Source document: https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1697629545436.pdf (Antigua and Barbuda)
PAGE LEFT INTENTIONALLY BLANK Acknowledgements Antigua and Barbuda’s first State of the Environment Report (2021) was prepared under the “Monitoring and Assessment of Multilateral Environmental Agreements Implementation and Environmental Trends in Antigua and Barbuda” project funded by the Global Environment Facility (GEF), under the Cross-Cutting Capacity Development (CCCD) focal area.
This project is being implemented by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and executed by the Department of Environment (DOE).

The DOE’s Monitoring, Evaluation and Data Management Unit (DMU), with support from the Project Management Unit (PMU), coordinated the preparation of this report.

The Public Education, Training and Information Unit (PETIU) facilitated the coordination of the public engagements.
Key Team Members Name Position Jason Williams Helena Jeffery Brown Ato Lewis Aaliyah Tuitt Daryl George Data Manager/Project Coordinator Technical Coordinator Senior Environment Officer Technical Data Officer Senior Environment Officer Review and Verification Team Name Position Key Team Members Amb.
Diann Black-Layne Ezra Christopher Anik Jarvis Katecia Thompson Technical Advisory Committee DMU, PETIU and PMU Director Monitoring and Evaluation Officer Data Consultant Biodiversity Project Coordinator Department of Environment Staff Photo by: Janeil Johnston Photo credits Cover Page Great Bird Island Green Sea Turtle Pineapple Farm Brown Booby Antigua Racer Snake Jeremy Holden Phikwe Goodwin Nick Hollands Adam Long Nick Hollands S T A T E O F T H E I E N V R O N M E N T : A N T I G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 State of the Environment 2021 The Consultancy to Produce the State of the Environment Report Department of Environment, Ministry of Health, Wellness and the Environment, Botanical Gardens, Factory Road, St. John’s, Antigua Office: +1.268.562.9616 or +1.268.462.4625 Email: doe@ab.gov.ag Report prepared by: Dr. Theresa Rodriguez-Moodie Ms. Simone Lee Mrs. Ruleta Camacho Thomas Mr. Ruleo Camacho Ms. Christine Young Ms. Abigail McIntosh Report reviewed by: Ms. Abigail McIntosh Dr. Theresa Rodriguez-Moodie Report edited by: Ms. Kimberley Coore Ms. Althea Denise Gooden ENVIRONMENTAL SOLUTIONS LIMITED 7 Hillview Avenue Kingston 10, Jamaica, W.I.
Tel: (876) 978-9519, 978-6297, 978-5902 Fax: (876) 946-3745 Email: envirsol@cwjamaica.com Website: www.eslcaribbean.com 4 TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS FOREWORD EXECUTIVE SUMMARY COUNTRY BRIEF 1 INTRODUCTION 2 CLIMATE CHANGE AND ATMOSPHERE 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 WHY IS IT IMPORTANT?

DRIVERS AND PRESSURES HOW IS IT CHANGING?

IMPACTS WHAT ARE WE DOING ABOUT IT?

3 LAND USE 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 WHY IS IT IMPORTANT?

DRIVERS AND PRESSURES HOW IS IT CHANGING?


IMPACTS WHAT ARE WE DOING ABOUT IT?

11 14 15 21 24 31 31 32 33 42 44 47 47 47 49 83 85 4 WATER 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 WHY IS IT IMPORTANT?

DRIVERS AND PRESSURES HOW IS IT CHANGING?

IMPACTS WHAT ARE WE DOING ABOUT IT?

5 BIODIVERSITY 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 WHY IS IT IMPORTANT?

DRIVERS AND PRESSURES HOW IS IT CHANGING?

IMPACTS WHAT ARE WE DOING ABOUT IT?

6 CULTURE AND HERITAGE 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 WHY IS IT IMPORTANT?

DRIVERS AND PRESSURES HOW IS IT CHANGING?


IMPACTS WHAT ARE WE DOING ABOUT IT?

7 CROSS-SECTORAL AREAS 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 WHY IS IT IMPORTANT?

DRIVERS AND PRESSURES HOW IS IT CHANGING?

IMPACTS WHAT ARE WE DOING ABOUT IT?

8 ENERGY 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 8.5 WHY IS IT IMPORTANT?

DRIVERS AND PRESSURES HOW IS IT CHANGING?

IMPACTS WHAT ARE WE DOING ABOUT IT?
9 ENVIRONMENTAL GOVERNANCE 9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4 9.5 9.6 ENVIRONMENTAL PROGRAMMES, PLANS AND PROJECTS UNDER IMPLEMENTATION LIST OF REPORTS/ PUBLICATIONS PROGRESS TOWARDS ACHIEVING DETERMINED ENVIRONMENTAL GOALS IMPLEMENTATION OF LOCAL AND INTERNATIONAL AGREEMENTS STAKEHOLDER COLLABORATION ENVIRONMENTAL REQUESTS 10 APPENDICES 11 REFERENCEES 6 S T A T E O F T H E I E N V R O N M E N T : A N T I G U A A N D B A R B U D A | LIST OF FIGURES Figure 2-1: GHG Emissions by Sector in 2015 for Antigua and Barbuda ................................................................. 32 Figure 2-2: Total aggregate GHG Emissions and Removals by Year and Gas .......................................................... 33 Figure 2-3: GHG Emissions by Year and Sector ............................................................................................................... 34 Figure 2-4: (A) Average Monthly Rainfall by Decades.
Data is for the V.C.

Bird International Airport.

(B) Average Monthly Rainfall for Barbuda.

Data is for the Codrington Station.

............................................................. 35 Figure 2-5: Flood Zones for Antigua .................................................................................................................................. 36 Figure 2-6: Late 21st Century Warming Projections of Category 4 and 5 Hurricanes in the Atlantic Average of 18 CMIP3 Models.

From Bender et al.
(2010) ................................................................................................................. 39 Figure 2-7: Visibility Impacts of the Saharan Dust across Antigua in 2020 ............................................................ 41 Figure 3-1: The annual Influx of Sargassum which can impact coastal economic Activities (Source: DOE, PETI Unit) ............................................................................................................................................................................................. 48 Figure 3-2: Land Use Map, Antigua (Source: Genivar, 2011) ....................................................................................... 50 Figure 3-3: Land Use Map, Barbuda (Source: Genivar, 2011) ..................................................................................... 51 Figure 3-4: Population Density of Antigua and Impact of Sea Level Rise (Source: DOE, DMU, Statistics Division) ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 55 Figure 3-5: Applications for Residential and Commercial Type A and B Developments in Antigua and Barbuda between 2010 and 2020 (Source: DCA).
.......................................................................................................................... 57 Figure 3-6: Location of educational Institutions in Antigua and Barbuda (Source: DMU, DOE) .......................... 58 Figure 3-7: Sports and recreational Facilities in Antigua (Source: DMU, DOE) ........................................................ 59 Figure 3-8: Police and Fire Stations in Antigua (Source: DMU, DOE) ......................................................................... 60 Figure 3-9: Current Location of Emergency Shelters in Antigua (Source: DMU, DOE) ........................................... 61 Figure 3-10: Water Bodies, Storage and Access in Antigua (Source: DMU, DOE, and APUA) ............................. 63 S T A T E O F T H E I E N V R O N M E N T : A N T I G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 Figure 3-11: APUA Water Treatment Plants and Pump Stations in Antigua (Source: DMU, DOE, and APUA) .
63 Figure 3-12: APUA Water Distribution System (Source: DMU, DOE, and APUA) ..................................................... 65 Figure 3-13: Solar Arrays and Panels on Antigua (Source: DMU, DOE, and APUA).
.............................................. 68 Figure 3-14: APUA Electricity Distribution System and Infrastructure (Source: DMU, DOE, and APUA) ............ 70 Figure 3-15: Main Transportation in Antigua (Source: DMU, DOE) ............................................................................ 72 Figure 3-16: Main Transportation in Barbuda (Source: DMU, DOE) ........................................................................... 73 Figure 3-17: Location of Antiguan Hotels (Source: DMU, DOE, Antigua and Barbuda Hotel & Tourism Association) ............................................................................................................................................................................... 76 Figure 3-18: Protected Areas in Antigua (Source: DMU, DOE) .................................................................................... 80 Figure 3-19: Protected Areas in Barbuda (Source: DMU, DOE) ................................................................................... 81 Figure 4-1: Watersheds in Antigua ..................................................................................................................................... 91 Figure 4-2: Water Storage Areas, Wells and Pipes (Source: DMU, DOE) ................................................................... 92 Figure 4-3: Antigua Water Supply Areas (Source: DMU, DOE).
.................................................................................... 93 Figure 4-4: Barbuda Water Supply Areas (Source: DMU, DOE).

.................................................................................. 94 Figure 4-5: Marine Water Quality Sampling Sites in Antigua (DOE, 2020).
............................................................. 97 Figure 5-1: Progress in Removal of the invasive Fever Grass (Cymbopogon citratus) from Body Ponds 2008 vs 2019 .................................................................................................................................................................................... 105 Figure 5-2: Antigua and Barbuda Key Birding Areas (Extracted from Antigua and Barbuda Important Birding Areas Prosper et.

