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PERSONALITYPROCESSESANDINDIVIDUALDIFFERENCESParentalAutonomySupportandDiscrepanciesBetweenImplicitandExplicitSexualIdentities:DynamicsofSelf-AcceptanceandDefenseNettaWeinsteinUniversityofEssexWilliamS.RyanUniversityofCalifornia,SantaBarbaraCodyR.DeHaan,AndrewK.Przybylski,NicoleLegate,andRichardM.RyanUniversityofRochesterWhenindividualsgrowupwithautonomy-thwartingparents,theymaybepreventedfromexploringinternallyendorsedvaluesandidentitiesandasaresultshutoutaspectsoftheselfperceivedtobeunacceptable.Giventhestigmatizationofhomosexuality,individualsperceivinglowautonomysupportfromparentsmaybeespeciallymotivatedtoconcealsame-sexsexualattraction,leadingtodefensiveprocessessuchasreactionformation.Fourstudiestestedamodelwhereinperceivedparentalautonomysupportisassociatedwithlowerdiscrepanciesbetweenself-reportedsexualorientationandimplicitsexualorientation(assessedwithareactiontimetask).Theseindicesinteractedtopredictanti-gayrespondingindicativeofreactionformation.Studies2–4showedthatanimplicit/explicitdiscrepancywasparticularlypronouncedinparticipantswhoexperiencedtheirfathersasbothlowinautonomysupportandhomophobic,thoughresultswereinconsistentformothers.FindingsofStudy3suggestedcontingentself-esteemasalinkbetweenparentingstylesanddiscrepanciesinsexualorientationmeasures.Keywords:autonomy,self-determinationtheory,homophobia,defense,parentingAttitudestowardgayandlesbianindividualsdrivehot-buttonissuesincontemporarypoliticsandsociety,yetthereislittleunderstandingofpersonaldynamicsfuelingsuchattitudes.Whatleadspeopletoadopthomophobicattitudesandtoactinwaysconsistentwiththesebeliefs?Thepresentresearchseekstoexplainhomophobicattitudesandbehaviorsusinganintegratedapproachderivedfromself-determinationtheory(Ryan&Deci,2000)andpsychoanalytictheory(e.g.,S.Freud,1915/1961),aswellascurrentworkondual-processmodelsofawareness(Evans,2008).Thepresentresearchexplorestheideathatlowperceivedpa-rentalautonomysupportisassociatedwithgreaterincongruencebetweenexplicitandimplicitindicatorsofsexualorientation.Thatis,weexaminewhetherindividualsw
hoexperiencealackofautonomysupportfromtheirparentswillevidenceagreaterdis-crepancybetweentheirexplicitlyidentifiedsexualorientationandtheirimplicitorientation,asmeasuredusingareactiontimetask.Weproposethatsuchanincongruousinternalstatemayleaveindividualsvulnerabletothreatrelatingtosexualorientationandthatthisthreatmayactivatedefensiveprocesses.Wearguethatthediscrepancybetweenhighimplicitgayorientationandlowexplicitgayorientationmightrelatetomorehomophobiaandnegativeattitudesandbehaviorstowardthosewhoaregay.Parentswhoareperceivedasnotsupportingautonomy,especiallythoserecognizedasholdingnegativeattitudestowardlesbianandgayindividuals,maypotentiateexperiencesofdefensivethreatandthedefensivepatternthatS.Freud(1915/1961)termedreactionformation,inwhichimplicitversusexplicitdiscrepanciesregardingsexualori-entationareassociatedwithgreaterhomophobicattitudesthatpresumablyfunctiontominimizenegativefeelingstowardtheself.Autonomy-SupportiveParentingandIntrapersonalCongruenceSelf-determinationtheory(SDT;Deci&Ryan,1985;Ryan&Deci,2000)providesaframeworkforunderstandingdevelopmen-talinfluencesunderlyingdiscrepanciesinself-conceptandthedynamicsofhomophobia.AccordingtoSDT,autonomysupportisanessentialcomponentofnurturingrelationshipsandpromotespersonalintegrity,well-being,andpositivefunctioning(Ryan,1995;Ryan&Deci,2000).Peopleexperienceautonomywhentheyarefreetoexploreandidentifytheirneeds,emotions,wishes,andbeliefsandcanchoosetoactinaccordwiththem.SuchasenseThisarticlewaspublishedOnlineFirstJanuary30,2012.NettaWeinstein,DepartmentofPsychology,UniversityofEssex,Colchester,UnitedKingdom;WilliamS.Ryan,DepartmentofPsycholog-icalandBrainSciences,UniversityofCalifornia,SantaBarbara;CodyR.DeHaan,AndrewK.Przybylski,NicoleLegate,andRichardM.Ryan,DepartmentofClinicalandSocialSciencesinPsychology,UniversityofRochester.CorrespondenceconcerningthisarticleshouldbeaddressedtoNettaWeinstein,DepartmentofPsychology,UniversityofEssex,WivenhoePark,ColchesterCO43SQ,UnitedKingdom.E-mail:netta@essex.ac.uk
JournalofPersonalityandSocialPsychology,2012,Vol.102,No.4,815–832©2012AmericanPsychologicalAssociation0022-3514/12/$12.00DOI:10.1037/a0026854815
ofautonomycanbesupportedorthwarteddependingonthecharacteristicsofenvironments.Parent–childrelationshipsareparticularlyimportantinprovidingafoundationforself-expression,asparentsarepresentandinfluentialduringcriticalperiodsofdevelopment(Grolnick&Ryan,1989;Joussemet,Lan-dry,&Koestner,2008).Autonomy-supportiveparentsarethosewhoencourageself-initiationandchoiceandareacceptingofthechild’semotions,thoughts,andreactions(Grolnick,Deci,&Ryan,1997).Theyminimizepressuretowardspecificoutcomesorwaysofbeing(Deci&Ryan,1985)andsupportauthenticself-expression(Grolnick,2009;Ryan,LaGuardia,Solky-Butzel,Chirkov,&Kim,2005).Asaresult,andregardlessoftheculturalclimate,childrenofautonomy-supportiveparentsexperiencehigherwell-being(e.g.,Chirkov&Ryan,2001).Theyarealsomoreactivelyengagedinbehaviorsthatpromotelearningandhealthyrelationshipssuchaspursuingschoolwork(Assor,Kaplan,&Roth,2002)andbehavingprosocially(Gagne´,2003;Kanat-Maymon&Assor,2010).Acommonwayinwhichparentsmayinterferewiththeirchil-dren’sautonomyisbyconveyingtothechildthattheirloveandaffectionisdependentonthechildenactingspecificbehaviorsandespousingsanctionedbeliefs(Assor,Roth,&Deci,2004;Roth,As-sor,Niemiec,Ryan,&Deci,2009).Thisfailuretosupportautonomyoftenresultsinchildrenactinginwaysthatareinconsistentwiththeirownvaluesandinterestsinanefforttomaintainconditionsofworth.Childrenconfrontedwiththisparentingapproachmustdistinguishbetweenemotions,behaviors,andidentitiesthatareacceptableandlovableandothersthatarenot.Thosethatareunacceptableareinturndefendedagainstorsuppressed,astheyposeathreattotheseandperhapsotherimportantloverelationships(Rogers,1961).Infact,datasuggestthatthosewhoexperiencebehaviorallydependentpar-entingexperiencelessstableself-esteem,moreintrojection,andloweroverallwell-being(Rothetal.,2009).Inthecurrentresearchwehypothesizethattheseeffectsofper-ceivedlowparentalsupportwillleadtoimplicit/explicitdiscrepan-cies,aconnectionthathasnotpreviouslybeenexplored.Therehas,however,beensomeevidencelinkingindividualdifferencesinauton-omytolowerdiscrepanciesbetweenimplicit
andexplicitattitudes.ThrashandElliot(2002)foundthatthosewhowerehigherintraitautonomyorself-determinationhadlowerimplicit(projectiveoroperanttests)versusexplicit(self-report)discrepanciesconcerningachievementmotivation.Similarly,Legault,Green-Demers,Grant,andChung(2007)foundthatindividualswhoweremoreautonomousintheirvaluesfornondiscriminationevidencedmorecongruentim-plicit(assessedwithareactiontimetask)versusexplicit(self-reported)prejudicescores.Thusbothstudieslinkgreaterautonomywithlowerimplicit/explicitdiscrepancies.Thecurrentstudiesarethefirsttoexaminehowperceptionsofparentalautonomysupportrelatetoimplicitversusexplicitdiscrepanciesandhowsuchdiscrepancies,inthecentralandyetoftenconflictedsphereofsexualidentification,relatetohomophobia.AutonomySupportandSexualOrientationDespitetheuseoftermssuchasgayandstraight,sexualorientationisnotadichotomousconstruct;researchersnowtendtoviewsexu-alityalongacontinuum(Balsam&Mohr,2007).Althoughthereappearstobestabilityinobjectchoicewhenformingsexualrelation-ships,thereisagreatdealofvariabilityandfluidityintheobjectsthatelicitsexualarousal(Klein,Sepekoff,&Wolf,1985).Whenorienta-tionisassessedcategorically,aboutonein10peopleidentifiesasgay,lesbian,orbisexual(Sell,Wells,&Wypij,1995).However,manyindividualsappeartolieonacontinuumbetween“straight”and“gay.”Fortheseindividuals,acontinuousmeasurementcanmoresensitivelyidentifysexuality(Johnsonetal.,2006).Self-identifyingasgaycanbethreateninginsofarasitincreasesone’sriskofencounteringbiasorhostileattitudes(King&Smith,2004).Forexample,morethanfourintenAmericansbelievethatsocietyshouldrejecthomosexuality(ThePewResearchCenter,2007).Parentsareoftenleastaccepting;themajorityofmothersandfathersrespondwithatleastsomedegreeofnegativitytotheirchildren’ssame-sexattractions(Savin-Williams&Ream,2003).Thisthreatofbeingstigmatizedorrejectedbyparentsandimpor-tantotherslikelycontributestothevariableratesofself-disclosureofnonheterosexualindividuals,withlessthanoneinfourgayindividualsfullydisclosingtheir
sexualorientationtoeveryoneintheirlife(D’Augelli,2006).Incontextsmarkedbyautonomysupport,self-disclosurebe-comesmorelikely,astheenvironmentrepresentsasaferforumforself-expression.Forexample,Legate,Ryan,andWeinstein(2011)recentlyconductedawithin-personstudyoflesbian,gay,andbisexualindividuals,findingthatindividualstendedtobemore“out”concerningtheirsexualorientationinsocialcontexts(e.g.,workplaces,friendships,religiouscommunities)thattheyper-ceivedasmoreautonomysupportiveandtobeless“out”incontextsexperiencedaslessautonomysupportive.Presumably,inenvironmentsthatfailedtosupportautonomyadistinctionismadebetweenacceptableandunacceptableemotionsanddesires.Same-sexattractionsareoftencategorizedasunacceptableandthuslikelytobesuppressedorhidden.Notably,suppressionisnottypicallyasuccessfulstrategyforeliminatingunacceptableimpulses,evenwhenitiseffectiveatkeep-ingthemoutofexplicitawareness(Banfield,Wyland,Macrae,Munte,&Heatherton,2004).Thuswehypothesizethat,inrelation-shipsthatarecontrollingandunsupportiveofautonomy,theper-ceivedpressuretobeacertainwaymightservetolowerpeople’sexplicitreportingofsame-sexattractions,creatinggreaterdiscrepancybetweenself-reportedsexualorientationandimplicitindicesofthissameconstruct.Becauseparentingstylesarecentralinshapingself-acceptance(Grolnick,2003),theamountofautonomysupportexpe-riencedwithparentsshouldbeparticularlyimportantforthesuppres-sionofsame-sexinclinationsandforresultantdifferencesbetweenconsciousandnonconsciousidentifications.AssessingSelf-DiscrepanciesThereisincreasingrecognitionthataperson’sexplicitandimplicitattitudesaredistinct(seeBlair,2001,andEvans,2008,forreviews).Whereasautomaticevaluativeprocessescanlieoutsideofconsciousawareness,self-reportmeasuresassessexplicitandconsciousattitudessubjecttoself-acceptanceanddeliberativere-spondingprocesses.Thus,self-reportsmaybemorediscordantfromimplicitevaluationswhenrelatingtosensitiveorpotentiallyshamingself-relevantconstructsandincaseswhereindividualslackawarenessordonothonestlyrepor
tattitudes(Thrash,Mar-uskin,&Martin,inpress).Inmanycases,implicitmeasuresofattitudesoremotionsarebetterpredictorsofbehavior(Egloff&Schmulke,2002).816WEINSTEINETAL.
