportion of the student population at each proficiency level of the reading scale, for the PISA 2009+ countries or economies, alongside their 24 chosen comparison countries and the OECD average.

The figure is ordered by the proportion of students who are in the baseline level 2 or above.

Students at level 6 are highly proficient readers and this is reflected in the fact that very few students reach this level.
Malta is estimated to have 0.5% of level 6 readers in its population which is comparable to both EU and OECD proportions (between 0.5% and 0.8%).

There are several OECD countries with similar or lower estimated proportions of students performing at level 6 as Malta.
These include Norway, the Netherlands, Germany, Switzerland and Greece which have between 0.6% and 0.8%; Luxembourg, Italy, the Czech republic, Austria, Denmark, Hungary and Slovenia, between 0.3% and 0.5%; and Portugal, Spain, Turkey, Chile and Mexico have fewer than 0.3% of students performing at level 6.

United Arab Emirates was the only other country participating in PISA 2009+ estimated to have level 6 readers in its population (0.2%).
Across the OECD countries 7.6% of students, on average, are estimated proficient at level 5 or above.

Malta has 4.4% of students in its population estimated at level 5 or above.

With the exception United Arab Emirates (2.3%), all other PISA 2009+ countries have 1% or fewer students estimated at these levels.
Among OECD countries, Slovak republic, Austria, Portugal, Denmark, Slovenia, the Slovak Republic, Spain, Turkey, Chile and Mexico have estimated proportions in reading similar or lower to the estimated proportion for Malta at level 5 or above.

There are estimated to be 28.3% of students across the OECD who can perform tasks at level 4 or above.
Malta have 18.4% estimated to able to perform tasks at level 4, followed by United Arab Emirates (10.8%), Miranda–Venezuela (8.3%), Costa Rica (8.1%), Mauritius (5.2%), Georgia (2.6%), the Republic of Moldova (2.5%), Tamil Nadu India (0.7%) and Himachal Pradesh–India (0.3%).

Among OECD countries, Turkey, Chile and Mexico (14.2% - 5.7% respectively) have estimated proportions in reading lower than the estimated proportion for Malta at level 4 or above.
Level 4 is the modal proficiency level of the top four countries (Hong Kong-China through Shanghai-China) implying that more students in these countries or economies are estimated to perform at this proficiency level than any other single proficiency level.

On average, 57.2% of OECD students are estimated to be able to perform reading tasks at level 3 or above.

Malta, Costa Rica, the United Arab Emirates and Miranda– Venezuela have estimates between 40.7% and 30.9%, respectively.
The rest of the PISA 2009+ participants had estimates of the proportion of the population performing at or above level 3 ranging from 23.4% (Mauritius) to 2.1% (Himachal Pradesh–India).

Among 74 Attainment in Reading Figure 5.7: Proportions of students within proficiency levels for overall reading 75