al.
(EAG, 2009) .................................................................................................................................... 108 Figure 5-3: Benthic Assemblages as defined in the 2020 Assessment for Antigua, Barbuda and Redonda 113 Figure 5-4: Coral Reef in Antigua ...................................................................................................................................... 115 Figure 5-5: Area of Wetlands backfilled resulting in Loss of Sediment Control Function (Observer Media Group, 2020) .......................................................................................................................................................................... 118 Figure 5-6: Aichi Biodiversity Targets .............................................................................................................................. 123 Figure 5-7: Redonda Landscape in 2020.
Photo credit Daltry and White .............................................................. 125 Figure 6-1: Historical church St. John’s Cathedral (left), early Arawak pottery (middle), and ancient lava flow (right) (Sources: Antigua and Barbuda Tourism Authority; Murphy n.d.; Murphy n.d.) ......................................... 132 Figure 6-2: Antigua Naval (Nelson’s) Dockyard (Source: Nicola and Dr. Reginald Murphy) ............................... 136 Figure 6-3: Antigua Naval Dockyard and Related Archaeological Sites Protected Area ..................................... 136 Figure 6-4: Darby Cave, Highland House and Martello Tower are three of the popular historical sites on Barbuda (Source: Simply Antigua and Barbuda, Barbudaful websites) .................................................................... 137 Figure 6-5: Traditional and cultural food items in Antigua and Barbuda – from left to right, Ducana, Fungie and Saltfish and Souse (Sources: Sandals, NewsAmericasNow, MangoCobbler websites) .................................. 138 Figure 6-6: Pieces from G Art Gallery and Cultural Centre ......................................................................................... 138 Figure 6-7: The Arch at Half Moon Bay (left); Cave at Half Moon Bay (middle); The Pillars of Hercules (right) (Source: Murphy, n.d. (left, middle), N. Hollands (right)) .............................................................................................. 139 Figure 6-8: Antigua Dance Academy (left); Carnival in Antigua and Barbuda (right) (Source: Antigua and Barbuda Tourism Authority (left); Caribbean and Co (right)).
...................................................................................... 139 8 Figure 7-1: UK Visitor Arrivals to Antigua (2013–2019) ............................................................................................ 148 Figure 7-2: Antigua and Barbuda Beaches Change in Profile Area and Width 2009–2015 (Ministry of Agriculture) .............................................................................................................................................................................. 149 Figure 7-3: Population in Antigua and Barbuda (2005–2019) ................................................................................. 150 Figure 7-4: Population Pyramids, 1991, 2001, 2011.
(Source 2011 Population and Housing Census) ....... 151 Figure 7-5: Visitor Expenditure .......................................................................................................................................... 153 Figure 7-6: Contribution of Agriculture to GDP ............................................................................................................. 154 Figure 7-7: Current Health Expenditure (% of GDP) – Antigua and Barbuda (Source: World Health Organization Global Health Expenditure Database) ...................................................................................................... 155 Figure 7-8: Life Expectancy in Antigua and Barbuda from 2000–2017 ................................................................. 156 Figure 7-9: Crude Death Rate per 1,000 Persons (www.data.worldbank.org) ...................................................... 156 Figure 7-10: Antigua and Barbuda’s Infant Mortality Rate (2000–2019) .............................................................. 157 Figure 7-11: Number of homes inspected from 2012 to 2020 for Breeding Habitats (Source: Ministry of Health, 2021) .......................................................................................................................................................................... 158 Figure 7-12: Persons trained in Food Safety, 2011 ..................................................................................................... 165 Figure 8-1: Population Density Caribbean Countries (Source: Population and Housing Census 2011) ......... 169 Figure 8-2: Electricity Consumption by Sector (2010).
Source: IRENA (2016) ...................................................... 169 Figure 8-3: Electricity Generation figures from the main Power Plants (2012–2019).

Data missing for 2015– 2016 (Source: DOE).


............................................................................................................................................................. 170 Figure 8-4: Quantity of Sales in Barrels of Oil (bbls) for WIOC (Source: DOE) ....................................................... 171 Figure 8-5: WIOC Product Purchases in Barrels (bbls) 2016–2019.
Source: DOE ............................................... 173 Figure 8-6: Fuel Imports as a Share of GDP.

(Source: Inter-American Bank, 2015) ............................................. 174 Figure 8-7: Imported New and Used Cars (2017–2019).
(Source: Customs) ........................................................ 175 Figure 8-8: Domestic Electricity Rates showing Antigua and Barbuda amongst the highest Prices for Electricity (World Bank, 2012) ............................................................................................................................................ 175 Figure 8-9: New distributed-scale PV installed Capacity in Antigua and Barbuda (2010–2015).
(Source: IRENA, 2016) .......................................................................................................................................................................... 177 S T A T E O F T H E I E N V R O N M E N T : A N T I G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 9 LIST OF TABLES Table 2-1: Hurricanes that have affected Antigua and Barbuda, 1998–2019 Table 3-1: Change in Agricultural Land Use (Source: Lewis, 2015) Table 3-2: Population Density by Parish for Antigua and Barbuda (Source: Statistics Division) Table 3-3: Water Plants in Antigua and Barbuda Table 3-4: Protected Areas in Antigua and Barbuda Table 5-1: Showing the Change in Forest Cover on Antigua 2015–2019 Table 5-2: Plants observed in Antigua, Barbuda and Redonda Table 5-3: Birds observed in Antigua Barbuda and Redonda Table 5-4: Antigua and Barbuda Bat List Table 5-5: Data produced from 2020 Benthic Assessment for Antigua and Barbuda 38 53 54 64 82 107 107 109 110 112 Table 5-6: Antigua and Redonda Reef Health Data Comparison 2016 islandwide Study and 3 site-specific Studies (NEMMA, NDNP and Redonda) 115 Table 6-1: Key Historical Sites and Assets in Antigua, Barbuda and Redonda Table 7-1: Total Number of Deaths recorded for 2012 Table 8-1: Current Fleet of Vehicles for 2020 Table 8-2: Power Generation Capacity in Antigua Table 8-3: 2016–2019 Sales to APUA (in barrels) Table 9-1: List of the Projects being implemented under the different Programmatic Areas Table 9-2: List of Reports and Publications prepared by the DOE over the
 Period 2016–2020 Table 9-3: Progress towards Meeting Sustainable Development Goals 13 and 15 Table 9-4: Progress on Meeting the Aichi Biodiversity Targets Table 9-5: Actions taken to implement relevant international Agreements and local Legislation Table 9-6: List of Collaborations of Relevance to the Environment over the Period 2019 to 2021 134 152 171 172 174 184 190 192 200 206 208 Table 9-7: List of all Requests for environmental Information from the DOE over the Period 2016–2020.
211 Table 9-8: List of Map Requests made and fulfilled for the Period January 2020 to April 2021 Table 9-9: List of Map Requests made and fulfilled for the Period January 2021 to April 2021 213 232 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS ABST AGRRA APUA bbls BUR CAEP CARDI Antigua and Barbuda Sales Tax Atlantic Gulf Rapid Reed Assessment Antigua & Barbuda Public Utilities Authority Barrels of oil Biennial Update Report Climate Action Enhancement Package Caribbean Agricultural Research and Development Institute CARIFESTA Caribbean Festival of Arts CBD CBH CBIT Convention on Biological Diversity Central Board of Health Capacity Building Initiative for Transparency CCCCC Caribbean Community Climate Change Centre CCCD Cross-Cutting Capacity Development CDEMA Caribbean Disaster Emergency Management Agency CDM CITES COP CSA DAS DCA DLDD DOE DMU DPSIR DTU EAG EDA EIA EIMAS EPMA ESMP FAO FOLU GBF GCF GCM Comprehensive Disaster Management Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species Conference of the Parties Critical Situational Analysis Department of Analytical Services Development Control Authority Desertification, Land Degradation and Drought Department of Environment Data Management Unit Drivers, Pressures, State, Impact and Response Technical University of Denmark Environmental Awareness Group Enhanced Direct Access Environmental Impact Assessments Environmental Information Management and Advisory System Environmental Protection and Management Act Environmental and Social Management Plan Food and Agriculture
 Organization Forestry and Other Land Use Global Biodiversity Framework Green Climate Fund Global Climate Model GCRMN GDP Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network Gross Domestic Product Brown Pelican Photo by: Michael Kevin Simon S T A T E O F T H E I E N V R O N M E N T : A N T I G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 GEF GEF-SGP GgCO2 GHG GIS GOAB HFC HFO IAS IBA ICAT IICA INDC IPCC IPPU IRENA IUCN Global Environment Facility Global Environment Facility/Small Grants Programme Total Greenhouse Gas Emissions
 Greenhouse Gas Geographic Information System Government of Antigua and Barbuda Hydrofluorocarbons Heavy Fuel Oil Invasive Alien Species Important Birding Areas International Centre for Automotive Technology Inter-American Institute for Cooperation on Agriculture Intended Nationally Determined Contributions Inter- governmental Panel on Climate Change Industrial Processes and Product Use International Renewable Energy Agency International Union for Conservation of Nature IWEco Project Integrating Water, Land and Ecosystems Management in Caribbean Small Island Developing States Project IWM KBA Kha LAP LBS Integrated Watershed Management Key Biodiversity Area Kilo hectares Local Area Plans Land-based Sources LDN TSP Land Degradation Neutrality – Target Setting Programme LEED LNG LPG LULUCF MAHLE MEAS Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design Liquefied Natural Gas Liquefied petroleum gas Land Use, Land-Use Change and Forestry Ministry of Agriculture, Health, Land and Environment Multilateral Environmental Agreements MoAFBA Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Barbuda Affairs MRV MTDS MW NAP NBSAP NDC NDMP NEIS Monitoring, Reporting and Verification Medium-Term Development Strategy Megawatt National Adaptation Plan National Biodiversity and Strategic Action Plan Nationally Determined Contribution National Disaster Management Plan National Environmental Data and Information System NEMMA North East Marine Management Area Sunset from Shirley Heights, Antigua Photo by: Neil Corder 12 S T A T E O F T H E I E N V R O N M E N T : A N T I G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 NEMS NISSAP NMVOC NSDPs N2O NODS NPA NPDP NRI National Environmental Management Strategy National Invasive Species Strategy and Action Plan Non-methane Volatile Organic Compounds National Sustainable Development Plans Nitrous Oxide National Office of Disaster Services National Parks Authority National Physical Development Plan Natural Resources Inventory NSWMA National Solid Waste Management Authority
 OECD OECS PASP PISLM PM PMU PPA PTCCB PV RCM SCCF SDD SIDS SIRF Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development Organization of Eastern Caribbean States Protected Area System Plan Partnership Initiative on Sustainable Land Management Particulate Matter Project Management Unit Physical Planning Act Pesticides and Toxic Chemicals Control Board Photovoltaic Regional Climate Model Special Climate Change Fund Sustainable Development Dimension Small Island Developing States Sustainable Island Resource Framework Fund SIRMZP Sustainable Island Resource Management Zoning Plan SLM SOE SMMA SPPARE TNA TNC UNCBD UNCCD UNDP UNEP UNESCO UNFCCC WHO WIOC Sustainable Land Management State of Environment Shekerley Mountain Management Area Sustainable Pathways for Protected Areas Renewable Energy Technical Needs Assessment Third National Communication United Nations Convention on Biodiversity United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification United Nations Development Programme United Nations Environment Programme United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change World Health Organization West Indies Oil Company St. John’s Cathedral, Antigua Photo by: Paul McClure 13 FOREWORD In 2019, when the Government of Antigua and Barbuda passed the Environmental Protection and Management Act, the Department of Environment (DOE) was tasked with the responsibility of bringing a number of goals into realization.
One of these tasks was the elaboration of the State of the Environment Report, also known as the SOE Report.