Onemeansofassessingimplicitattitudesisthroughtheuseofreactiontimetasks,whichuselatencyassessmentstoexaminesubtleevaluativeprocesses(e.g.,Greenwald,McGhee,&Schwartz,1998).Suchtestshavebeenusedtomeasuresubtleattitudesreflectingprejudice,forexample,racism(e.g.,Devine,2001;Legaultetal.,2007).Thoughmostcommonlyusedtomeasuresattitudes,implicittestshavebeenusedtoassessdiverseconstructsincludingself-concept(Farnham,Greenwald,&Banaji,1999;Greenwald&Farnham,2000),emotionalreactions(Brown&Ryan,2003),andweightidentity(Grover,Keel,&Mitchell,2003).Onestudysofarhasalsousedreactiontimetasksforassessingparticipants’implicitsexualorientationandshowedmoderatecorrespondencewithparticipants’self-reportedsexualorientation(Snowden,Wichter,&Gray,2008).Presumablyinsomecasesexplicit(self-reported)andimplicit(reactionlatencies)sexualorientationsdonotcorrespond.Inthepresentstudies,weexaminewhethersuchdiscrepanciesactivatedefensiveprocesses.Althoughthereareseveralmethodsthroughwhichimplicitversusexplicitdiscrepancieshavebeenexaminedinpastresearch(Thrashetal.,inpress),inthesestudiesweexpectdiscrepancytobemanifestthroughmoderationeffectsinwhichimplicitassessmentsmoderatetherelationsofexplicitassessmentsinpredictingout-comes.ReactionFormationPsychodynamictheoristswerethefirsttoidentifydefensiveprocesses,termeddefensemechanisms,asthosethatservetomaintainasenseofselfunderconditionsofnon-self-acceptance(A.Freud,1936;Shedler,2010).Psychodynamictraditionsholdthatpeoplehaveapreferredviewofthemselves,whichmaynotreflectreality.Whenthisidealizedviewisthreatenedbycontra-dictorythoughtsorfeelings,peopleengageinoneormoreuncon-sciousprocessestodefendagainstthethreattoself.Amongdefensiveprocessesthathavebeenrecognizedashavingsomeempiricalsupportisreactionformation,aprocessindicatedinthemodernbodyofresearchonself-esteempreservation(e.g.,Baumeister,Dale,&Sommer,1998).Reactionformationreferstotheprocessofadoptingvaluesorbeliefs,orengaginginbehaviors,thatareinoppositiontofeelingsorimpulsesexperiencedwithinoneselfthataredeemedunacceptable.Empiricalworkhasshownrea
ctionformationprocesseswithrespecttosexism(Sherman&Garkin,1980),sexguilt(Morokoff,1985),andprejudice(Dutton&Lake,1973),indicatingthatindividualssometimesdefendagainstself-relevant,threateninginformationbyengaginginop-posingbehaviors.Inthepresentresearchweapplythisdynamicmodeltoexaminewhetherthosewhoimplicitlyexperiencesame-sexintereststhatarenotexplicitlyacceptedreactbyexpressingcondemnationofhomosexualityorhomosexuals(i.e.,adoptingahomophobicper-spective).Thatis,wearguethathomophobicattitudesandbehav-iorscanreflectareactionformationinthosewhoexperiencedparentsaslowinautonomysupportandwhohavedevelopeddiscrepanciesbetweenexplicitandimplicitevaluationsofsame-sexsexuality.AstudybyAdams,Wright,andLohr(1996)pro-videdpartialsupportfortheapplicationofimplicit/explicitdis-crepanciesinthissphere.Theydemonstratedtheprocessofreactionformationinrelationtohomophobia,findingthatmenexpressinghomophobicattitudesexperiencedmorephysiologicalarousalinresponsetosame-sexeroticmaterial,thoughtheyre-portedlowerarousal.Ofimportancetothepresentresearcharenotonlytheexplicitreactiveopinionsandbeliefsbutalsothecorre-spondinganti-gayresponding(i.e.,discriminatorybias,implicitattitudes)thatfunctiontopreservetheself-concept.PreliminaryStudies:ReactionTimeTaskValidationThoughreactiontimetaskshavebeenusedtoassessavarietyofimplicitself-constructswithgoodreliability(e.g.,Asendorpf,Banse,&Mucke,2002;Fazio,Jackson,Dunton,&Williams,1995;Ru¨schetal.,2007),becausethespecifictaskusedherewasdevelopedforthepresentresearchweconductedtwostudiestodeterminewhetherthistaskservesasavalidmeasureofimplicitsexualorientation.FirstValidationStudyToprovideinitialvalidationofouradhocmeasureofimplicitsexualorientation,92participants(41men,51women)completedthereactiontimeproceduredescribedbelowandanumberofrelevantexplicitquestions.Higherscoresontheimplicitmeasurereflectmoregayinclinations.Exploratoryttestsandregressionanalysesshowednodirectrelationsoftheimplicitorientationtaskwithgenderorage(ps.05).Implicitsexualo
rientation.Implicitsexualorientationwasmeasuredwithareactiontimetask(similartothatusedbyFazioetal.,1995).Participantswerepresentedwithwordsandpicturesonacomputerscreenandaskedtoplacethemintothecategory“gay”orthecategory“straight,”usingtheQandPkeysofthekeyboard,respectively.Beforeeachtrial,partici-pantsweresubliminallyprimedwitheithertheword“me”ortheword“others,”whichwasflashedfor35ms.Theprimewasmaskedfor35ms,followedbya35-msblankscreen,andfinallythetargetwordorpicture.Thetargetwordswere“gay,”“straight,”“homosexual,”and“heterosexual.”Targetpictureswereimagesdepictingstraightandgaycouples,showninFigure1.Sixtytrialsintotalwereused,thefirst10forpracticeandthelatter50fordatacollection.Responseswerelogtrans-formedandonlyme–gayandme–straightpairingswereusedinthepresentanalyses.Me–straightreactiontimeswereusedtoaccountforindividualdifferencesinresponsetime.Implicitgayorientationwascomputedbysubtractinggaylatencyfromstraightlatency;assuch,higherscoresreflectedafasterasso-ciationof“me”withgayandalowerassociation(slowerresponses)of“me”withstraight.Convergentvalidity.Participantswerepresentedwithim-agesofattractivemenandwomenandaskedtoengageinanattractivenessratingtask(thisprovidedacontexttoexplainparticipants’viewingoftheimages).Participantswereinitiallyaskedtorateonemanandonewomanbutcouldchoosetocontinuethetaskbyclicking“morelikethis”undertheimageofthemanorwoman.Afterthefirstselection,participantscouldselecttopursueimagesthatwere“morelikethis”or“notlikethis,”thuscontinuingtorateeithermenorwomen.Partic-ipantsviewed12images,withaminimumofoneimagefromeachgender(theinitialone).Scoresreflectedthenumberofsame-sextargetsviewed,notcountingtheinitialtwoimages(whichwerenotselectedbyparticipants;M3.73,SD1.15,817PARENTINGANDHOMOPHOBIA
range0–8[outof10]).Higherattractiontosame-sexindi-vidualswasreflectedinmorefrequentdecisionstoviewsame-seximagesandcorrelatedwiththeimplicitreactiontimemea-sureafterpartialingoutexplicitsexualorientation(r.27,p.001),showingalinkbetweenimplicitrespondingandadesirefororinterestinattractivesame-sextargetexposure.Discriminantvalidity.Thediscriminantvalidationstrategywastosupportagayidentityasdistinctfromassociations(positiveornegative)ofoneselfwiththegaycommunityor,conversely,withhomophobiccommunities(bothofwhichmaypresumablyinfluenceimplicitresponding).Pearsoncorrelationsshowedmod-estornocorrelationbetweenimplicitidentity(viathereactiontimetask)anditemstappingexposuretothesecommunities(scaledfrom1notatallto5verymuch):“Howmuchdoyouthinkanti-gayattitudesarecharacteristicofthecommunityinwhichyougrewup?”(M2.19,SD0.80,range1–5),relationwiththereactiontimetask,r.03,p.77;“Howmuchdoyouthinkanti-gayattitudeswerepresentinthecommunityinwhichyougrewup?”(M3.11,SD0.85,range1–5),reactiontimerelation,r–.04,p.71;“Howmuchdoyouthinkpro-gayattitudesarecharacteristicofthecommunityinwhichyougrewup?”(M2.10,SD0.86,range1–4),relationwiththeImplicitAssociationTest,r.08,p.45;and“Howmuchdoyouthinkpro-gayattitudesarepresentinthecommunityinwhichyougrewup?”(M2.41,SD0.89,range1–4),reactiontimerelation,r.03,p.78.Additionalitemsassessedpersonalassociationswiththesegroups:“Howmuchdoyouassociateyourselfwithwhatyouconsidertobehomophobicsocialgroups?”(M2.00,SD0.91,range1–4),relationwiththereactiontimetask,r.05,p.64;and“Howmuchdoyouassociateyourselfwithsocialgroupsthathaveaffiliationswiththegaycommunity?”(M2.68,SD0.87,range1–5),relationwiththereactiontimetask,r.10,p.35.SecondValidationStudyToprovideadditionalvalidationfortheimplicitsexualorienta-tionmeasureweexaminedtherelationsbetweenasensitivecon-tinuousmeasure
ofsexualorientationandtheimplicitsexualorientationmeasuretobeusedinallfourstudiespresentedbelow.Tothisend,49participants(28men,21women)completedabriefsurveyandtheimplicitorientationtask.Participantsrepresentedthoseself-identifyingasstraight(n21),bisexual(n13),andgayorlesbian(n15)andrangedinagefrom18–60(M35)years.Participantsalsorespondedtoamoresensitivecontinuousmeasureofexplicitsexualorientationusingthesingleitem“Whichofthesenumbersbestreflectsyoursexualorientation?”Responseoptionsrangedfrom1to10,with1indicatingstraight,5indicatingbisexual,and10indicatinggay.Responsesrangedfrom1to10(M5.04,SD3.28).Implicitsexualorientationwasmeasuredwithareactiontimetask,describedinthefirstvalidationstudymethodsectionabove.Aone-wayanalysisofvariancecomparedself-identifyingstraight,bisexual,andgayparticipantsontheirimplicitorientationandfoundthesegroupsdiffered,F(2,46)7.53,p.001.Straightparticipants(M.00,SD.14)hadlowerimplicit(gay)orientationsthandidgayparticipants(M.15,SD.07),t(33)3.87,p.001.Bisexualparticipants(M.07,SD.05)werenotsignificantlydifferentfromeithergroup,ts(27)averaged1.60,ps.12,buttheytendedtohavelowerimplicitorientationsthangayparticipantsandhigherimplicitorientationsthanstraightpar-ticipants.Wealsoexpectedthat,generallyspeaking,self-identifyinggayorbisexualparticipantswouldbemoreaccurateinplacingthemselvesonasexualorientationcontinuumcomparedwithstraightparticipants.Thiswasexpectedbasedonourpremisethatsomeofthestraight-identifyingparticipantswoulddenyagayorientation.Totestthis,thecontinuousmeasureofexplicitsexualorientationwasregressedontoimplicitsexualorienta-tionandwasinteractedwithacontrastcodecomparingexplic-itlystraightparticipants(coded–2)toself-identifyinggayandbisexualparticipants(coded1).Ingeneral,implicitorientationrelatedtoexplicitcontinuousorientation,.21,t(46)2.98,p.04,asdidthecategoricalcontrastcode,
.78,t(46)10.81,p.001.Thetwomaineffectsinteracted,.36,Figure1.Imagesofgayandstraighticonsusedtoprimeparticipants.818WEINSTEINETAL.