The SOE Report accomplishes several things: • • • It establishes a marker, an environmental baseline that allows anyone desirous of knowing what the current situation of environment and natural resources are in Antigua and Barbuda to have up to date and relevant information on local environmental issues.
It catalogues all of our knowledge as well as identifies the gaps that exist in that knowledge for effective environmental management of Antigua and Barbuda going forward.

Through the DPSIR (Drivers, Pressures, State, Impact and Response) Framework, the SOE Report is presented through a simple but interactive lens which allows all stakeholders to better understand how we human beings and our institutions rely on and interact with the environment.
The SOE Report is expected to be used by anyone interested in Antigua and Barbuda.

From students and researchers to investors and community leaders; from those with casual interests in environmental trivia to those committed to implementing effective environmental policy.

There should be something in this document for all stakeholders.

On behalf of the DOE, I wish to thank all those persons and agencies that contributed to this report, as well as those who assisted in the public review of the SOE.
Your contribution is greatly appreciated, especially considering that this was accomplished under the restrictions of the COVID-19 pandemic.

I would also like to acknowledge our funders, the Global Environment Facility (GEF) and our implementing partner, the United Nations Development Programme.
Going forward, the DOE will ensure not only full access to this document through its website but will also ensure that the Monitoring, Evaluation and Data Management Unit (DMU) within the DOE establishes a digital portal through which the SOE can be updated in real time.

Additionally, the DMU will be publishing an annual bulletin/brief to capture the updates to the SOE Report.

This will be released in September of each year starting in 2022.
The comprehensive report will be published every 2-5 years based on the availability of resources.

Ladies and gentlemen, students, residents, visitors and friends, welcome to the 2021 State of the Environment Report for Antigua and Barbuda.
S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 Director Department of Environment Ministry of Health, Wellness and the Environment 14 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY A State of Environment (SOE) Report provides information about environmental and social conditions, trends and pressures for the country, and the surrounding seas.

This SOE Report is a requirement of the Environmental Protection and Management Act, 2019 under Part X, Section 89.
This first SOE Report has been prepared under the “Monitoring and Assessment of Multilateral Environmental Agreements Implementation and Environmental Trends in Antigua and Barbuda” project funded by the Global Environment Facility (GEF) under the Cross-Cutting Capacity Development (CCCD) focal area.

The CCCD project is being implemented by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and executed by the Department of Environment (DOE).
The term “environment” is used holistically to include biophysical, social, and economic indicators.

The report uses state and trend indicators to evaluate how these “state” conditions impact not only the environment, but also the economy and the livelihoods of a country’s citizens.
This 2021 State of Environment Report has been organized according to seven thematic areas: Climate Change and Atmosphere; Land Use; Water; Biodiversity; Culture and Heritage; Cross-Sectoral Areas (which cover Tourism, Health and Food Security); and Energy.

The approach involved extensive document review and stakeholder consultations.

The report follows the DPSIR (Drivers, Pressures, State, Impact and Response) Framework as the methodology for reporting on the environment.
Each of the themed sections in the report provides an overview of the existing state, trends, drivers and pressures, and the actions undertaken over time to protect, restore and enhance the environment.

The following subsections describe the summary of the main thematic areas from within the report.
CLIMATE CHANGE AND ATMOSPHERE The islands in the Eastern Caribbean, including Antigua and Barbuda, are highly vulnerable to climate- related hazards including hurricanes and tropical storms, excessive rainfall resulting in flooding, droughts, dry spells, and heatwaves.

Climate change (CC) is exacerbating these hazards.


The increase in greenhouse gas emissions which have 15 S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 resulted in global warming and climate change has largely been driven by human activities.

Antigua and Barbuda contribute very little to global Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emissions.

Despite this, the country’s largest contributors are from the energy sector followed by land use and waste.
There is general consensus under the different climate scenarios and models that the following is expected for Antigua and Barbuda from the 2020s through to the End of the Century: ► Annual mean temperature increase ► Increase in the frequency of warm nights and days and a decrease in cool days and cool nights ► Reduction in annual rainfall suggesting drier conditions ► Likely increase in hurricane intensity in north tropical Atlantic (as indicated by stronger peak winds and more rainfall), but not necessarily hurricane frequency ► Increase in Caribbean Sea levels.
The country has already started to experience these changing weather patterns, and they have had significant negative impacts.

Climate change is a cross-cutting issue and therefore it cannot be ignored.

Hurricanes Irma and Maria in 2017 resulted in significant destruction of physical assets.

Slower onset hazards, such as drought, can also wreak significant and long-term damage to the country’s economy and natural and physical environment.
Despite this knowledge, the economic impact of climate change and its related events (including the slow onset hazards) are not currently being recorded.

With this knowledge and understanding of the impacts of climate change, Antigua and Barbuda, as a signatory to the Paris Agreement, submitted its first Intended Nationally Determined Contributions (INDC) in 2015.
The new Nationally Determined Contributions (NDC) include targets and a pathway for reducing fossil fuel dependency, creating a circular economy, building resilience in the financial sector, and creating sustainable financial flows for investing in climate adaptation and mitigation.

LAND USE Land use is the sequence of operations carried out with the purpose to obtain goods and services from the land.
A number of human activities such as agriculture (mainly through the use of pesticides and insecticides), mining, industry, infrastructure development and urbanization often result in abrupt and unplanned changes in the use of the land.

This can lead to a change in both the quality and quantity of water available to ensure the continued sustainability of ecosystems and living organisms.
Economic activities also use significant volumes of water which can put a strain on water resources, thus threatening marine life and reducing the amount of water available for agricultural and other purposes.

It is also important to manage the extraction of natural resources (e.g., sand, fish, etc.)

so that they can be replenished and not extracted unsustainably.
Land use management in Antigua, Barbuda and Redonda is currently managed through the Physical Planning Act (2003), the Environmental Protection and Management Act (2019), the National Physical Development Plan (NPDP) known as the Sustainable Island Resource Management Zoning Plan (SIRMZP), and the National Environment Management Strategy (NEMS).
The most significant land uses as identified for focus in this State of the Environment Report for Antigua and Barbuda are agriculture, housing and settlement, public utilities, coastal developments, mining and extraction, and environmental protection.

Developmental growth affects land use management directly (e.g., land space for a tourism development) as well as through supporting uses (e.g., housing for tourism workers).
As a result of the negative impacts, several plans, policies and regulations have been put in place to monitor and manage land use in Antigua and Barbuda.

16 S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 WATER Water resources, specifically freshwater resources, refer to all the water that is collected in streams, rivers, ponds, lakes, reservoirs, wetlands and underground caverns and aquifers (excluding brackish and sea water).
These resources are replenished through the water cycle.

For Antigua and Barbuda, the primary freshwater resources include rainwater, surface water, and groundwater (from wells and springs).

The demand for water often exceeds the supply potential of the natural freshwater resource, i.e., surface-water catchments and groundwater wells.

As such, Antigua and Barbuda utilizes the process of desalination, applied through Reverse Osmosis (RO) plants, to meet the additional demands for freshwater.
In Antigua and Barbuda, there is a growing demand on freshwater resources caused by a growing population, which, in turn, contributes to changing patterns in the use and demand for freshwater, and an increased demand for food production.

This is compounded by the impacts of climate change, resulting in changing rainfall patterns, extended periods of droughts, and increased intensity and severity of storms, which, in turn, affect the country’s ability to manage its freshwater resources sustainably.
Climate change and the growing demands on water have resulted in a reduction in environmental water, an increased reliance on desalination and an increased risk of saline intrusion in groundwater sources.

Poor surface water capture has also been occurring because of changes to the watershed.
The destruction of watersheds has resulted in the DOE embarking on several projects aimed at improving the management of watersheds and waterways, including a National Drainage Code, and Local Area Adaptation Plans to improve climate resilience.

Among other things, a National Integrated Watershed Management Policy is also to be developed which would guide operations around watersheds and the associated surface catchments.
BIODIVERSITY Biodiversity is the variability among living organisms from all sources, including terrestrial, marine, and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are a part.

It underpins all life and is important to the health of mankind.

Natural biological systems are intertwined with food systems, recreation and wellness and therefore with human health.

The biodiversity in Antigua and Barbuda is an important catalyst for economic growth.
The country’s main economic activity is the tourism industry, and its biodiversity contributes significantly to the attractiveness and quality of Antigua and Barbuda as a destination, and therefore to the competitiveness of the country’s tourism product.
The country’s tourism marketing tools feature biodiversity heavily: for example, clean coastal water and pristine beaches, vibrant underwater ecology and life, and naturally vegetated landscapes are ecosystem services that contribute to destination attractiveness.

However, Antigua and Barbuda’s biodiversity and ecosystems are vulnerable to natural and anthropogenic changes.
Historically, the biodiversity of Antigua has been impacted by the sugar and cotton industries and more recently, by tourism developments.

The country is also vulnerable to natural hazards such as tropical cyclones, drought and earthquakes.

These have all led to significant losses of biodiversity on the islands.

An ecosystem’s resilience is essential to mitigating the impacts of biodiversity loss while sustaining human, economic, social and cultural activities.
Biodiversity and ecosystems in Antigua and Barbuda are delicately balanced and provide a variety of goods and services.

Robust resilient ecosystems which have a high biodiversity help build resilience to pressures.

Antigua and Barbuda is committed to sustainable development and therefore sustainable utilization of its biodiversity.
The country has enacted several national laws and signed international treaties as part of its 17 S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 commitment to manage, protect and build resilience to mitigative biodiversity loss and ecosystem change.

As a consequence, goals and targets have been set and regular monitoring is critical.
In its 6th National Report to the Convention on Biodiversity in Antigua and Barbuda, presented in 2020, the country outlined its achievements in the management and protection of biodiversity.

The measures include a variety of legislative, policy and collaborative management tools across government, private sector and communities.

CULTURE AND HERITAGE Culture and heritage represent a country’s source of solidarity, inclusion, progress and pride.
A series of emerging challenges (e.g., globalization, climate change and migration, human displacement) impacts a nation’s culture, and their response to these challenges can either be a solution or will exacerbate the problem.
There is therefore a need to maintain traditional and cultural values which will support generations to cope with natural disasters (through community knowledge, strong societal organization, and informal training), as well as support and preserve nature and its biodiversity towards adopting healthier ways of life.
Several historical and cultural artefacts have been physically and negatively impacted either in part (damage) or wholly (complete loss) by a number of factors including loss of cultural artefacts through removal by locals and visitors, as well as damage to the structure of sites and landscapes from humans or climate-related events.

Heritage sites and assets are also impacted by development (e.g., the hotel development which reduced the accessible space in the Devil’s Ridge area).
Mitigation for this would require a more accurate and comprehensive heritage database for informed decision-making, and improved legislation.

The COVID-19 pandemic has had negative impacts on Antigua and Barbuda’s culture and heritage.

An overall economic decline has forced the government to prioritize resources for short-term compensation of loss of revenue, rather than longer-term protection or conservation activities.
There have also been positive impacts for Antigua and Barbuda’s culture and heritage, such as the increase in local visitors exploring heritage sites, the development of the face mask business, and a rise in use (and capacity building) of online platforms for cultural events.
Longer term negative impacts take the form of incremental loss of unique cultural identity and traditional knowledge (skills, medicine, and culture) and lack of available resources (budget, incentives, data, personnel) which impact the conservation of heritage values.
The Government is taking steps and actions to mitigate the impacts identified above, and preserve their culture and heritage, for example, the draft Cultural Heritage (Protection) Bill (2016), the National Parks Development and Management Plan, the recently approved new Environmental Protection and Management Act, 2019, the forthcoming new ‘Heritage Act’, the ‘Physical Planning Act’ (2003), and the ‘Land Use or Physical Development Plan for Antigua and Barbuda’.
Several Multilateral Environmental Agreements (MEAS) ratified by Antigua and Barbuda provide significant guidance, financial and technical assistance and other advantages in relation to culture and heritage.

The Government is also making a push for sustainable and local tourism products, which support the principles of culture and heritage preservation.

There are also several institutional actions to support culture and heritage.
CROSS-SECTORAL AREAS The cross-sectoral areas considered are tourism, food security and health.

Tourism is the main driver of growth in Antigua and Barbuda accounting for over 60% of the country’s gross domestic product (GDP).

It is heavily dependent on its natural resources.

Therefore, the quality and availability of these natural resources are considered drivers of the tourism industry.
Tourism can also exert significant pressure on natural resources and the environment which leads to various impacts such as exceeding carrying capacities.

18 S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 The impacts of tourism and its activities include coastal erosion, damage to coastal and marine habitats through solid and liquid waste discharges causing terrestrial and marine pollution.
The industry also generates a significant amount of solid and liquid waste and utilizes a lot of chemicals and pesticides in its operation, all of which can have a negative impact on the environment when not disposed of properly.

Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions are also generated by the industry.
The government of Antigua and Barbuda has responded to some of the tourism challenges through the implementation of policies, plans and initiatives to mitigate the negative effect of tourism operations on the environment and the local community.

One such program is the Green Tourism Initiative and the Community Empowerment Programme, which focused on women-based enterprises and Environmental Training and Business Development.
The Sustainable Tourism Master Plan is also in place though considered to be outdated (2007).

A Green Corridor was also established in 2017 which stretches along the south-west coast from the village of Bolans to the village of John Hughes in Antigua.

Food Security exists when all people, at all times, have physical and economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food that meets their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life.
Antigua and Barbuda’s agricultural sector is characterized by small holdings, short-term leases and backyard farming.

However, population growth and tourism are major drivers of food security.

An increase in the demand for food production also leads to an increased water demand.

Water availability is a key driver/pressure with regards to food security.

Water supply and other challenges faced by the sector often lead to an increase in the price of produce because of the high demand and the low supply.
The agriculture sector results in marine pollution, reduction in natural vegetation cover, and emits all three ‘major/significant’ greenhouse gases.

As a result of the challenges faced with the health and nutrition of the Antiguan and Barbudan population, the government has embarked on the creation of policies and programmes to achieve sustainable food and nutrition security to contribute to national socio-economic development effectively.
The goal is also to eliminate all forms of malnutrition in order to have a well-nourished and healthy population that can fulfil its aspirations of good health and economic well-being.

The Antigua and Barbuda Food and Security Policy 2012 is one of the governing policies for the country’s food security.

This policy has been successful in promoting increased food availability, accessibility and nutritional goals for the Antigua and Barbuda population.
The health sector is responsible for the well-being of local and visitor populations.

Health centres are responsible for delivering primary healthcare, and are located within a 3km radius of each major settlement.

However, it can have negative impacts on the environment.

The improper disposal of biohazardous medical waste generated by hospitals and clinics has the potential to cause harm to marine and terrestrial ecosystems.
The health sector has developed a series of plans, policies and initiatives to support a healthy and safe environment for the population.

Some of the policies and plans that the Ministry of Health has implemented include the Quarantine Act, 2020, National Strategic Plan for Health 2015-2020, Public Health Act, 2020, Food Safety Act, 2017 and National Policy and Action Plan for Prevention and Control of NCDs 2016.
ENERGY Energy is crucial for driving the economy of a country, as it supports industry and trade, but it is also needed for just about everything in our homes and daily lives.

Antigua and Barbuda relies very heavily on fossil fuels to generate electricity.

The power generation for the current power system in Antigua comes mainly from three main power plants which use a total of fourteen generators running on Heavy Fuel Oil (HFO).
Prior to Hurricane Irma in 2017, Barbuda’s power system consisted of solely diesel generation with a capacity of 2.15 MW (1.35 MW running and 0.8 MW backup).

The hurricane destroyed the entire power system of Barbuda, including overhead lines, diesel generators and the majority of the power poles of the island.

Approximately 3.5% of the electricity share comes from renewables.
The current renewable energy capacity consists of a 3 MW PV system installed at the airport, the 4 MW Bethesda solar PV array and 2 MW of distributed solar PV.

19 Energy production and consumption are driven by the Energy Sector (Electricity Generation, Desalination and Backup power generators) and the Transportation Sector.

Changes in the demand, consumption, and production of energy have resulted in: ► High electricity costs which have significant socio-economic impacts.
Increased electricity costs add to the increase in the cost of living which can have negative socio-economic impacts; ► Increased economic vulnerability due to fluctuating oil prices; ► Increased greenhouse gas emissions which result due to an increase in the usage of fossil fuels.

These are major drivers for climate change.


In recognizing the need to mitigate the impact of oil price changes on the economy, which is beyond their control, Antigua and Barbuda has intensified its efforts towards obtaining energy security.

It has been working towards diversification of its energy mix by investing in renewable energy technologies and liquefied natural gas (LNG) projects.
It has waived duties and environmental levies to allow for an increase in the importation of electric cars and other items such as solar panels and solar water heaters.

It has also been implementing policy and legislative changes, such as the Paris Agreement.
S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 20 COUNTRY BRIEF 21 S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 22 S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 INTRODUCTION West Indian Whistling Duck Photo by: Nick Hollands 23 S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 1 INTRODUCTION This report presents the first State of Environment (SOE) Report for Antigua and Barbuda.
It is a national report with the following primary objectives: 01 02 03 Report on the existing condition of the environment Identify and discuss the main factors that have resulted in environmental changes as well as challenges Compile critical data and information that can be used to guide sustainable development and policymaking The preparation of this SOE report is a requirement of the Environmental Protection and Management Act, 2019 under Part X, Section 89.
This first SOE report has been prepared under the “Monitoring and Assessment of Multilateral Environmental Agreements Implementation and Environmental Trends in Antigua and Barbuda” project funded by the Global Environment Facility (GEF) under the Cross-Cutting Capacity Development (CCCD) focal area.

The CCCD project is being implemented by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and executed by the Department of Environment (DOE).
The CCCD is an overarching project with an objective to improve the capacity of the islands’ government agencies and other key stakeholders in collecting and managing environmental data.

This data will in turn support the development and execution of environmental policies and legislation, thereby providing the necessary tools for informed decision-making.
As part of the CCCD Project, a National Environmental Data and Information System (NEIS) is also being developed and the SOE Report includes some initial reports on it.

A State of Environment Report provides information about environmental and social conditions, trends and pressures for the country, and the surrounding seas.

The report uses state and trend indicators to evaluate how these “state” conditions impact not only the environment, but also the economy and the livelihoods of a country’s citizens.
The term “environment” is used holistically to include biophysical, social, and economic indicators.

The SOE reporting process is useful for effective environmental and sustainable development planning by examining the current condition of environmental indicators influenced by national, regional, and global pressures.
The SOE report can be used in the following ways: ► National Environment Sector Planning: Integrate findings into National Environmental Management Strategies (NEMS) and National Sustainable Development Plans (NSDPs).
The SOE Report identifies gaps and priorities that can be included into National Environmental Management Strategies (NEMS) and National Sustainable Development Plans (NSDPs); ► Multilateral Environmental Agreement Reporting: Report international obligations under the United Nations environmental conventions; ► Project Identification: Serve as a foundation for project development using gaps identified; ► Cross-Sector Collaboration: Identify opportunities for interagency collaboration; ► Sustainable Development Goals Reporting: Serve as an information source in national reporting by different interest groups.
24 This 2021 State of Environment Report has been organized according to seven thematic areas: Climate Change and Atmosphere; Land Use; Water; Biodiversity; Culture and Heritage; Cross-Sectoral Areas (to include Health, Food Security, and Tourism); and Energy.

Each thematic area has several sub-themes.

The approach involved extensive document review and stakeholder consultations.
Each of the themed sections in the report provides an overview of the existing state, trends, drivers and pressures and the actions undertaken over time to protect, restore and enhance the environment.

The report follows the DPSIR (Drivers, Pressures, State, Impact and Response) Framework as the methodology for reporting on the environment: ► DRIVERS This refers to a need.