t(45)4.65,p.001,suchthatforstraightparticipantstherewasnorelationbetweenimplicitandexplicitsexualorientation,.26,t(19)1.19,p.25.However,forself-identifiedbisexualandgayparticipants,gayimplicitorientationpredictedgayexplicitorientation,.69,t(26)4.83,p.001.PresentStudiesThepresentresearchseekstoutilizeSDT,contemporarydual-processmodels,andpsychoanalyticframeworkstoexplorefactorsassociatedwiththediscrepancybetweenexplicitandimplicitqualitiesofsexualorientationandresultanteffectsontheseindi-viduals’attitudesandbehaviors.Fourstudiestestthreemainhypotheses.First,weexpectedthat(a)participants’perceptionsofparental(bothmotherandfather)autonomysupportwouldsustainhighercorrelationsbetweenself-reportedandimplicitsexualori-entationinadulthood;(b)perceivedparentalautonomysupportwouldinteractwithperceptionsofparents’homophobia,suchthatunderconditionsofperceivedlowautonomysupportandhighhomophobiaparticipants’self-reportedorexplicitorientationwouldbeleastrelatedtoimplicitorientation;and(c)individualshighinimplicitorientationbutself-reportingasstraightwouldbemorelikelytoespouseanti-gayattitudesandbehaveinwaysbiasedagainstgayindividuals,reflectiveofreactionformation.InStudy1weassessedperceivedparentalautonomysupport,participants’implicitandexplicitsexualorientation,andself-reportedhomophobiatotestthehypothesisthatparentalautonomysupportwouldrelatetolowerdiscrepancybetweenautomaticandexplicitmeasuresofsexualorientation,whichinturnwouldrelatetolowerhomophobicattitudes.Becausepriorworkhassuggestedalinkbetweenconservativebeliefs,authority-submissiveattitudes,andprejudice(Hunsberger,1995;Stones,2006),wealsocon-trolledforperceptionsofparents’conservativeattitudes,toac-countforanypotentialconfoundingeffectswithautonomysup-port.InStudy2,weassessedperceptionsofparentalautonomysup-portandparentalhomophobiainbothGermanandU.S.samplestotestoursecondhypothesisthattheeffectsofparents’autonomysupportwouldbemoderatedbyparentalhomophobicattitudes.Additionally,todeterminewhetherpa
rticipantsmightactontheseattitudes,ajudgmentassignmenttaskwasincludedthatassesseddiscriminatorybiasagainstgayandlesbianindividuals.InStudy3weexaminedconsequencesoftheimplicit/explicitdiscrepancyconcerningsexualorientationwithafocusonimplicithostilitytowardgayothers.Tobetterunderstandunderlyingde-velopmentalprocesses,wealsoexploredcontingentself-esteemasapotentialmediatorresponsiblefortheeffectsofparentingstylesondiscrepancy.Asdiscussedabove,intheabsenceoftheparentalautonomysupportnecessaryforself-explorationandself-acceptance,individualsmaycometobelievethattheyarevaluedonlywhenexpressingcertainacceptableaspectsofthemselves.Theresultisasenseofself-esteemcontingentontheenactmentofsociallyorrelationallyvaluedidentities(adistinctconstructfromglobalself-esteem;Crocker&Wolfe,2001;Deci&Ryan,1995;Rothetal.,2009).Suchasenseofself-esteemisfragileandcaneasilybeshaken,necessitatingtheuseofdefensiveprocessesintheserviceofitsmaintenance(Ryan&Brown,2006).Forexam-ple,ParadiseandKernis(2002)foundthatanautonomousorien-tationrelatedtomorestabilityinself-esteemandthatthosewithfragileself-esteemtendtoadoptdefensiveorientationstopreventdownswingsinself-worth(Kernis,Cornell,Sun,Berry,&Harlow,1993).InStudy4,wereplicatedthebasictestofourmodelusingamorecomprehensiveapproachforassessingexplicitsexualorien-tation.Specifically,wesoughttoreplicateeffectswithamorenuancedsetofmeasuresreflectingself-reportedorientation,withitemsrepresentingattraction,fantasy,andself-identity.Inthisfourthstudywealsosoughttoexpandonthepreviousresearchbyassessingamoreexternallyvalidaspectofhomophobia,namely,supportforanti-gaypoliticalandsocialpolicy.Tothisend,weincludedameasureassessingparticipants’stanceonanumberofsocialpolicies,someofwhichpertainedtogayrights.Finally,asecondwell-validatedself-reportmeasureofhomophobia,whichincludedamorediversesetofitemsrepresentinghomophobicattitudes,wassubstitutedforthemeasureusedearlier.Study1MethodParticipantsandprocedure.Eighty-ninefreshman(62women,27men)aged17–22(M18)y
earsatanortheasternU.S.universityparticipatedinexchangeforextracredit.Ofthese,76(85.4%)spokeEnglishasafirstlanguage.Seventy-ninepercentidentifiedasCaucasian,11%asAsianAmerican,5%asHispanic,3%asAfricanAmerican,and2%asanotherethnicity.Onacategoricalassessmentofsexualorientation,83participantsiden-tifiedasheterosexual,5asbisexual,andonefailedtorespond.Noneidentifiedaslesbianorgay.Participantscompletedsurveysassessinghomophobia,sexualorientation,andperceptionsofpar-ents’autonomysupportamongotherunrelatedpersonalitysurveysthatservedtodistractparticipantsfrommajorstudyquestions.Theythencompletedareactiontimetaskassessingimplicitsexualorientation(describedinthefirstvalidationstudyabove).Materials.Perceivedparentalautonomysupport.Perceptionsofparen-talautonomysupportinchildhoodweremeasuredwiththesamethreeitemseachformothersandfathers,adaptedfromtheAuton-omysubscaleofBasicNeedSatisfactioninRelationshipsScale(LaGuardia,Ryan,Couchman,&Deci,2000).Participantsfol-lowedtheseinstructions:“Whenyouwereyoung(youngerthanage14)howtruewereeachofthesestatementsforyouwithrespecttoyourmother(father)?”Participantsindicatedtheverac-ityofitemsseparatelyforeachparentusinga7-pointscale(1notatalltrue,7verytrue).Theseitemsallbeganwiththestem“WhenIwaswithmyfather(mother)”andcontinuedasfollows:“Ihadasayinwhathappenedandcouldvoicemyopinion”;“Ifeltcontrolledandpressuredincertainways”(reversescored);and“IfeltfreetobewhoIam.”Scalesshowedadequateinternalcon-sistency(mother.64;father.61);reliabilitiesforthesesameitemsarehigherinsubsequentstudies.Parents’beliefs.Participantswereaskedtoreportontheirparents’beliefsonascalerangingfrom1(veryliberal)to5(veryconservative).Bothreligious(M2.1,SD0.80)andpolitical(M2.4,SD0.85)beliefswereassessedandwererelatedtooneanother(r.49,p.001).Explicitsexualorientation.Asinthesecondvalidationstudy,explicitsexualorientationwasmeasuredusingthesingle819PARENTINGANDHOMOPHOBIA
item“Whichofthesenumbersbestreflectsyoursexualorienta-tion?”Responseoptionsrangedfrom1to10,with1indicatingstraight,5indicatingbisexual,and10indicatinggay.Responsesrangedfrom1to6(M2.28,SD1.15).Homophobia.HomophobiawasassessedusingtheHo-mophobiaScale(Wright,Adams,&Bernat,1999;.89).The24-itemquestionnaireincludeditemssuchas“Gaypeoplemakemenervous,”“Ifearhomosexualpersonswillmakeadvancestowardsme,”and“Iwouldfeeluncomfortablehavingagayroommate.”Participantsrespondedona5-pointscale,fromstronglyagreetostronglydisagree.ResultsPreliminaryanalyses.Parentrelationships.Amultivariateanalysisofvariance(MANOVA)wasconductedthatpredictedthemainstudyvari-ablesfromparents’currentrelationship(together,widowed,di-vorced/separated)andrelationshipwhenparticipantswerechil-dren,aswellaswhetherparticipantslivedwiththeirmother,father,orbothastheyweregrowingup.Resultsshowedthatnoneofthesefactorsrelatedtoperceivedparentalautonomysupport,participants’implicitorexplicitsexualorientation,orhomophobia(allps.05).Supplementaryanalyses.Analyseswereconductedbothwithandwithoutcontrollingforthetwocovariates,genderandparentconservativebeliefs.Wecontrolledforperceivedparentalconser-vativebeliefstoaccountforpotentialconfoundingeffectsofconservativeattitudeswithparent-providedautonomysupport(Hunsberger,1995;Stones,2006).Neithergendernorconservativebeliefsweresignificantlyrelatedtosexualorientationortoho-mophobia(bothps.05).Further,thesignificanceanddirectionoftheprimaryresults—thosethatincludedparentalautonomysupportandimplicitorientation—remainedthesamebothwithandwithoutthesecovariates.Thustheanalysesbelowdonotcontrolforthesetwoconstructs.Primaryresults.Dataanalyticstrategy.ResultsofcorrelationanalysesarepresentedinthebottomhalfofTable1.Hierarchicalordinaryleastsquaresregressionanalyseswereconductedtoexaminetheeffectsofperceivedparentalautonomysupportonexplicitandimplicitorientationandhomophobia.Explicitsexualorientationwaspre-dictedfromstandardizedimplicitorientationandstandardizedperceivedparentalautonomysuppo
rt,withbothpredictorsenteredatStep1andtheirproducttermenteredatStep2.Weexpectedthatimplicitorientationwouldrelatetoexplicitorientationwhenpar-entswereperceivedtobesupportiveofautonomybutthattherewouldbenolink(adiscrepancybetweenimplicitandexplicitorientation)whenparentswereperceivedtoprovidelowlevelsofautonomysupport.Aswell,consistentwiththereactionformationhypothesis,weexpectedthatadiscrepancybetweenimplicitandexplicitsexualorientation(suchthatthereishighimplicitorien-tationandlowexplicitorientation)wouldrelatetohomophobia.Wethereforetestedmoderationofimplicitandexplicitsexualorientationintheirrelationtohomophobia.Explicitsexualorientation.Implicitsexualorientationdidnotdirectlyrelatetoexplicitorientation,.16,t(55)1.24,p.22,andtherewerenoeffectsforperceivedmothers’auton-omysupport,saveraged.18,ts(54)1.60,ps.12.Aninteractioneffectwaspresentforperceivedfathers’auton-omysupport,whichaccountedfor9%ofthevarianceinexplicitsexualorientation,.40,t(54)2.40,p.02(seeFigure2).Tounderstandthisinteraction,simplemaineffectsweresplitbyperceivedfathers’autonomysupport(higherthanaveragecoded1;lowerthanorequaltoaveragecoded–1).Forthosewhoperceivedlowautonomysupport,therewasnolinkbetweenimplicitandexplicitorientationmeasures,–.21,t(28)–1.02,p.32,yetwhenfatherswerehighinperceivedautonomysupport,par-ticipants’implicitorientationscoresrelatedtotheirself-reportedsexualorientation,.46,t(28)2.75,p.01.Participants’self-reportedhomophobia.Implicitsexualori-entationandexplicitsexualorientationinteractedinpredictingparticipants’self-reportedhomophobia,accountingfor7%ofitsvariance,–.27,t(55)–2.19,p.04(seeFigure3).Simplemaineffectssplitbyself-reportedsexualorientationshowedthatindividualswhoidentifiedasrelativelyhighingayorientationshowednorelationbetweenimplicitorientationandhomophobia,–.15,t(24)–0.72,p.48,b
utforthosewhowerelowinexplicitsexualorientation(i.e.,straight),moreimplicitgayorien-tationrelatedtohigherhomophobia,.56,t(32)3.79,p.001.Neithermothers’norfathers’perceivedautonomysupportwasdirectlyrelatedtoparticipants’homophobia,s–.03and–.09,ts(55)–.51and–.71,ps.62and.48,respectively.Study1ConclusionsTheresultsofStudy1supportedourprimaryexpectationthatperceivingparentsasautonomysupportiveisassociatedwithgreatercongruencebetweenexplicitandimplicitindicatorsofsexualorientation.Theseresultsalsosupportedourfurtherexpec-Table1Study1Correlations(BelowDiagonal)andStudy2Correlations(AboveDiagonal)Variable123456781.Implicitorientation—.11.20.19.11.12.14.102.Explicitorientation.14—.06.14.25.19.26.163.Dadautonomy.16.04—.38.56.19.10.124.Momautonomy.01.17.26—.36.80.10.085.Dadhomophobia—————.37.16.056.Momhomophobia——————.09.047.Participanthomophobia.42.03.05.06———.038.Biasinpunishment————————p.05.p.01.820WEINSTEINETAL.