Examples of drivers include population growth, economic development, and energy.
► PRESSURES Drivers/ driving forces lead to human activities which exert ‘pressures’ on the environment resulting in excessive use of resources, change in land use and emissions.

► STATE As a result of pressures, the ‘state’ of the environment is affected.

It refers to the quality of the various environmental compartments.

► IMPACT Changes in the state of the environment determine the quality of ecosystems and the welfare of human beings.
► RESPONSE As a result of an undesired impact, society or policy makers have a ‘response’.

An example of this could be legislation or regulations.

Environmental indicators were used to report on the state and trends in each thematic area.

These indicators help to track changes in the environment by selecting key measures that provide useful information about the whole system.
The indicators selected were based on the availability of data, the existence of an established method of monitoring, and the ability to be readily interpretable, scientifically credible, and internationally relevant.

The indicators used throughout the report are presented below by thematic area.
S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 25 S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 1.1 ENVIRONMENTAL INDICATORS CLIMATE CHANGE ENERGY 26 S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 LAND USE BIODIVERSITY 27 S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 WATER CULTURE AND HERITAGE 28 CROSS-SECTORAL Tourism Food Security Health S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 The report also includes a list of all environmental programmes, plans and projects, a list of reports and publications prepared by the Department of Environment (DOE) during the past two years, the requests for environmental information from the DOE and the number granted in part and in full, and a list on all the actions taken to implement legal obligations under national laws and international agreements.
29 S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 CLIMATE CHANGE AND ATMOSPHERE Potworks Dam in Antigua almost devoid of water Photo by: The Department of Environment, Antigua 30 2 CLIMATE CHANGE AND ATMOSPHERE 2.1 WHY IS IT IMPORTANT?

Climate change is a global issue as every region’s actions affect the other.
It is caused by changes in natural forcing factors, such as solar radiation or volcanic aerosols, or to changes in man-made forcing factors, such as increasing concentrations of greenhouse gases or sulphate aerosols1.

These changes result in increased temperatures, change in rainfall patterns, increased sea surface temperatures, sea level rise, and so on.

Future climate-related risks depend on the rate, peak and duration of warming.
Some impacts may be long-lasting or irreversible, such as the loss of some ecosystems.

Small Island Developing States (SIDS), such as Antigua and Barbuda, are expected to be most affected by the impacts of climate change.

Increased warming amplifies small islands’ exposure with low-lying coastal areas.

It also increases risks associated with sea level rise for many human and ecological systems, including increased saltwater intrusion, flooding and damage to infrastructure.
In 2018, the Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5°C1 highlighted the urgent need to limit global warming to 1.5 degrees to minimize climate change’s catastrophic effects.

Climate-related risks to health, livelihoods, food security, water supply, human security, and economic growth are projected to increase with global warming of 1.5°C and increase further with 2°C.

In order to achieve this reduction, carbon emissions would have to fall by a massive 45 percent (from 2010 levels) by 2030.
This reduction must continue in order to achieve net zero emissions by mid-century.
There is general consensus under the different climate scenarios and models that it is likely that from the 2020s through to the end of the century, Antigua and Barbuda will experience the following climate impacts: ► Annual mean temperature increase ► Increase in the frequency of warm nights and days and a decrease in cool days and cool nights ► Reduction in annual rainfall suggesting drier conditions ► Likely increase in hurricane intensity in north tropical Atlantic (as indicated by stronger peak winds and more rainfall), but not necessarily hurricane frequency Increase in Caribbean Sea surface temperatures and levels.
2, 3 The country has S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | CLIMATE CHANGE is caused by changes in both natural and 2 0 man-made forcing factors, resulting in 2 1 increased temperatures, change in rainfall patterns, increased sea surface temperatures, sea level rise, etc.
already started to experience these effects which have had significant negative 31 S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 economic and social impacts.4 Slower onset hazards, such as drought, have also caused significant and long-term damage to the country’s economy and natural and physical environment.
In order for Antigua and Barbuda to increase its resilience to climate change and other natural hazards, there has to be a focus on climate change adaptation and mitigation.

2.2 DRIVERS AND PRESSURES The increase in greenhouse gas emissions, which has resulted in global warming and climate change, has largely been driven by human activities.

Antigua and Barbuda, however, contributes very little (less than 0.002%) to global Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emissions, similar to other SIDS.
Despite this, the country’s largest contributors are from the energy sector followed by land use and waste (Figure 2-1).

The DOE is presently preparing a GHG inventory for the period 2016–2019.
1 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% Figure 2-1: GHG Emissions by Sector in 2015 for Antigua and Barbuda5 Energy IPPU Agriculture LULUCF Waste Energy Sector The energy sector is the largest contributor to GHG emissions because of its heavy reliance on fossil fuels and accounted for 73% of the total GHG emissions in 2015.6 The country imports 100% of its petroleum-based products which are used at the country’s power plants, desalination plants, and for the transportation sector.
The transportation sector in Antigua and Barbuda is also dominated by fossil fuels, mainly gasoline and diesel- powered vehicles.

As a result of the country’s commitment to the Paris Agreement through its Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs), this is expected to change significantly by 2030.

Land Use Land use is a major contributor to emissions largely due to the conversion of lands.

When vegetation is cut down, the carbon that is stored in it is released into the atmosphere.
Most of the island’s original forests were cleared and converted to sugar plantations during the early colonizing years.

In 1990, it was estimated that there was 13.45 kilo hectares (kha) of forest cover, while in 2010, the forest cover was 8.7kha6.

There is estimated to be an average 4% reduction in annual forest cover.

Land use change accounted for almost 20% of the GHG emissions in 2015.
Waste Data from 2015 shows that the emissions generated from the waste sector are largely as a result of open burning of waste and the biological treatment of solid waste.

The primary emission gases are CO2, N2O, and CH4.

Open burning tends to generate primarily CO2 and the biological treatment of solid waste generates CH4.

6 32 S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 2.3 HOW IS IT CHANGING?
Figure 2-2 illustrates that in Antigua and Barbuda there has been an overall increase in emissions between the period 1990 and 2006.i Figure 2-2: Total aggregate GHG Emissions and Removals by Year and Gas6 In 2015, the national GHG emissions were as follows: ► Carbon Dioxide (CO2): 844.28 Gg,ii ► Methane (CH4): 1.517 Gg, ► Nitrous Oxide (N2O): 0.049 Gg, ► Non-methane volatile organic compounds (NMVOC): 0.035 Gg, ► Hydrofluorocarbons (HFC): 6.051 Gg.

The overall uncertainty of the inventory is 39.6%.


In 2006, the carbon dioxide emissions were approximately 101Gg higher.

For the 2015 data, the energy sector accounted for 648.76 GgCO2 using the sectoral approach (based on consumption/sales) and 726 GgCO2 using the reference approach (based on importation data).6 This is the largest contribution to emissions which is from fuel combustion for the production of electricity followed by land use, land- use change and forestry (LULUCF).
As is further explained in Section 8, Antigua and Barbuda imports 100% of its petroleum requirements.

Between 2006 and 2015, the total CO2 emissions did not change significantly suggesting stability in energy consumption.

BETWEEN 2000 AND 2006, GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSIONS ALMOST DOUBLED, BUT HAVE DECREASED BETWEEN 2006 AND 2015. i It is important to note though, that discrepancies in the methodologies for the calculations of emissions make it difficult to allow for true comparisons from year to year.
ii gigagrams=109 grams, 33 S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 Figure 2-3: GHG Emissions by Year and Sector6 This information suggests that if appropriate climate actions are implemented targeting these two sectors (LULUCF and Energy), the country will be able to achieve a reduction in emissions.

The newly published NDCs are anticipated to result in a reduction of emissions due to a transition to more renewable energy in the energy mix.
These new NDCs include targets and a pathway for reducing fossil fuel dependency, creating a circular economy, building resilience in the financial sector, and creating sustainable financial flows for investing in climate adaptation and mitigation.

CLIMATE CHANGE AND VARIABILITY Rainfall- A bi-modal rainfall pattern is evident for most of the stations in Antigua, with peaks in May and October.
The seasons over Antigua may be described as early dry (January–March), early wet (April–June) and late wet (July– December).

This is very evident in the data for the1970s and 1980s.

For Antigua, records for the 1990s and 2000s periods show a shift in the rainfall peaks, with two peaks occurring between August and November though still exhibiting a bi-modal distribution.

For Codrington, Barbuda records show a single peak in average monthly rainfall around October.
Codrington in Barbuda exhibits a single rainfall season July to December2 (Figure 2-4).

TOTAL ANNUAL MAXIMUM DAILY RAINFALL REMAINS CONSTANT WHILE THE MAXIMUM 5-DAY RAINFALL IS PROJECTED TO DECREASE BY UP TO 5MM.

THE PRECIS RCM, HOWEVER, SUGGESTS LESS INTENSE RAINFALL, BUT SLIGHTLY LONGER PERIODS OF RAIN.
34 S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 Antigua and Barbuda’s climate projections have been obtained from the outputs of a suite of global climate models (GCMs)iii, from regional climate models (RCMs)iv, and from the use of statistical downscaling techniques.

The GCM projections suggest a decrease in annual total rainfall that falls in heavy events, changing by −19% to +9% by the 2060s.
Annual maximum 1-day rainfall totals show a tendency towards remaining constant, while the maximum 5- day rainfall is projected to decrease by up to 5mm across the annual and seasonal timescales.

The PRECIS RCM is consistent with the projections suggesting a decrease in the annual maximum 5-day rainfall of up to 14mm per decade towards the end of the century.
The RCM, however, suggests that while rainfall intensity may decrease, a slight increase in rainfall duration may occur.2 Figure 2-4: (A) Average Monthly Rainfall by Decades.

Data is for the V.C.

Bird International Airport.

(B) Average Monthly Rainfall for Barbuda.

Data is for the Codrington Station.2 Flooding- Antigua and Barbuda is occasionally affected by coastal flooding and ponding in heavy rainfall/ storm events due to its extremely flat profile.
Ponding and flashfloods are prevalent in the north-east and central region which also supports an extensive agricultural belt of the island.