tationthatthosewhoarehighinimplicitorientationbutlowintheirexplicit,self-reportedorientationmanifestmorehomophobicattitudes.Parentingstylesperceivedtobelowinautonomysupportwerenotdirectlyrelatedtohomophobia;instead,thesumofevidencesuggestedanindirecteffectofperceivedparentingonhomophobiathroughparticipants’incongruenceordiscrepancy.Thisfindingisconsistentwith(butdoesnotconfirm)ourmodelofhomophobicattitudesservingasadefenseagainstunacceptableaspectsofidentity.Study2Study2wasdesignedtobuildonthismodelbyexaminingtheinfluenceofperceptionsofparents’homophobicattitudesonpar-ticipants’sexualorientation(anddiscrepancybetweenimplicitandexplicitindicators)andhomophobiaacrosssamplescollectedintheUnitedStatesandinGermany.Presumably,theabsenceofautonomysupportshouldbeparticularlyharmfulwhenparentsholdnegativeviewsofnonheterosexualorientations;inthiscase,thechild’sownsame-sexinclinationsaremorelikelytobeper-ceivedasthreatening.Ameasureofanti-gaydiscriminatorybiaswasalsoincludedinStudy2toexaminewhetherimplicit/explicitdiscrepanciesnotonlyrelatetoself-reportedhomophobicattitudesbutalsomightleadtodiscriminatoryresponsestogaytargets.Additionally,thismeasurewasdesignedtomoresubtlyassessmanifestationsofhomophobiaandthusdeterminewhethertheabovepatternofresultsheld(orwasstrengthened)whenalessovertandextrememeasureofhomophobiawasused,onethatwasnotsubjecttofavorablybiasedresponding.Inthiscase,biasinfavorofstraightindividualswasreflectedintheseverityofpunishmentsassignedtoperpetrators(impliedtobegayorstraight)ofrelativelyminor,nonviolentcrimes.MethodParticipantsandprocedure.Onehundredandeighty-onestudents(113women,68men)fromaU.S.(n84)andaGerman(n97)universityparticipatedinexchangeforcredit.OfthosefromtheUnitedStates,78identifiedasstraight,4asbisexual,2aslesbian,andnoneasgay.InGermany,84identifiedasstraight,12asbisexual,1aslesbian,andnoneasgay.ParticipantscompletedthereactiontimetaskfromStudy1andataskdesignedtoassessaggressiontowardgaytargets.Participants’homophobiaandtheirperceptionsofparentalautonomysupportandhomophobiawer
eassessedattheendofthestudy.Materials.MaterialsweretranslatedintoGermanbyoneexperimenterandbacktranslatedtoEnglishbyasecondtoensurequestioncontentwasconsistentacrossbothsamples.Alphaswereaccordinglyconsistentacrosssamplesandcollapsedforestimates.PerceivedparentalautonomysupportwasassessedusingthescalesfromStudy1drawnfromLaGuardiaetal.(2000);acrosssamples,mother.78,father.81.ImplicitandexplicitsexualorientationswerealsoassessedasinStudy1(explicitM2.04,SD1.91).Homophobiawasassessedwiththesame24-itemscaleusedinStudy1(.88).Perceivedparents’homophobia.Participants’perceptionsoftheirparents’homophobiawereassessedusingtheGayMale/LesbianContactsubscaleoftheComponentsofAttitudesTowardHomosexualityscale(LaMar&Kite,1998).Weadaptedthisscaleforuseinassessingparentalattitudesbychanging“I”to“mymom”or“mydad.”Fourteenitemswerepairedwitha5-pointLikertscale.Sampleitemsinclude“Itwouldbeupsettingtomymomtofindoutshewasalonewithagayman(lesbian)”and“mydadavoidsgaymen(lesbians)wheneverpossible.”Homophobiawasmeasuredseparatelyforeachparent(mom.94,dad.95).Discriminatorybias.Discriminatorybiasagainstgayandlesbiantargetswasassessedusingscenariosdepictingprotagonistscommittingrelativelyminorcrimes.Participantsassignedoneoffivepunishments(e.g.,fines,hoursinacell)ranginginseveritytoeachperpetrator.Punishmentoptionswereselectedafterpilottestingwithagroupofstudentsnaivetohypothesesindicatedthatthesepunishmentswereviewedasfittingthecrimes,suchthattheaveragestudentassignedapunishmentofM2.8(SD1.1).Inaddition,crimesandpunishmentswereselectedonlyifbothGer-manandU.S.studentsviewedthemasequallydeservingofpunishment(ps.05).Asamplescenarioisasfollows:TimwasdrivinghomefromhisthirddatewithStephan/Stephanie.Whiledrivinghecalledhisbestfriendtorelaytheexcitingeventsoftheevening.Anearbypoliceofficerpulledhimoverforspeeding15mphoverthespeedlimit,andforspeakingonthephonewhiledriving.Figure2.Study1interactingeff
ectsofperceivedfathers’autonomysupport(Aut.
)andimplicitsexualorientationinpredictingexplicitsexualorientation.Figure3.Study1interactingeffectsofimplicitsexualorientationandexplicitsexualorientationinpredictingself-reportedhomophobia.821PARENTINGANDHOMOPHOBIA
Forthisscenario,participantscouldselecttopunishtheprotago-nistwithfinesrangingfrom$50to$500.Withineachscenario,theperpetratorwasidentifiedasbeingeither“gay”or“straight”usingsubtlecues.Forexample,inthescenarioabove,themaleprotagonisthadbeenonadatewitheitherStephanorStephanie.Theimpliedsexualorientationofthesub-jectsofthescenarioswasrandomizedwithinsubjectssuchthateachparticipantwaspresentedwiththreegayandthreestraightperpetrators,whovariedrandomlyintheirstorypairing.ResultsPreliminaryanalyses.Parentrelationships.AsinStudy1,MANOVAsexaminedprimarystudyvariablesfromparentrelationship(currentandpast)andwhetherparticipantshadlivedwiththeirmother,father,orbothparentsasachild.Nosignificanteffectsemergedfromtheseanalyses(ps.05).Notably,therewerenogroupdifferencespredictingparentalhomophobiaorparentalautonomysupport.Supplementaryanalyses.Genderdidnotsignificantlyrelatetoanystudyvariablesofinterest(ps.05),andexploratoryanalysesfoundnodifferencesindirectionorsignificancewhencontrollingforgender.WeusedtteststocontrastGermanandU.S.samplesonallmajorstudyvariables.Mostcomparisonswerenotsignificant(ps.05).AnexceptionwasaneffectforAmericanstoreporthigherexplicithomophobiathanGermanparticipants,t(156)8.15,p.001.Sincethiswastheonlysignificantrelation,weconductedexploratoryanalyses,controllingforcoun-try,toensuretheeffectswereconsistentacrossthetwocountries.Effectsdidnotchangeinsignificanceordirectionwhencountrywascontrolled,withnoevidentmoderationbycountry.Primaryanalyses.Dataanalyticstrategy.Correlationsforallmajorstudyvari-ablesarepresentedinthetophalfofTable1.Hierarchicalregres-sionanalyseswereconductedtoexaminetheeffectsofparent-providedautonomysupportondiscrepancy,homophobia,andbiasinfavorofstraighttargetsasinStudy1.Inthisstudy,wealsoassessedperceivedparentalhomophobia.Toanalyzethesedata,weregressedexplicitsexualorientationontostandardizedvaluesforimplicitorientation,perceivedparentalautonomysupport,andperceivedparentalhomophobia(theseenteredatStep1),theirtwo-wayinteractions(enteredatStep2),a
ndtheirthree-wayinteraction(enteredatStep3).Wesimilarlymeasuredanti-gayrespondingwithregressionanalysesbyregressingeachmajorindicator(self-reportedhomophobia,discriminatorybias)ontothemaineffectsofimplicitandexplicitorientationinthefirststepandtheirinteractioninthesecondstep.Explicitsexuality.Inthepresentstudy,weexaminedwhetherperceivedparentalhomophobiamoderatedtherelationshipbe-tweenperceivedparentalautonomysupportandimplicitorienta-tioninpredictingexplicitsexualorientation.Perceivedfathers’autonomysupport,homophobia,andparticipants’ownimplicitsexualorientationtogetheraccountedfor13%ofthevarianceinself-reportedsexualorientation.Indeed,forfathers,athree-wayinteractionemergedpredictingexplicitsexualorientation,R2.04,–.49,t(120)2.30,p.05(seeFigure4).Simpleeffectswerethereforetestedacrosslevelsoffathers’homophobiaandautonomysupport.Forfathersperceivedtobehighinauton-omysupportandlowinhomophobia(presumably,thosemostinclinedtobesupportiveofanyorientation),participants’implicitorientationwaspredictiveoftheirexplicitsexualorientation,.51,t(44)3.95,p.001.Implicitorientationwasalsorelatedtoexplicitorientationwhenfatherswereperceivedasbeingrelativelyhomophobic,solongastheywerealsoperceivedashighinautonomysupport,.62,t(16)3.11,p.001.Additionally,whenfatherswereperceivedtobelowinautonomysupport,butalsolowinhomophobia,.45,t(21)2.30,p.03,thisrelationshipheld.Yetwhenfatherswereperceivedtobehighinhomophobiaandlowinautonomysupport,implicitorientationdidnotrelatetoexplicitsexualorientation(infact,anonsignificantnegativetrendwaspresent),–.26,t(40)–1.66,p.10.Formothers,nothree-wayinteractionemerged,R2.00,–.02,t(122)1.00,p.32,butatwo-wayinteractionwaspresentforautonomysupportandimplicitorientation,R2atthesecondstep.06,.23,t(123)2.35,p.02(similartothe
d:2).23,t(123)2.35,p.02(similartotheonethatwaspresentforfathersinStudy1;seeFigure2).Simpleeffectssplitbymothers’autonomysupportshowedalinkbetweenimplicitandexplicitsexualorientationwhenmotherswereper-ceivedtobehighinautonomysupport,.30,t(70)2.75,p.001,butnorelationwaspresentwhenmotherswereperceivedtobelowinautonomysupport,–.03,t(54)–0.22,p.83.Participants’self-reportedhomophobia.Participants’ex-plicitandimplicitorientationsinteractedinpredictingself-reportedhomophobia,R2.06,–.23,t(126)–2.57,p.01.Simplemaineffectsindicatedthatimplicitorientationrelatedtoincreasedself-reportedhomophobiawhenexplicitsexualorien-tationwaslow(whenindividualsself-reportedasrelativelystraight),.34,t(84)3.35,p.001.Anegativerelationemergedwhenindividualsself-reportedasrelativelygay,–.34,t(42)–2.36,p.02.Parentsperceivedtobehigherinhomophobiahadchildrenhigherinhomophobia,father:.22,t(121)2.39,p.02;mother:.17,t(121)2.02,p.04,thoughneithermothers’norfathers’autonomysupportrelatedtohomophobia,father,–.13,t(121)–1.64,p.10;mother,–.11,t(121)–1.75,p.09.Thetwoperceivedparentalconstructsdidnotinteractinpredictinghomophobia,saveraged.04,ts(120)0.21,ps.83.Discriminatorybias.Asimilarsetoffindingsrelatedtobiasinfavorofstraighttargets.Amarginalinteractionwaspresentforexplicitandimplicitsexualorientation,–.16,t(125)–1.83,Figure4.Study2three-wayinteractioneffectsofperceivedfathers’autonomysupport(Aut.),perceivedfathers’homophobia(Hom.),andimplicitsexualorientationpredictingexplicitorientation.822WEINSTEINETAL.
p.07,R2.02.Simpleeffectsparalleledthoseforself-reportedhomophobia(andFigure3).Whenparticipantsreportedbeinglowinexplicitgayorientation(relativelystraight),implicitorientationrelatedtoharsherjudgmentstowardgaytargets,.45,t(49)3.50,p.001(thiswascontrollingfortheadditionalfindingthattheseparticipantswereharsherintheirpunishmentsofstraighttargetsaswell,.46,t[49]3.50,p.001).Forthosehighinself-reportedgayorientation,therewasnorelationbetweenimplicitorientationanddiscriminatorybiasinjudgment,–.09,t(20)–0.44,p.66(againcontrollingfortherelationbetweenstraightandgaypunishments,.49,t[20]2.37,p.03).Perceptionsofparents’attitudesandsupportaccountedfor14%ofthevarianceinhomophobia.Participantswhoperceivedtheirparentsashomophobicindicatedagreaterbiasagainstgaytargets(infavorofstraighttargets),father:.37,t(120)4.01,p.001;mother:.21,t(120)2.32,p.02.Controllingforthis,bothparents’provisionofautonomysupportpredicteddiscrimi-natorybias,father:–.24,t(120)–2.73,p.001;mother:–.19,t(120)–2.15,p.03.Thesemaineffectswerequalifiedbyinteractions(accountingforanadditional7%ofvariance)forbothmotherandfather,respectively,.15,t(119)2.05,p.04,and.16,t(119)2.09,p.04.Simpleeffectsforbothparentsshowedthatnobiasemergedwhenparentswerelowinhomophobia(s.01to.07,ps.05).However,whenparentswereperceivedashomophobic,lowau-tonomysupportrelatedtoagreaterbiasagainstgaytargets(s–.31to–.38,ps.01).Study2ConclusionsStudy2replicatedthepatternofresultsfoundinStudy1inasampleofU.S.andGermanparticipants,indicatingthatindividu-alswhoexperiencedparentsasmoresupportiveofautonomyexhibitedlessdiscrepancyinimplicitversusexplicitindicatorsofsexualorientation.Individualswhowerehighinimplicitorienta-tionbutlowinexplicitorientationinturnreport
edmorehomopho-bicattitudes,replicatingfindingsfromthepreviousstudy.NewtoStudy2,perceivedparentalautonomysupportrelatedtolessbiasagainstgaytargets,asindicatedbytheseverityofpunishmentsparticipantsassignedforrelativelyminorcrimes.Experiencingparentsasbothhighinhomophobiaandlowinautonomysupportwasaparticularlypotentcombinationasrelatedtoimplicit/explicitdiscrepancy,self-reportedhomophobia,andanti-gaybias.Notably,iffatherswereseenashighlyhomophobicandlowinautonomysupport,therewasnorelationbetweentheirchildren’simplicitandexplicitorientations.Inotherwords,theseparticipantsreportedsexualorientationsthatwereincongruentwiththeimplicitmeasureofsexualorientation.Inthisstudy,mothers’homophobiadidnotqualifyothereffects.Whethermoth-erswerehighorlowinhomophobia,perceivedmaternalautonomysupportrelatedtomorecongruence(highercorrelation)betweenimplicitandexplicitassessmentsofsexualorientation.Forbothparents,homophobiapairedwithlowautonomysupportwasas-sociatedwithhighlevelsofbiasagainstgaytargets.Theseresultssuggestthatthemostdefensiveparticipantsmayhavelearnedfromparentsthatanonheterosexualorientationwasunacceptable,whichinturncouldfosterexplicitversusimplicitincongruence.Thecorrelationalnatureoftheseresults,however,makesthiscausalsequencespeculative.Study3InStudy3wesoughttoreplicatethebasicmodelsupportedinthesecondstudy.WhereasStudy2examinedpunishmentsselectedforgaytargets,Study3includedameasureofimplicithostilitysoastoexaminetheeffectsofdiscrepancyonmoresubtlehomopho-bicemotionstowardgayothers.Inthisstudy,wealsotestedcontingentself-esteem(Paradise&Kernis,1999)asapotentialmediatoroftheeffectsofperceivedparentalautonomysupportandparentalhomophobiaondiscrepancy.Nonautonomy-supportiveparentingstyleswereexpectedtoresultinasenseofworthdependentonexpressingonlyacceptableaspectsofoneself.Inthiscase,unacceptablesame-sexattractionmaybelesslikelytobeexpressedunderconditionsoffragileself-worth,leadingtodis-crepanciesbetweenimplicitandexplicitmeasuresofsexualori-entation.MethodParticipantsan
dprocedure.Onehundredandeighty-ninestudents(154women,35men)fromanortheasternU.S.universityparticipatedinexchangeforcredit.Ofthese,62%identifiedasCaucasian,22%asAsian/PacificIslander,5%asAfricanAmeri-can,6%asHispanic,and4%asmultiracialorother.Themajorityreportedtheirsexualorientationasstraight(96%);threeidentifiedasgayorlesbian;andfouridentifiedasbisexual.Studentscom-pletedthestudybeginningwiththereactiontimetaskusedinStudies1and2.Explicithostilitywasthenassessed,againusingthesingle-itemmeasurefromthepreviousstudies.Finally,partic-ipantscompletedthesurveymeasuresdescribedbelow.Materials.Parentrelationships.Parentrelationshipsweremeasuredus-ingitemsasinthepreviousstudies.Thepresentstudyincludedadditionalitemsaskingparticipantstoindicatethelevelofin-volvementofeachparentona5-pointLikertscale(1notatall,5verymuch).Perceivedautonomyneedsatisfactionwasas-sessedforeachparent(father.75,mother.80)asinStudies1and2.Perceivedparentalhomophobia(mother.95,father.94)andparticipants’homophobia(.91)werealsoassessedasintheprevioustwostudies.Implicithostility.Twoword-completiontaskswereusedtoassessparticipants’implicithostilitytowardgaytargets.Eachtaskconsistedof10wordswithmissingletters.Foreachwordseveralpossiblecompletionsexist,someofwhichhaveanaggressiveconnotation.Examplewordsareasfollows:[ki__],withneutraloptionsbeingkite,kiss,kilt,andkingandaggressiveoptionsbeingkickandkill;and[h_r_],withneutraloptionsbeinghare,hire,hard,andhereandaggressiveoptionsbeinghurtandharm.Participantswrotedownthefirstthreewordcompletionsthatcametomind.Pointswereassignedforeachaggressivewordcomple-tion;3pointswereassignedifitwasthefirstwordlisted,2ifitappearedinthesecondposition,and1ifitwasthethirdwordlisted.Thesepointsweresummedtocreateanimplicitaggressionscore.Participantscompletedthistasktwice:initially,andagainafterbeingsubliminallyprimedwiththeword“gay”(presentationlength35ms).Implicithostilityrelatedtothecon
cept“gay”wascalculatedbysubtractinginitialimplicithostilityfromimplicithostilityafterthegayprime(r.51).Contingentself-esteem.Contingentself-esteemwasassessedusingameasureadaptedfromParadiseandKernis’s(1999)Con-823PARENTINGANDHOMOPHOBIA
tingentSelf-EsteemScale.Subjectsratedtheirlevelofagreementwithsixitems(.73)ona5-pointLikertscale(1notatall,5verymuch).Sampleitemsinclude“Ifeelasthoughmyself-esteemisontheline”and“IfeelthatImustbeacertainwaytofeelgoodaboutmyself.”ResultsPreliminaryanalyses.Parentrelationships.Inthepresentstudy,childrenofdi-vorcedorseparatedparentsreportedthelowestpaternalautonomysupport,ts(188)2.86to3.22,ps.001.Inaddition,participantswholivedwiththeirfathersduringchildhoodwerehigherinhomophobia,t(188)3.97,p.001.Exploratoryregressionanalysesshowedthatgreaterparentalinvolvementrelatedtoin-creasedperceptionsofparents’autonomysupport,mother:.61,t(188)6.08,p.001;father:.30,t(188)2.77,p.001.Becauseparentinvolvementhadaconsistentimpactonperceptionsofautonomysupport,itwascontrolledforinprimaryanalyses.Supplementaryanalyses.Anindependent-samplesttestshowednodifferencesbetweenmenandwomenintheirself-reportsofhomophobia,t(187)–1.21,p.23.Nogenderdifferencesinorientationandparentreportsemerged(ps.05).Exploratoryanalysesofmainstudymodelsdemonstratednodif-ferencesinsignificancelevelsordirectionofeffectswhengenderwasincludedinthemodels.Primaryanalyses.Dataanalyticstrategy.CorrelationsbetweenmajorstudyvariablesarepresentedinTable2.Asinthepreviousstudies,hierarchicalregressionanalysesexaminedtheeffectsofstandard-izedperceptionsofeachparent’sautonomysupportandhomopho-biaasmoderatingthelinkbetweenexplicitandimplicitorientationandinpredictinghomophobicreactions(self-reportedhomophobiaandimplicithostilitywithrelationtogaytargets).Asbefore,two-wayinteractionswereenteredinasecondstepandthree-wayinteractionsinathirdstep.Explicitsexualorientation:Fathers.Toexaminethepoten-tialmoderationoftherelationofimplicitandexplicitsexualorientation,ahierarchicalregressionequationwascomputedpre-dictingexplicitsexualorientationfromtheimplicitmeasure,per-ceivedparentalautonomysupport,perceivedparentalhomopho-bia,andtheirinteractions.Forfath
ers,athree-wayinteractionwaspresent,R2.02,.28,t(156)2.03,p.04,whichwassimilartothatdepictedinFigure4.Whenfatherswereperceivedtobelowinhomophobia,implicitorientationrelatedconsistentlytoexplicitsexualorientation,.49,t(83)4.88,p.001(perceivedfatherautonomydidnotrelate,.08,t[83]0.81,p.41).Ontheotherhand,whenfatherswereperceivedtobehighinhomophobia,fathers’autonomyimpactedtherelationbetweenimplicitorientationandexplicitorientation.Whenhomophobicfatherswereperceivedtosupportautonomy,participants’explicitorientationrelatedtotheirimplicitorientation,.54,t(20)2.86,p.01.Whenhomophobicfatherswereperceivedtobelowinautonomysupport,however,therewasnorelationbetweenimplicitorientationandexplicitsexualorientation,.10,t(54)0.79,p.43.Explicitsexualorientation:Mothers.Amarginalthree-wayinteractionwasalsopresentformothers,R2.02,.16,t(161)1.81,p.07.Whenmotherswereperceivedtobelowinhomophobia,R2.00,.05,t(101)0.54,p.59,implicitorientationrelatedtoexplicitorientationregardlessofperceivedmothers’autonomysupport,.26,t(102)2.77,p.001(withStep1accountingfor13%ofthevariance).Similarly,whenmotherswereperceivedtobehighinhomophobiabutalsohighinautonomysupport,implicitorientationrelatedtoexplicitorientation,.72,t(18)9.88,p.001.Yet,therewasnorelationbetweenimplicitandexplicitreportswhenmotherswereperceivedtobehighinhomophobiaandlowinautonomysupport,.06,t(42)0.41,p.68.Participants’self-reportedhomophobia.Aswasthecaseinthepreviousstudies,atwo-wayinteractionwaspresentbetweenimplicitandexplicitorientations,R2.03,–.22,t(166)–2.28,p.03(similartothatdepictedinFigure3).Simplemaineffectsweresplitbyhighandlowexplicitsexualorientationandshowedthatfor
participantswhoidentifiedasstraight,implicitorientationrelatedtoself-reportedhomophobia,.43,t(104)4.79,p.001,thoughtherewasnorelationwhenparticipantsself-reportedanonheterosexualorientation,–.20,t(62)–1.38,p.17.AtStep1,parentvariablespredicted13%ofthevarianceinparticipants’homophobia.Neitherfathers’,–.13,t(183)–1.37,p.17,normothers’,–.11,t(187)–1.47,p.14,autonomysupportrelatedtoparticipants’homophobia.Fathersandmothersperceivedasmorehomophobichadmorehomophobicchildren,.21,t(184)2.40,p.02,and.17,t(187)Table2Study3CorrelationsforMajorStudyVariablesVariable1234567891.Dadhomophobia—2.Momhomophobia.63—3.Dadautonomy.41.21—4.Momautonomy.28.37.38—5.Implicitorientation.08.03.12.15—6.Explicitorientation.23.25.07.22.36—7.Participanthomophobia.07.08.17.11.05.19—8.Implicithomophobia.26.19.23.24.23.27.21—9.Contingentself-esteem.26.17.31.16.09.09.01.21—p.05.p.01.824WEINSTEINETAL.