In Antigua, coastal flooding is primarily a concern along three coastal corridors characteristic of tourism and residential development – the west coast running from Dickenson Bay area to St. John’s Harbour, on the south-west coast from Jolly Beach to Crab Hill, and on the south coast from Johnson’s Point to the Falmouth/English Harbour.
In Barbuda, coastal flooding is the main threat as the main community is adjacent to the lagoon.7 Climate change is expected to increase the frequency with which these events are expected to occur.

CLIMATE CHANGE IS EXPECTED TO INCREASE THE FREQUENCY WITH WHICH THESE EVENTS ARE EXPECTED TO OCCUR.

iii GCM- Global Climate Models have relatively coarse resolutions relative to the scale of required information because of the computational requirements to model the entire globe.
Therefore, they provide country scale projections.

iv RCM- Regional Climate Models provide sub-island details.

35 S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 Figure 2-5: Flood Zones for Antigua2 36 Drought- Antigua and Barbuda frequently experiences meteorological droughtv and occasional hydrologicalvi and agriculturalvii ones.
The country has a distinct dry season between the months of January to May and is characterized by having one of the lowest rainfall profiles of the region.

Frequent and prolonged droughts, based on national records, occur approximately every 3 to 5 years.7 The probability of at least one (moderate or serious or severe drought) in a year is 45.1%, and in 5 years is 95.0%.
For severe droughts alone, the probability of at least one in a year is 15.1% and at least one in 5 years 56.0%.8 This has significant environmental, agricultural and socio-economic impacts.

Section 4 describes further how this has impacted the country’s water supply and how the islands have coped.

in a reduction The island experienced a significant drought in 2015 which persisted into 2016.
The drought periods 2014 to 2016 resulted in agricultural production and water shortages resulting in water rationing.

The Potworks Dam in Antigua was only 10% full by the end of 2014, and by the end of 2015, consumption of desalinated water was greater than 90%, compared with the normal 60%.8 With climate change, this trend is anticipated to continue and even worsen.
Temperature- On average, maximum temperature values may reach as high as 31.5oC, while minimum temperature values may drop to 22 OC in January/February.

Data from the V.C.

Bird International Airport show that extreme temperatures have been increasing.

The frequency of warm days has been increasing (0.69% per decade between 1972 and 1990).

The frequency of warm nights has also increased, while the frequency of cool days has decreased.
The annual maximum temperatures have also been increasing at 0.05°C per decade.2 This is projected to continue with climate change.

Hurricanes and Storms- Tropical cyclones have made landfall in Antigua and Barbuda on multiple occasions.

Like the Atlantic Hurricane Season, hurricanes can occur between the period June to November.

Based on historic data, the most active part of the season is mid-August to mid-September.
For the period 1642–2015, a total of 49 tropical storms and hurricanes have affected the island.

This has been at a rate of no less than nine (9) impacts per century, that is, in the almost four-century time span, there is an approximate average return time span of eight (8) years.7 For the period1998–2018, a total of 11 hurricanes has affected the island (Table 2-1).
On average, there is a 33% chance of at least one hurricane affecting (passing within 120 miles) Antigua and Barbuda in any given year or roughly once every three years.8 Aftermath of Hurricane Irma in Barbuda Photo by: The Guardian Newspaper v Meteorological Drought- less than average level of precipitation of a prescribed period of time.
vi Hydrological Drought- the availability for surface and groundwater, catchment, stream way (ghauts) flows vii Agricultural Drought- water availability based on the effects on agriculture, from availability for husbandry, watering crops to soil moisture 37 Table 2-1: Hurricanes that have affected Antigua and Barbuda, 1998–20198viii The Inter-governmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Special Report on Extremes9 offered five statements with respect to projections of future hurricanes under global warming with relevance to the region.
They are: The level of uncertainty evident in the five conclusions suggests that, at the very least, the Caribbean should contemplate a future where tropical storm/hurricane genesis, frequency and tracks will be similar to what has been experienced in the very recent past (last two decades), but intensities (rainfall rates and wind speeds) are increased (Figure 2-6).
It is likely that average precipitation rates within 100 km of the storm centre will increase – by a maximum of about 10% per degree of warming.8 AVERAGE PRECIPITATION RATES WITHIN 100 KM OF THE STORM CENTRE WILL INCREASE BY ABOUT 10% PER DEGREE OF WARMING.

viii Source: Antigua and Barbuda Meteorological Services.

2019.

Notes: All data above refer to cyclones at the time of impact on Antigua only.
CWS Max wind speed in knots around the centre of the cyclone AVG Max wind gust experienced at V. C. Bird International Airport, Coolidge.

24Rn Max 24-hour rainfall measured at 8 a.m. or 1200 Universal Time Coordinated (UTC).

Stage category of the hurricane when it affected Antigua.

Direct hit: The cyclone centre passed over land or at most 15 nautical miles from land.

Hit: The cyclone centre passed between 15 and 65 nautical miles from land.
Brushed: The cyclone centre passed between 65 and 105 nautical miles from land.

None: The cyclone passed over 105 nautical miles from land, but still caused storm conditions.

38 Figure 2-6: Late 21st Century Warming Projections of Category 4 and 5 Hurricanes in the Atlantic Average of 18 CMIP3 Models.

From Bender et al.
From Bender et al.

(2010)10 A recent report indicates that the highest total number of persons affected by a single weather-related disaster between 2000 and 2018 is 25,800 persons.8 However, it is not immediately clear the number of human deaths and injuries caused by extreme rainfall events (tropical storms/ hurricanes/ heavy rainfall).

However, it has been reported as being low.


The economic cost of disasters associated with tropical storms/hurricanes is likely to increase as the intensity of storms increases accompanied by population growth and economic development.
The more intense storms tend to result in greater losses, which are often felt in the tourism sector, environment, business sector and housing stock.7 Additionally, a recent survey conducted by the DOE has shown that on average in Antigua and Barbuda women tend to spend more than men on disaster preparedness for their households.
Households in Antigua tend to spend on average over $5,000 Eastern Caribbean Dollars (XCD) on disaster preparedness, whereas in Barbuda households tend to spend over XCD $2,000 each year on disaster preparedness.
In Antigua, men tended to spend more on post disaster fixtures than women whereas it is the opposite in Barbuda.11 39 AMBIENT AIR QUALITY The concentration of particulate matter (PM) is a key air quality indicator since it is the most common air pollutant that affects short-term and long-term health.

Two sizes of particulate matter are used to analyze air quality; fine particles with a diameter of less than 2.5 µm or PM2.5 and coarse particles with a diameter of less than 10 µm or PM10.
PM2.5 particles are more significant for human health because their small size allows them to travel deeper into the cardiopulmonary system.

The World Health Organization’s (WHO) air quality guidelines recommend that the annual mean concentrations of PM2.5 should not exceed 10 µg/m3 and 20 µg/m3 for PM10.

Air quality monitoring may be undertaken at point locations, but there is no national air quality monitoring programme to provide baseline data.
However, in April 2020, the World Health Organization reported that the air quality in Antigua & Barbuda was considered moderately unsafe.

The most recent data indicates the country's annual mean concentration of PM2.5 is 19 µg/m3 which exceeds the recommended maximum of 10 µg/m3.12 In the 2019 Environmental Protection and Management Act (EPMA), the release or deposit of any pollutant or waste into the air is considered in its definition for pollution.
The Act includes Air Quality Criteria and Guidelines in Schedule VIII which include basic criteria for air quality management.

This schedule includes air quality guidelines, air quality standards and emission standards (dioxins, furans and other substances).
According to the EPMA 2019, the Department of Environment is responsible for ensuring that the applicable environmental quality standards, including the Air Quality Criteria and Guidelines in Schedule VIII, are considered when granting or renewing a pollution control permit.

The DOE also has responsibility, according to the EPMA 2019, for monitoring the background concentration of pollutions in the environment.
Commercial and industrial facilities are required to monitor exhaust discharge points regularly and submit to the DOE.

However, this has not yet been fully implemented and there is not yet an electronic database which compiles this information.

The DOE intends to implement this in the near future.

The Antigua and Barbuda Meteorological Services only monitors the impact of Saharan Dust (Figure 2-7) and issues regular Air Quality Bulletins.
Figure 2-7: Visibility Impacts of the Saharan Dust across Antigua in 2020 40 2.4 IMPACTS The effects of climate change and variability have resulted in the following impacts: Increased vulnerability of the agriculture and tourism sectors due to water shortages These sectors are already vulnerable to changes in weather.8 Climate change will result in water shortages, either making water more expensive due to the increased use of desalination water or reduction in agricultural output.
The 2014–16 drought periods led to decrease in agricultural production and reduced local food supply in Antigua and Barbuda.

The energy costs of level were operating desalination facilities at this ~US$9.9 million, and this increase was still unable to meet national demand.

Increased reliance on desalination for freshwater is increased reliance on desalination With an increase in dry periods and increased demands, for there freshwater.
By the end of 2015 when there was a serious drought, consumption of desalinated water was greater the normal 60%10.

than 90%, compared with Desalination relies on fossil fuel for energy, and so once the reliance on desalination grows, the demand for fossil fuel will continue to grow and with it, greenhouse gas emissions.

This is also likely to make water more expensive.


Higher sea levels Rising global temperatures are expected to result in sea level rise of between 1.5 and 3 mm per year, which will increasingly put inland freshwater resources at risk of saline intrusion.

One-meter sea level rise (SLR) would impact 10% of major tourism resorts, all seaports, and 2% of major road networks.
Antigua and Barbuda already shows evidence of sea level rise and based on surveys in Antigua are conducted, areas at greatest risk Dickenson Bay, Fort James and Runaway Bay and in Barbuda, Cocoa Point, Low Bay and Palmetto Point, with Low Bay at greatest risk in Barbuda.

These areas include notable resorts, ports and an airport that lies less than 6 m above sea level.

Reduction in air quality As the demand for fossil fuel grows for use in the different sectors, so too will greenhouse gas emissions.
With increasing dry periods, there is also likely to be more dust in the air which can also contribute to a reduction in air quality.

Drought affected crops in Antigua Photo by: Antigua News Room 41 of Health (38 per cent)ix.

However, the degree to which the remaining 97 per cent of the total budget is aligned with Antigua and Barbuda’s NDCs is unclear.
Greater economic losses due to more intense hurricanes and storms The economic cost of disasters associated with tropical storms/ hurricanes is likely to increase as the intensity of storms increases, accompanied by population growth and economic development.

Over the decade 1989 to 1999 damage assessment reports indicate the average ‘direct’ impact of storms to cost US$ 73.6 million dollars.8 The period 2008- 2017, tropical storms and hurricanes cost Antigua and Barbuda US$232 million.
On average, hurricanes account for 8.4% of the country’s annual loss in GDP .

In 2017, Hurricanes Irma and Maria which occurred 2 weeks apart, resulted in total damage losses of approximately of US$136.1million and US$18.9million10.

The increased onset of high-intensity hurricanes also necessitates new building codes.

14 Coral bleaching As sea surface temperatures increase due to climate change, the threat of coral bleaching is likely to increase.
This is combined with the fact that the country has experienced major degradation of its coral reef ecosystems over the past 40+ years.

The primary drivers of this degradation are multiple and are highly linked to anthropogenic influences, including over- exploitation and poor management of marine resources.

Coral reefs are an important ecosystem and provide coastal protection benefits for the largely low- lying country.

Loss or damage to this important ecosystem is likely to have significant impacts.
Greater implementation of adaptation and mitigation projects Climate change adaption and mitigation is needed to reduce the likely impacts of climate change.

Recently, there was an assessment for the first time by the Government of Antigua and Barbuda (GOAB) of governmental expenditure for climate change.

The results showed that an annual average of 3% (XCD 29.1 million, equating to USD 10.7 million) of the total budget for 2014–2017 is climate-relevant.
Most of the spending was directed towards adaptation actions.

The National Office of Disaster Services reported the highest climate- related spending relative to overall budget size (66%), followed by the Department of Environment (49%), and ix the Central Board of Health (38%).

However, the degree to which the remaining 97% of the total budget is aligned with Antigua and Barbuda’s NDCs is unclear.

Coral bleaching affecting reefs in NE Antigua in 2005 Photo by: Harry Stokes ix UNFCC.
Assessment and Overview of Climate Finance Flows: Antigua and Barbuda 2014–2017 42 S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 2.5 WHAT ARE WE DOING ABOUT IT?
The GOAB has recognized the importance of the impacts of climate change on its economy and society and as such became a signatory to the Paris Agreement and submitted its first Intended Nationally Determined Contributions (INDCs) in 2015.13 The new NDCs (to be submitted in 2021) are expected to increase Antigua and Barbuda’s ambitions.
They will include targets and a pathway for reducing fossil fuel dependency, creating a circular economy, building resilience in the financial sector, and creating sustainable financial flows for investing in climate adaptation and mitigation.
Some of the proposed targets to be included in the revised NDCs which have been approved by Cabinet, but are under final revision before submission to UNFCCC, include: ► Having 86% renewable energy generation in electricity sector by 2045; and ► Having 100% renewable energy generation in transportation sector by 2045.14 The Paris Agreement also requires the country to establish an Enhanced Transparency Framework with the objective to build mutual trust and confidence and promote the effective implementation of actions.
Therefore, a MRV (monitoring, reporting and verification) system is currently being prepared to track both public and private mitigation and adaptation actions.

It will promote tracking of the NDCs and enhancement of GHG inventories and other important climate indicators related to adaptation, social indicators, gender and women.
Additionally, the GOAB is receiving support from the NDC Partnership and implementing partners to enhance its economic planning and recovery efforts in the face of climate change and most recently, its response to the COVID- 19 pandemic.

Under this initiative, an Economic Advisor and a Climate Finance Expert will provide support to the government in this area.

The impacts of climate have resulted in an increasing dependence on desalination for freshwater.
As such, the Government of Antigua and Barbuda is pursuing a project with the International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) to use renewable energy to provide the energy for desalination to offset the costs.

The 2020 Country Programme is intended to guide the country towards achieving the goals of the Paris Agreement 2015.

It takes a holistic approach to climate change adaptation and mitigation, all while contributing towards achieving the objectives of the country’s proposed NDC 2021 targets.
Each project addresses a specific element of climate risk in the country.

Complementarity, and where possible, sector coupling underpin the entire portfolio.
Projects emphasize, inter alia, climate-proofing the built environment, incorporating climate resilience into the financial sector, initiating a paradigm shift within the transport and electricity sectors towards low-emission sustainable development, promoting a just transition of affected workers, and leveraging debt servicing towards financing adaptation using a microfinancing approach.
In addition, the DOE prepared a baseline gender assessment to guide transformational gender interventions in Antigua and Barbuda’s country programme.

This output is expected to ensure that all identified projects, policies, regulations and Sustainable Island Resource Framework Fund (SIRF) policies are gender responsive.

The Government of Antigua and Barbuda (GOAB) is committed to the implementation of comprehensive disaster management.
It is committed to a process that systematically reduces the country’s and region’s risks to both natural 43 and man-made disaster events.

In keeping with the GOAB’s commitment to reduce the country’s risk to those hazards that have impacted the twin-island state and those likely to affect the country in the future, the National Office of Disaster Services (NODS) has developed a disaster management country work programme.
This is updated every few years and it embraces the comprehensive disaster management strategy and framework led by the Caribbean Disaster Emergency Management Agency (CDEMA).

The programme has several outputs which are supported by activities and indicators.

The current country programme is from November 2018 to October 2021.
The main outcomes include: ► National institutional arrangements strengthened to support Comprehensive Disaster Management (CDM) implementation among key safety partners ► Enhanced acquisition, integration and use of CDM knowledge among key partners ► Demonstrated implementation and proactive leadership by sector agencies of CDM ► Enhanced community resilience in Antigua and Barbuda.
The Medium-Term Development Strategy (MTDS), completed in 2015 is also a set of strategies and actions to be undertaken by Antigua and Barbuda over the medium term (2016 to 2020) with the intention to set guidelines and targets in moving the country towards its long-term goals of embodying sustainability.

They are in the process of being updated.


The four Sustainable Development Dimensions (SDDs) include: In addition to the above, in 2012 the GOAB approved the Sustainable Island Resource Management Zoning Plan (SIRMZP), the country’s national physical development plan which uses spatial land use zoning as a resilience strategy.
Climate change was mainstreamed in the composite land-use suitability model in the SIRMZP, using building setbacks from beaches and coastlines, hurricane risks to buildings, and hurricane risks to natural areas to minimize exposed infrastructure.15 As a part of the Green Climate Fund (GCF) Build project, the GOAB intends to refurbish 52 public buildings to ensure climate reliance over a period of six years with a total value of US$46.1M.16 Additionally, as part of the Sustainable Pathways for Protected Areas Renewable Energy (SPPARE) Project, being implemented by the DOE, the Boggy Peak National Park Interpretation Centre at Christian Valley was awarded the Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) Gold Certification.
This is the first building in Antigua and Barbuda, as well as in the Organization of Eastern Caribbean States (OECS), to receive a LEED Gold Certification.17 S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 44 LAND USE Claremont Farm (Old Road) in Antigua Photo by: Nick Hollands 45 S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D is based on the functional dimension of A land for different human purposes or economic activities.
LAND USE | 2 0 2 0 3 LAND USE 3.1 WHY IS IT IMPORTANT?

Land as a resource and its ecosystem services, such as watershed protection, biodiversity conservation and carbon sequestration, are critical for sustaining life as a source of food, shelter and economic development.

Land use is based on the functional dimension of land for different human purposes or economic activities.

Typical categories for land use are housing, industrial use, transport, recreational use or nature protection areas.
18 Sustainable management of land resources will ensure that those uses that will best meet the needs of the people, while safeguarding resources for the future, will be selected and put into practice.
As Antigua and Barbuda continue to grow economically, it is important to avoid issues associated with overpopulation which depend on: (i) (ii) (iii) the size or density of the population; the ratio of population to available sustainable resources; and how resources are managed and distributed throughout the population.
is one of the serious obstacles Overpopulation toward national development.19 Additionally, some activities will have negative impacts on the immediate land, as well as ‘spill over’ impacts to areas around it.

For example, agricultural activities may permanently alter the quality of soil in the immediate area, as well as affect the supply of water that a housing development may depend on downstream.
Therefore, planning, and the management and monitoring of land use at a national level are needed to prevent deleterious and sometimes irreversible effects which may impact future generations.

3.2 DRIVERS AND PRESSURES Developmental growth affects land use management directly (e.g., land space for a tourism development) as well as through supporting uses (e.g., housing for tourism workers).
The latter are often overlooked in land use planning, however, these “urban pull factors” utilize a lot of land resources for housing, public utilities and amenities, and social services for those persons who are drawn to an area for employment.
Antigua and Barbuda has witnessed growth and development in diverse areas: ► The Population has grown from 63,878 persons (1991) to 97,895 persons (2020), with a projected increase to 106,395 persons in 2026;20 ► Tourism, one of the main drivers of Antigua and Barbuda’s economy,21 has grown steadily from 634,000 arrivals in 2000 to 1,0350,000 arrivals in 2019.22 Tourism contributes to over half of the GDP (60%), some 40% of investment, and accounts for 1 in 2 jobs.
23 Given its natural amenities, most of the development occurs along the coast; 46 ► Economic Growth, though limited, has been nevertheless positive.

Economic growth was higher in 2018 than in 2019; GDP growth in 2019 was 5.0% (versus the 7.4% in 2018).21 The COVID-19 pandemic has had a significant, negative impact on economic growth worldwide, with Antigua and Barbuda seeing a 3.8% decline in GDP growth rate.
They also witnessed one of the largest declines in employment rates (over 13%).24 during the period Growth comes with an increased demand for land to develop housing and infrastructure, as well as increased pressure on resources such as water.20 The pressure on resources is particularly high when development is unplanned and unregulated, and where there is competition for land uses.
For example, the Cashew Hill area was, over time, converted from agricultural cane fields to housing lots, which reportedly altered the natural hydrological conditions of the area.25 The area has now become prone to frequent flooding during the rainy season due to the inability of the drainage infrastructure to keep up with the level of urbanization.26 Slow onset hazards, such as drought, have also exerted significant pressure on the country’s use of its natural and physical environment, which, in turn, impacts agriculture, tourism and domestic users of water6.
This will be particularly impactful for agriculture-based activities, and can force shifts in the quantity as well as types of crops.
Examples of these include the reduction of rough pastures available for livestock,27 and the recent annual influx of Sargassum seaweed which has significant economic repercussions on the tourism and fisheries sectors (Figure 3-1), and may ultimately affect tourism planning if it continues.28 S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 Figure 3-1: The annual Influx of Sargassum which can impact coastal economic Activities (Source: DOE, PETI Unit) Environmental degradation and climate change-based Sea Level Rise (SLR) also affects critical infrastructure which can ultimately cause relocation or affect future land use planning.
In particular, tourism infrastructure is vulnerable to coastal hazards such as sea level rise, tidal waves, tropical storm-related impacts, more so with the removal of natural defenses (e.g., mangroves).