2.06,p.04,respectively.Nointeractionswerepresentbetweenparentalautonomysupportandhomophobia(ps.05).Implicithostility.Implicithostilityreflectedtherelativesalienceofhostilityafterexposuretoagayprimecomparedtobeforeexposure.Aswasthecaseforself-reportedhomophobia,atwo-wayinteractionwaspresentwithexplicitandimplicitsexualorientation,R2.03,–.26,t(166)–2.63,p.001(therewasnomaineffectforexplicitsexualorientation,–.09,t[167]–1.14,p.26).Alsoasforhomophobia,simpleeffectsindicatedthattherewasnomaineffectofim-plicitorientationwhenparticipantsreportedagayorbisexualorientation,.20,t(62)1.64,p.11.Ontheotherhand,whenparticipantsreportedastraightsexualorientation,greaterimplicitorientation(i.e.,“moregay”)relatedtoincreasedim-plicithostilityfollowingthegayprime,.26,t(104)2.78,p.001.Aswell,perceptionsofbothmothers’,.19,t(168)2.68,p.001,andfathers’homophobia,.25,t(168)3.57,p.001,correlatedwithhigherimplicithostility,asdidlowerauton-omysupport:mother,–.24,t(168)–3.36,p.001;father,–.23,t(168)–3.13,p.001.Forbothparents,maineffectsofautonomysupportandhomophobiawerequalifiedbytheirinteraction,s–.32and–.49,ts(164)–2.17and–2.99,ps.03and.001,respectively.Therewasnorelationbetweenautonomysupportandimplicithostilitytowardgaytargetswhenparentswerelowinhomophobia,saveraged–.08,ts(89)0.92,ps.36.Inthecaseofhomophobicparents,however,parentalautonomysupportpredictedlessimplicithostility,saveraged–.29,ts(70)2.95,ps.001.Contingentself-esteem.Contingentself-esteemwasconcep-tualizedasapotentialmediatorfortheeffectsofparentalauton-omysupportondiscrepancy.Totestthis,weconductedaseriesofmoderationanalysesthatattemptedtodemonstrateanindirectlinkbetweenperceivedparentalautonomysupportandself-reportedsexualorientation.Analysesshowed,as
wasexpected,thatbothfathers’,–.25,t(166)–3.41,p.001,andmothers’,–.21,t(166)2.71,p.001,perceivedautonomysupportrelatedtolowerparticipantcontingentself-esteem.Inturn,contingentself-esteeminteractedwithimplicitorienta-tiontopredictexplicitorientation,–.21,t(165)–2.72,p.001.Forparticipantswithhighlycontingentself-esteemtherewasamoderatelinkbetweenimplicitandexplicitsexualorientation,.23,t(97)2.09,p.04.Amorerobustrelationwaspresentwhenindividualswerelowincontingentself-esteem,.35,t(67)3.17,p.001.Two-waymoderationanalysessuggestedthatperceptionsofbothparents’provisionofautonomysupportdirectlyinteractedwithimplicitorientationtopredictexplicitsexualorientation,mother,.30,t(165)2.08,p.04;father,.47,t(165)2.63,p.001,suchthatforbothparents,implicitorientationrelatedtoexplicitorientationwhenparentswereperceivedtobehighinautonomysupport,s.21,ts(103)2.00,ps.05,butdidnotrelatewhenparentswereexperiencedaslowinautonomysupport,.18,ts(73)1.80,ps.09.Whencontingentself-esteemwasincludedinthemodelthesemoderatingeffectsdroppedto.15,t(164)1.45,p.15,and.33,t(164)1.89,p.06,respectively.Weusedthebootstrappingmethod(Preacher&Hayes,2004;Shrout&Bolger,2002)totestanindirectpathwayfromperceivedparentalautonomytotheresidualtermofexplicitandimplicitorientation(savedafterregressingexplicitorientationontoimplicitorientation)viacontingentself-esteemandfoundanindirecteffect(95%,pointestimate:.62,CI[.25,.99],p.05).Study3ConclusionsInthethirdstudywefoundthatperceivingone’sparentsashavinghomophobicattitudesimpactedtheeffectsthatperceivedparents’autonomysupporthadondiscrepanciesbetweenimplicitandexplicitsexualorientations.Individualswhoseparentswerehomophobicandnonsupportiveoftheirautonomywereacc
urateinreportingtheirorientationwhenimplicitlystraightbutweremostlikelytounderre-portanimplicitgayorientation.Inthepresentstudy,thisfindingheldforbothmothersandfathers,thoughitwasapparentonlyforfathersinStudy2.Inturn,thoseindividualswhowererelativelymoregaybyimplicitassessments,butwhoself-identifiedasstraight—thatis,thosewhofailedtoreport(orperhapsbeawareof)implicitgayimpulses—weremorelikelytoexhibitanti-gayattitudes,asassessedwithself-report(asinStudies1and2)andwithameasureofimplicithostilityactivatedafteragay-relatedprime.Inthisthirdstudywealsoexploredcontingentself-esteemasapotentialmechanismresponsiblefortheeffectsofparentalauton-omysupportonthecongruencebetweenone’simplicitlyandexplicitlyassessedsexualorientations.Wefoundthatparticipantswhoperceivedtheirparentsasbeinglowinautonomysupportevidencedgreatercontingentself-esteem,consistentwithpreviousresearchinSDT(e.g.,Deci&Ryan,1995;Rothetal.,2009).Thiswasespeciallythecasewhenparentsconveyedthatagayorien-tationwouldbeunacceptable(i.e.,wereperceivedtobehighinhomophobia).Inturn,contingentself-esteemrelatedtodiscrepan-ciesbetweenimplicitandexplicitreportsforthoseindividualswhoevidencedahighimplicitgayorientation,anditmediatedtheeffectsofparentalautonomysupportonthosediscrepancies.Study4Afinalstudywasconductedtoclarifyandcomplementthepreviousfindingswithamorecomprehensiveexaminationoftheresearchquestion.Tothisend,weemployedadiversesetofassessmentsreflectingexplicitsexualorientationinordertomorefullyrepresentsexualorientationasreflectingbothidentityandattraction(Sell,1997).Inthesamespirit,self-reportedhomopho-biawasassessedusingamultidimensionalmeasure,whichin-cludedbothcognitiveandemotionalhomophobicreactions.Fi-nally,toextendtheimplicationsofourmodeltootherreal-worldoutcomes,weassessedparticipants’positionsonpoliciesrelevanttogayandlesbianrightswhilecontrollingfortheirgeneralliberalorconservativepoliticalpositions.MethodParticipantsandprocedure.Onehundredandeighty-fourstudents(140women,44men)fromanortheasternU.S.uni
versityparticipatedinexchangeforcredit.Ofthese,66%identifiedasCaucasian,18%asAsian/PacificIslander,7%asAfricanAmeri-can,3%asHispanic,and4%asmultiracialorother.Theprocedurewasidenticaltothatusedinthepreviousstudies,withtheaddition825PARENTINGANDHOMOPHOBIA
ofamorediversesetofmeasuresassessingexplicitsexualorien-tationandanassessmentofsocialpoliciesrelatedtogayrights.Materials.Sexualorientation.Explicitsexualorientationwasmeasuredusingthecontinuousscaleitememployedinpreviousstudies(M1.6,SD1.6,range1–10).Inthisstudywealsomeasuredexplicitsexualorientationinanumberofotherways.First,participantsrespondedtotheitem“Howaccurateareeachofthefollowingtermsindescribingyoursexuality,”rankingtheterms“heterosexual”and“homosexual”usinga1(completelyinaccurate)to9(completelyaccurate)scale(Schmitt&Buss,2000).Inaddition,weaskedparticipants,“Pleaseratetheextenttowhichyouidentifywiththefollowingcategories,”with“straight”and“gay/lesbian”pairedwithaseven-itemscalerangingfrom1(notatall)to7(strongly).Finally,participantsreportedtheirattractiontomenandwomen,separately,usingscalesrangingfrom1(notatallattracted)to7(veryattracted)andtheextenttowhichtheyfantasizeaboutmenandaboutwomen,separately,usingscalesrangingfrom1(never)to7(frequently);theseitemswerederivedfromtheKleinSexualOrientationGrid(Klein,1993).Fromtheseitemswecomputedopposite-andsame-sexattractionscoresbyrecodingratingsaccordingtoparticipants’gender(e.g.,forwomen,attractiontowomenwascodedassame-sexattraction).Finally,fromtherecomputedscoreswecon-structedrelativeopposite-sexattractionscores(relativeopposite-sexattractionopposite-sexattractionsame-sexattraction:r–.85,p.01;fantasy:r–.64,p.01).Principalcomponentsanalysesonthesevenresultingitemsreflectingsexualorientationrevealedonefactorwithaneigen-valueof5.42,ontowhichalltheseitemsloadedhigherthan.82.Correlationsbetweenallindicatorsofsexualorientationarepre-sentedinTable3.Reliabilityforthesevenitemswas.95.Homophobia.Self-reportedhomophobiawasmeasuredwiththewell-validatedComponentsofAttitudesTowardHomosexual-ityscale(LaMar&Kite,1998).Participantsrespondedto49itemsusingaLikertscalerangingfrom1(stronglydisagree)to5(stronglyagree).Itemsrepresentedabroadunderlyingconstructofnegativeattitudestowardgayindividuals,whichwasrepresent
edbysixsubscales:(a)Condemnation/Tolerance(e.g.,“Lesbians[gaymen]areadangertoyoungpeople”),(b)GayMale/LesbianSocialNorms/Morality(e.g.,“Gaymen[lesbians]endangertheinstitutionofthefamily”),(c)NeutralMorality(e.g.,“Homosex-ualityisaperversion”),(d)GayMale/LesbianContact(e.g.,“Iwouldbenervousifagayman[lesbian]satnexttomeonabus”),(e)NeutralContact(e.g.,“Ifamemberofmysexmadeadvancestowardme,Iwouldfeelangry”),and(f)GayMale/LesbianSte-reotypes(e.g.,“Mostlesbians[gaymen]liketodressinopposite-sexclothing”).Theoverallscalehadacceptablereliability(.78),andsubscalealphasrangedfrom.77to.92.Socialpolicy.Participantsreportedtheirstanceonorientation-relevantpolicypositions:gaymarriage;“don’task,don’ttell”;andadoptionbysame-sexcouples(.91).Wealsoaskedparticipantstogivetheirpositionsonorientation-irrelevantpolicypositions:legalizedabortion,legalizationofmarijuana,universalhealthcare,andwelfaresupport(average.82).Participantsreportedtheirpositiononthesetopicsusinga5-pointscale(1Iamstronglyagainstthispolicyto5Iamstronglyinfavorofthispolicy).Stanceonorientation-irrelevantpolicieswasmeasuredinordertocontrolforoverallpoliticalliberalism.Subjectswerepresentedwiththefollowingscale:Thefollowingarepopularandhighlydebatedpolicies.Everyonehasdifferentopinionsaboutthesepolicies.Noopinionisrightorwrong.Whatisyouropinion?1.Same-sexmarriage,thelegallyorsociallyrecognizedmarriagebetweentwopersonsofthesamesex.2.Themilitary’spolicyofdon’task,don’ttell,whicharguesthataslongasgayindividualsdon’tdisclosetheirsexualitytheycanstayinthemilitary.3.Welfareforall,ortheprovisionoffinancialsupporttoanyindividuals,providedtheylosetheirjoborcan’tfindajob,andthattheyareactivelysearchingforwork.4.Legalizationofmarijuana:suchthatmarijuanaislegallyconsid-eredtobeonthesamelevelasalcoholpossession.Table3Study4CorrelationsBetweenAllIndicatorsofSexualOrientationVariable1234567891011121.Implicitorientation—2.Single-itemmeasure.35.913.Same-sexattract.31
.78—4.Opposite-sexattract.32.65.48—5.Relativeattracta.36.84.90.81.886.Same-sexfantasy.24.75.79.44.74—7.Opposite-sexfantasy.07.34.22.50.39.14—8.Relativefantasya.19.70.64.62.73.71.80.829.Extentgay.28.82.59.68.73.61.38.64.8810.Extentstraight.35.82.66.71.79.65.40.69.79.9211.Accurateheterosexual.40.69.58.69.69.58.44.67.67.82.8812.Accuratehomosexual.30.73.52.66.66.55.44.65.77.73.85.87Note.Valuesinboldonthediagonalarefactorloadingsontothesinglesharedfactorderivedfromprincipalcomponentsanalysis.Dashesonthediagonalindicatethatitemswerenotincludedinthefactoranalysesbecausetheywereusedtocomputecomposites(asinthecaseoftherelativeitems).aTheserelativevariableswereeachcalculatedbysubtractingtheopposite-sexitemfromthesame-sexitem(relativeattractsame-sexattractopposite-sexattract;relativefantasysame-sexfantasyopposite-sexfantasy).p.0
id:6)opposite-sexfantasy).p.01.826WEINSTEINETAL.
5.Universalhealthcare:partialregulationofhealthcarebythegovernmenttoensurethatallindividualshaveaccesstohealthcoverage.6.Adoptionbysame-sexcouples:therightsofsame-sexcouplestoadoptinfantsorsmallchildrenasreadilyascanstraightcouples.7.Legalizedabortion,suchthatearlytermabortionpracticesinspecifiedmedicalsettingsareconsideredlawfulpractice.ResultsPreliminaryanalyses.Parentrelationships.Childrenofdivorcedorseparatedpar-entsreportedlowerpaternalautonomysupport,ts(181)2.01to2.09,ps.04.Additionalanalysesindicatedparentalinvolvementrelatedtoperceivedparentalautonomy,mother:.29,t(180)3.01,p.001;father:.19,t(180)2.04,p.04.Becauseparentalinvolvementhadaconsistentimpactonperceptionsofautonomysupport,itwascontrolledforinprimaryanalyses.Supplementaryanalyses.Independent-samplesttestswereperformedandshowedthatwomenreportedhigherhomophobiaoverall,t(181)2.62,p.001,carriedprimarilybythesubscalesContact,t(181)3.43,p.001,andStereotypes,t(181)2.56,p.01.Exploratoryanalysesofthemainstudymodelsdemon-stratednodifferencesinsignificancelevelsordirectionofeffectswhengenderwasincludedinthemodels.Inaddition,agedidnotrelatetohomophobiaortoimplicitorexplicitsexualorientation(ps.05).Primaryanalyses.Dataanalyticstrategy.CorrelationsbetweenmajorstudyvariablesarepresentedinTable4.Aswastheprocedureinthepreviousstudies,hierarchicalregressionanalysesexaminedtheeffectsofperceptionsofeachparent’sautonomysupportandhomophobiaasmoderatingthelinkbetweenexplicitandimplicitorientationandinpredictinghomophobicreactions(self-reportedhomophobiaandsupportforanti-gaypolicy).Thus,thethreeconstructswerestandardizedandtestedinafirststepofanalyses,theirtwo-wayinteractionsweretestedinasecondstep,andtheirthree-wayinteractionsweretestedinafinalstep.Inthisstudy,explicitsexualorientationwasassessedusingacompositeofthesevenitemsdescribedabove.Explicitsexualorientation:Fathers.Three-wayinteractionswereconductedmoderatingeachparent’sautonomysupportandhomopho
biabyparticipants’implicitorientation.Amarginalthree-wayinteractionwaspresentforfathers,R2.03,–.16,t(170)–1.79,p.07(similartotheonedepictedinFigure4).Whenfatherswereperceivedaslowinhomophobia,implicitorientationalwaysrelatedtogayorientation,.47,t(88)4.78,p.001.Forthosewhoperceivedtheirfathersashighinhomophobia,implicitorientationmarginallyrelatedtoexplicitorientation,.27,t(45)1.97,p.06,butthiseffectwasmorerobustwhenfatherswereperceivedassupportingautonomy,.39,t(36)2.91,p.001.Explicitsexualorientation:Mothers.AsinStudy2,therewasnothree-wayinteractionpresentformothers,R2.00,–.01,t(170)–0.09,p.92.Instead,atwo-wayinteractionwaspresentbetweenperceivedmothers’autonomyandimplicitsexualorientation,–.14,t(171)–2.63,p.001(Step2R2.07).Whenmotherswereperceivedtobesupportiveofautonomy,implicitorientationrelatedtoexplicitsexualorientation,.49,t(106)5.80,p.001,butthisrelationshipwasweakerwhenmotherswereperceivedtobelowinsupport,.21,t(68)1.75,p.08.Participants’self-reportedhomophobia.Asinthepreviousstudies,atwo-wayinteractionwaspresentbetweenimplicitandexplicitorientations,R2.04,–.36,t(174)–2.12,p.03.Forparticipantswhoreportedastraightorientation,implicitorientationrelatedtohomophobia,.67,t(132)10.54,p.001;yettherewasnorelationwhenparticipantsreportedasrelativelygay,.07,t(62)0.47,p.64.Exploratoryanalyseswereconductedwitheachofthesubscalesoftheho-mophobiaquestionnaireandshowedtheseeffectswerelargelycarriedbytheCondemnation,Morality,andContactsubscales,aninterestingresultinthatthesesubscalesseemtoreflectmoreemotionalcomponentsofhomophobicresponding.Neitherparent’sperceivedautonomysupportrelatedtopartic-ipants’homophobia,aver
age–.06,t(174)–0.90,p.37.Table4Study4CorrelationsVariable12345678910111213141.Dadhomophobia—2.Momhomophobia.60—3.Dadautonomy.29.19—4.Momautonomy.16.29.41—5.Explicitgay.41.32.35.35—6.Implicitgay.30.10.14.07.36—7.Condemn.29.41.03.09.43.10—8.Socialnorms.14.23.03.09.26.39.50—9.Contact.33.45.01.10.50.16.82.69—10.Neutralcontact.35.51.07.08.45.11.80.56.82—11.Stereotypes.36.51.01.07.30.11.58.42.64.70—12.Homophobiatotal.33.48.03.08.47.19.88.71.95.92.74—13.Policygay.28.38.08.11.31.16.62.56.71.79.56.77—14.Policyneutral.26.24.12.26.02.02.23.21.29.28.25.29.25—p.05.
p.01.827PARENTINGANDHOMOPHOBIA
Ontheotherhand,perceptionsofbothparents’homophobiare-latedtohigherparticipanthomophobia,father:.37,t(174)5.00,p.001;mother:.49,t(174)7.13,p.001(Step1R2.19).Nointeractionswerepresent(ps.05).Policyposition.Pro-gaypolicypositionswerepredictedfromimplicitandexplicitgayorientation,controllingforgay-irrelevantpolicypositions.Onceagain,atwo-wayinteractionwaspresentwithexplicitandimplicitsexualorientation,thistimeinpredictingpolicypositions,R2.05,.16,t(166)2.23,p.02(seeFigure5).Aswasthecaseforhomophobia,implicitorientationdidnotrelatetosupportforpro-gaypolicyforthosewhoself-identifiedasrelativelygay,.19,t(62)1.23,p.22.Ontheotherhand,whenparticipantsreportedastraightorientation,higherimplicitorientationscoresrelatedtolowersupportforpro-gaypolicy,–.49,t(131)–6.30,p.001.Aswell,bothmothers’,–.35,t(174)–4.70,p.001,andfathers’homophobia,–.28,t(174)–3.71,p.001,corre-latedwithlowersupportforpro-gaypolicy,thoughautonomysupportdidnot:mother,–.02,t(174)–0.29,p.77;father,.02,t(174)0.29,p.77(nointeractionswerepresent,ps.05).Study4ConclusionsStudy4resultswerelargelyconsistentwiththoseoftheprevi-ousstudiesinshowingthatparentingstylesimpactthecongruencebetweenimplicitandexplicitsexualorientations.Participantswhoperceivedtheirfatherstobehomophobicandnonsupportiveofautonomywereleastlikelytoreportasame-sexsexualattractionevenwhenimplicitreportsindicatedthesefeelingsmightbepres-ent.Thiswasalsothecaseforthosewhoperceivedtheirmotherstobenonsupportiveofautonomy.Theseparticipantsreportedthemosthomophobicattitudesandemotionalreactionsandwereleastlikelytosupportpro-gaypolicieswhencontrollingfortheirotherpoliticalviews.GeneralDiscussionFourstudiessupportedourhypothesesthatindividualswhoperceivedparentsassupportingtheirautonomywouldevidencegreatercongruencebetweenim
plicitandexplicitindicesofsexualorientation.Ontheotherhand,participantswhoexperiencedtheirparentsaslowinautonomysupportevidencedgreaterdiscrepan-cies.Thiseffectwasmoreconsistentlypresentforfathersandparticularlypronouncedforindividualswhoperceivedtheirfatherstobehomophobicaswellasnonsupportive.Asasecondaspectofourthesis,discrepancybetweenimplicitandexplicitsexualorientationmeasures,wasexpectedandshowntorelatetogreaterself-reportedhomophobia(allfourstudies),discriminatorybias(Study2),implicithostilitytowardgaytargets(Study3),andendorsementofanti-gaypolicypositions(Study4).Theseindicatorsareconsistentwiththeprocessofreactionfor-mation(A.Freud,1936);participantswhoreportedthemselvestobemoreheterosexualthantheirperformanceonthereactiontimetaskindicatedweremostlikelytoreactwithhostilitytogayothers.InStudy3,weadditionallyfoundthattherelationbetweenparentingstylesanddiscrepancyismediatedbycontingentself-esteem.Inotherwords,experiencingalessautonomy-supportiveparentingstylewasrelatedtomorecontingentself-esteemintheparticipant,whichinturnwasassociatedwithlesscongruenceinsexualorientationmeasures.Study4resultsprovidedfurthersupportfortheoverallmodel,astheyreplicatedeffectsusingadditionalitemstappingexplicitsex-ualorientationaswellasanalternative,well-validatedexplicitmeasureofhomophobia.Therelativelyconsistentpatternofre-sultsemergingfromthisstudyindicatesthattheone-itemmeasureofexplicitorientationinStudies1–3servesasoneusefulindicatorofself-reportedorexplicitsexualorientationandisconsistentwithitemstappingotheraspectsofsexualattractionandorientation.PerceivedParentingStylesPreviousempiricalworkhassupportedtheclaimthatparents’homophobicattitudescaninfluencetheirchildren’shomophobia(O’Bryan,Fishbein,&Ritchey,2004).Thepresentstudiesfurtherexplorethisconnectionandtheunderlyingmechanisms.Togetherthesestudiesindicatethatchildrenareaffectedbytheirperceptionsoftheirparents’attitudesandthatthisrelationinvolves,atleastinpart,thechild’sself-conceptanddynamicsofthreatanddefense.InStud
ies2–4,participantswhoperceivedtheirparentsasbeinghomophobicdisplayedagreaterdiscrepancybetweenimplicitandexplicitmeasuresoforientation,suggestingthatexposuretoho-mophobicattitudesathomeinhibitschildren’ssexualself-exploration.Participantswhoreportedthattheyhadobservedtheirparentsrejectingothersasafunctionofsexualorientationmayhaveexpectedsimilarrejectionhadtheyacknowledgedsomedegreeofsame-sexattractionwithinthemselves.Inthethreelatterstudies,theseeffectsoffathers’homophobiadependedonthepaternalprovisionofautonomysupport.Partici-pantsexperiencingautonomy-supportivefatherswerenotim-pactedbytheirfathers’homophobicattitudes,whereasthosewhosawtheirfathersasbothcontrollingandhomophobicexhibitedmorediscrepantimplicitandexplicitindicesofsexualorientation.Presumably,whenfathersaffordedtheirchildrenthefreedomforself-exploration,theywerenotmotivatedtosuppressgayinclina-tions,evenwhenthesewentagainstpaternalattitudes.Instead,autonomy-supportivefathersmayhaveconveyedtheirvaluingofself-expression,eveninconditionscounteringtheirownspecificbeliefs.Thispatternofresultswasinconsistentformothers,emerginginStudy3only.Nonetheless,mothersstillhadanimpactontheirchildren’shomophobiainStudies2and4,butthiseffectFigure5.Study4pro-gaypolicypositionsregressedontothetwo-wayinteractionofimplicitorientationandexplicitorientation.828WEINSTEINETAL.
seemedtobecarriedentirelybyperceptionsofmothers’autonomysupportandnotbyperceivedmothers’homophobia.HomophobicAttitudesandBehaviorTakentogether,theabovestudiessuggestthatincongruencebetweenimplicitandexplicitmeasuresofsexualorientationispredictiveofavarietyofmeasuresofhomophobiaandhomophobic-consistentbehaviors,namely,self-reportedho-mophobia(measuredwithtwovalidatedscales),discriminatorybias,implicithostilitytowardhomosexuals,andendorsementofanti-gaypolicies.Althoughthepresentresearchdoesnotdirectlyexaminethemotivationalunderpinningsoftherelationshipbe-tweensexualorientationdiscrepanciesandhomophobia,wepro-posethattheseeffectscanbeunderstood,atleastinpart,asadefensiveresponsetomaintainthesuppressionofself-relevant,butthreatening,information.Specifically,webelievethispatternofresultstobeconsistentwiththedefenseofreactionformation(A.Freud,1936).Whenparentswereperceivedascontrolling,andespeciallywhenfatherswereexperiencedasbothcontrollingandhomophobic,participantsexhibitedlesscongruencyinsexualorientationmeasuresandinturndemonstratedmoreanti-gaysentiments.Gaytargetsmaythreatentobringthisincongruencetotheforefrontandthuselicitthisdefensiveprocess(Baumeisteretal.,1998;Cramer,1991;A.Freud,1936;S.Freud,1915/1961;Shedler,2010).Inthepresentstudies,outcomesforreactionformationwerevariedandincludedmoreendorsementofanti-gayrightspolicies,theassignmentofharsherpunishments,andincreasedimplicithostilitytowardgaytargets.Outsideofthelabcontextdefensiveprocessesmaytaketheadditionalformsofverbalandphysicalassault,includingbullying,directedtowardthoseperceivedtobegay.Mediacoverageofgay-relatedhatecrimesoftensuggestssomelevelofthreatexperiencedbytheperpetratorinrelationtothegayvictim,asinthecaseofLarryKing,themiddleschoolstudentmurderedbyhisclassmateshortlyafterLarryallegedlytoldhimhelovedhim.Thisdynamicmayalsobeatplayinthecasesofpoliticalandreligiousleaderswho,despitestronglyoutwardlyopposinggayrights,arecaughtengaginginsame-sexsexualacts.MemorablecasesincludeLarryCraig,theU.S.senatorwhotwicevotedagainstincludingsexualorientationinh
atecrimelegislation;TedHaggard,theevangelicalpreacherwhoservedasanadvisortoBushlobbyingagainstgayrightsandteachingthathomosexualityisanabomination;andGlennMurphyJr.,formerchairmanoftheYoungRepublicans,whowasavocalopponentofgaymarriage(Gorton,2007).Althoughtheremaybeotherplausibleexplana-tions,theselatterexamplesmightwellrepresenthigh-profilecasesofanti-gaypoliticalbiasassociatedwithincongruenceinsexualorientations,adynamicdemonstratedinourStudy4.ContingentSelf-EsteemInthethirdstudywealsoexploredthemediatingroleofcon-tingentself-esteem(Paradise&Kernis,1999)inthedevelopmentofdiscrepancyasafunctionofmorecontrollingparentrelation-ships.Theresultwasinlinewithpreviousresearch:Participantswhoexperiencedparentsasnotautonomysupportiveevidenceddiscordanceinsexualorientationassessmentsandalsoreportedhighercontingentself-esteem.Inotherwords,itseemstheseparticipantsexperiencethemselvesasvaluedorlovableonlytotheextentthattheyembodydesirableattributesanddonotembodyundesirableones.Thismaytranslateintotheseindividualsvaluingthemselvesinasimilarlycontingentway(Ryan&Brown,2006),underscoringthedynamicnatureofbothincongruenceanditsconsequences(e.g.,Uysal,Lin,&Knee,2010;Weinstein,Deci,&Ryan,2011).TheRoleofCultureSincehomophobicattitudes,likeotherattitudes,developasafunctionofsocietalandhomeenvironments,Study2testedwhetherthehypothesesgeneralizedtoacultureotherthanthatofthenortheasternUnitedStates.ThefindingthatGermanpartici-pantswerelessexplicitlyhomophobicthantheirAmericancoun-terparts,despitenoculturaldifferencesinperceivedparentalau-tonomysupportorhomophobia,indicatesthatculturemayplayanindependentroleintheformationofhomophobicattitudes.Yet,despiteanyculturaldifferences,thebasicdevelopmentalprocessesbywhichparentsinfluencedthedevelopmentofhomophobicattitudesandbehaviorsintheirchildrendidnotdifferacrosscountries,suggestingthattheroleautonomysupportplaysinencouragingself-acceptanceofsexualidentitiesisnotculturallybound.Obviously,giventhatbothsamplescomefromWesternnations,thiswasaveryl
imitedtestofcross-culturalgenerality,andother,variedculturesandsubculturalcontextsshouldbeexamined.LimitationsandFutureDirectionsThereareseverallimitationsofthisstudythatshouldbead-dressedinfutureresearch.First,thesestudieswereconductedoncollegestudentsnolonger(thoughrelativelyrecently)livingwiththeirparents.Itmaybehelpfultotesttheseeffectsinyoungeradolescentsstilllivinginthehomeandinolderadultswhohavespentalongertimeawayfromparents’influence.Suchsamplescouldhelpidentifytheextenttowhichperceivedparentalstylesvarywithidentitydiscrepancyandintolerance,aswellashowmoreproximalsocialcontextsimpacttheseoutcomes.Addition-ally,giventhecorrelationalnatureofmanyofthepresentfindings,causalanddevelopmentalinferencescannotbereliablymade.Thoughevidenceexaminingdevelopmentallinesandstableself-identitiesmaybedifficulttoattain,experimentalstudiesthatintroducethreateningself-relevantinformationmighthelptosup-portthecausalmodelimpliedinthesestudies.Inaddition,directmeasurementofparentalpracticesandattitudesandlongitudinalresearchwouldhelptodisentangleactualsocializationsourcesfromprojectionsofparentsthatmaybeassociatedwithinternal-izedstigmaandtheimplicit/explicitdiscrepanciesrelatedtoit.Forexample,analternativeexplanationmightbethatparticipantswhoarealreadyhomophobichaveadistortedrecollectionoftheirupbringingandoftheirparents’attitudes.Directlyassessingpa-rentalattitudeswouldhelptobetterunderstandtheserelations.Despitetheseandotherlimitations,thepresentresearchhigh-lightsexperiencesofautonomysupportasimportantingredientstosuccessfulself-acceptanceandself-expressionandultimatelylessreactive(homophobic)attitudes.Theobservedrelationsofautonomy-supportiveparentingexperiencesandintrapersonalcon-gruencearelikelynotuniquetosexualorientationbutmaybe829PARENTINGANDHOMOPHOBIA
generalizedtootherfeelings,desires,andneedsthatmaybepotentiallythreateningorreflectnegativelyontheself.Inaddition,othersocialcontextsbeyondtheparent–childrelationshipmaydifferentiallysupportautonomyandthusfosterpatternsofdefenseforthosewithimplicitsame-sexattractions.Receivingautonomysupportasanadultfrompeers,partners,orworkcolleaguesmightactasabuffertocompensateforchildhoodexperiencesofcontrolorcontingentregard,facilitatingself-acceptanceatalaterstageinlife.Studiesfocusedonautonomysupportindifferentsocialcontextsmightalsoshowhowmuchthesediscrepancyanddefenseeffectsvarywithsituationsoratawithin-personlevel.Illustra-tively,Legateetal.(2011)recentlyfoundthatthewell-beingoflesbian,gay,andbisexualindividualsdidvaryasafunctionoftheautonomysupportintheseindividuals’immediatesocialcontexts.Finally,futureresearchmightalsoexaminehowvariationsinautonomysupportcouldpotentiallyfosteridentity-relateddiscrep-anciesinotherdomainsforwhichpolarizedculturalprescriptionsorstigmatizingevaluationsexist(careerchoices;political,reli-gious,orculturalbeliefs;etc.).Thepresentstudiesofimplicitandexplicitsexualorientationindicesandtheirrelationstoperceivedparentalsupportforauton-omyhaveimplicationsforinterventionsaimedatreducingho-mophobiaandtheparticularlysalientproblemofchildrenbullyingotherchildrenwhoareperceivedasgay.Thepresentresearchalsosuggeststhathomophobiacannotbeconceptualizedsimplyasasetofbeliefsandvalues.Ratheritappearstoreflect,inpart,perceivedrelationalprocesses,dynamicsofthreatanddefense,andcapaci-tiesforself-acceptance.ReferencesAdams,H.E.,Wright,L.W.,&Lohr,B.A.(1996).Ishomophobiaassociatedwithhomosexualarousal?JournalofAbnormalPsychology,105,440–445.doi:10.1037/0021-843X.105.3.440Asendorpf,J.B.,Banse,R.,&Mucke,D.(2002).Doubledissociationbetweenimplicitandexplicitpersonalityself-concept:Thecaseofshybehavior.JournalofPersonalityandSocialPsychology,83,380–393.doi:10.1037/0022-3514.83.2.380Assor,A.,Kaplan,H.,&Roth,G.(2002).Choiceisgood,butrelevanceisexcellent:Autonomy-enhancingandsuppressingteacherbehaviorsinpredictingstudents
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