The areas at greatest risk to SLR and storm surges in Antigua include Dickenson Bay, Fort James, and Runaway Bay.
In Barbuda, Coco Point, Palm Beach and Palmetto Point are at risk of SLR and 47 storm surges, with Low Bay facing the greatest risk.27 As a coastal economy, one-meter SLR would impact 10% of major tourism resorts, all seaports, and 2% of major road networks in Antigua and Barbuda.

THERE IS A MAJOR CHALLENGE WITH UNCONTROLLED, UNREGULATED TOPSOIL AND SAND MINING, WHICH CONTRIBUTES TO BEACH EROSION AND HAVE AFFECTED OTHER LAND USE PRACTICES.
REPORTING, TRACKING AND MONITORING OF ILLEGAL SAND MINING ACTIVITIES ARE INSUFFICIENT DUE TO LIMITED RESOURCES.

Antigua and Barbuda has a major challenge with uncontrolled, unregulated topsoil and sand mining, which contributes to beach erosion and creates unsightly areas that are prone to soil erosion during heavy rains.
These activities can affect other land use practices, for example, there are reports that sand mining has impacted the major ground water source for Barbuda.29 Reporting, tracking and monitoring illegal sand mining activities are hardly done, with little resources available in the key departments to do so.
Other developmental challenges that Antigua and Barbuda faces include unplanned development, roaming livestock, poor farming practices, poor waste management, and poor watershed and associated resource management.

Often, these practices lead to poor management of biodiversity resources.

3.3 HOW IS IT CHANGING?


Land use management and governance in Antigua, Barbuda and Redonda are currently managed under approximately forty different pieces of legislation that govern various land resource elements, and are geared towards sustainable development.
Some of the important ones include: ► The Physical Planning Act (2003), ► The Barbuda Land (Amendment) Act (2016) ► The Environmental Protection and Management Act (2019), ► The National Physical Development Plan (NPDP) (also known as the Sustainable Island Resource Management Zoning Plan (SIRMZP) and ► The National Environment Management Strategy (NEMS).
The variety of Government Departments and Statutory Organizations involved can result in a general lack of cohesive conservation, management and planning frameworks for the islands’ development.

The current land use zoning for Antigua and Barbuda has been illustrated in Figure 3-2 and Figure 3-3 below.

Redonda is described as a rugged uninhabited rock, 0.5 sq.

miles (1.3sq.

km).
48 S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 Figure 3-2: Land Use Map, Antigua (Source: Genivar, 2011) 49 S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 Figure 3-3: Land Use Map, Barbuda (Source: Genivar, 2011) 50 Between the period 1985/95 and 2010, general land use trends for Antigua and Barbuda have remained fairly stable, apart from these exceptions: recreation and historic areas (decreased); and industrial development (increased).25 The percentage change in land cover is not currently monitored.
However, the Monitoring, Evaluation and Data Management Unit (at the DOE) calculates land use changes while periodically preparing a Greenhouse Gas Inventory (2003, 2010, 2015, and 2019), which looks at land use changes in order to estimate emissions in the Forestry and Other Land Use (FOLU) sector.

No mapping is done (only calculations on land use change), and there are some restrictions, for example, ‘agriculture’ only accounts for active crop agriculture (vs inactive farmland and livestock farming).
Land Use, Land Use Change and Forestry (LULUCF) accounted for a significant amount of emissions in the 2015 GHG Inventory, suggesting land being converted from forestry for other uses.

The biggest change in emissions from this sector comes from an increase in emissions from “annual change in carbon stocks in mineral soils” (grassland remaining grassland), an increase of 501 percent from the 2006 inventory year.
The Department of Environment has recently (2021) received updated satellite imagery, however land use maps and therefore percent change in land use has not yet been produced30.

In 2017, more than 90% of Barbuda’s infrastructure was destroyed by Hurricane Irma.31 A Master Plan is now being developed and this is intended to guide the building back of the island.

However, in the meantime post-hurricane development is currently being done along the same zoning plan that existed prior to the hurricane.
There are several major developments planned for the island including tourism developments and the construction of a larger, international airport strip.

The government prioritizes investment (and therefore land resources) for tourism, manufacturing, agriculture and fisheries, information and communication technologies, business process outsourcing, financial services, health and wellness services, creative industries, education, yachting and marine services, real estate, and renewable energy.
The following sub-themes address some of these priority areas.

S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 THE GOVERNMENT OF ANTIGUA AND BARBUDA PRIORITIZES INVESTMENT AND LAND RESOURCES FOR SEVERAL SECTORS AND SERVICES INCLUDING TOURISM, MANUFACTURING, AGRICULTURE AND FISHERIES, ICT, BPOs, HEALTH SERVICES, EDUCATION, YACHTING AND MARINE SERVICES, RENEWABLE ENERGY, AMONG OTHERS.
AGRICULTURE Agricultural land use in Antigua and Barbuda is currently regulated under the Agricultural Land Use Policy (2010).

The Ministry of Agriculture has traditionally managed the allocation of lands for farmers (through an annual lease arrangementx), and the sale of land for residents; however, this responsibility was moved to the Ministry of Housing in 2018.

This arrangement presents the opportunity for conflicting allocation of available land between agriculture and housing and development.
While the likelihood of productive farmers losing their crown land allocation is low due to its political unfavourability, it remains a risk as development and housing projects increase.30 Additionally, stakeholder consultations highlighted that lease arrangements are issued by the Extension Services as well as the x As verified through their Farmer Registration process, in collaboration with The Lands Division and Survey Department 51 Land Division of the Ministry of Agriculture.
This can lead to gaps and/or duplicated efforts, which can result in inaccurate estimates of land used for agriculture.

Comprehensive and accurate mapping of farmland distribution is currently not done, although the Farmer Registration process does involve some limited Global Positioning System (GPS) recording.
Current estimates (e.g., through the Greenhouse Gas Inventory) only identify active crop lands, but there is no accurate and current data on total land area or percentage of land area zoned for agriculture, total land area or percentage of land area under crop production, percentage of land area by tenure, or percentage of land in fallow.
The general land use map illustrated in the section above shows some general farming areas identified through satellite imagery, and constitutes a significant 29.5% of total land area.32 Table 3-1 below represents other data available on agricultural land use trends.
Table 3-1: Change in Agricultural Land Use (Source: Lewis, 2015)25 Agricultural Land Use Cropland (acres) Livestock grazing (acres) 1985 5,501 26,252 1995 7,740 13,482 2010 6,855 17,349 Noting, however, that: ► The Greenhouse Gas Inventory reports that the area of active crop land increased by ~150ha between 2003 and 201930; ► 2019 data indicate 2,000 acres of land leased for agricultural crop production.
This is significantly less than 2010 data, however, the 2019 data reflect only those crop farmlands under active management by registered farmers.

This decrease may also be accounted for by methodological differences.33 As of 2019, there were 592 registered farmers of active farmland (crops), divided across five zones – North West, North East, South Central, South East, and South West.
The South East section was the largest (approximately 712 acres) and the South West the smallest (approximately 156 acres).

This information does not include livestock farming, aquaponics, hydroponics or processing lands.
At the time of the survey, no active farms were reported in Barbuda due to the passage of Hurricane Irma.33 Recent studies show that 28 % of farmers who leased Crown land are female farmers.33 Sustainability reports indicate that the country may be approaching a critical stage where they have less agricultural land per capita than is required for sustainable agricultural development.
This places a greater need for, among other things, the reclamation of all lands with potential for agriculture.34 However, some of these lands are already being S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 AS OF 2019, THERE WERE 592 REGISTERED FARMERS OF ACTIVE FARMLAND (CROPS), DIVIDED ACROSS FIVE ZONES, NAMELY THE NORTH WEST, NORTH EAST, SOUTH CENTRAL, SOUTH EAST, AND SOUTH WEST.

THE SOUTH EAST SECTION WAS THE LARGEST WITH APPROXIMATELY 712 ACRES.
52 lost to competing uses, such as housing, light industry and recreational facilities.

A similar situation appears in Barbuda, however, the small population, size of the island and common ownership of land provide an opportunity to earmark and zone selected areas of land for food production.35 It has been recommended that land in unoccupied subdivisions could be returned to other uses such as agriculture or grazing.
HOUSING AND SETTLEMENT According to the 2011 Population and Housing Census, 85,567 persons (99,337 projected for 2021) were residing in Antigua and Barbuda.

Table 3-2 below shows the change in population density per parish between the 2001 and 2011 Census.36 Most (approx.

60%) of the population lives in and around the capital of St. John’s with fewer persons living in the St. John’s city centre and more persons living in St. John Rural (Figure 3-4).
With the exception of Saint Peter and Saint Phillip, all parishes increased in population density, with Saint John increasing by approximately 14% to 772 persons per km2.

For Barbuda, less than 1% (269 acres) of the land area was occupied by human settlement and related uses in 1985, and this increased to just over 2% (882 acres) in 2010.
Table 3-2: Population Density by Parish for Antigua and Barbuda (Source: Statistics Division) Location Barbuda Saint John Saint George Saint Peter Saint Phillip Saint Paul Saint Mary 2001 8.3 676.8 273.5 167.9 85.1 173.2 106.8 2011 10.2 772.2 330.1 164.4 82.2 179.4 115.4 S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 53 S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 Figure 3-4: Population Density of Antigua and Impact of Sea Level Rise (Source: DOE, DMU, Statistics Division) 54 The Sustainable Island Resource Management Zoning Plan (2011) examined the housing demand for Antigua and Barbuda (growth, replacement, and shifts in housing).
It identified that there will be a need for 35,547 new or replacement houses for the period 2001 to 2030.

This amounts to approximately 1,184 units per year.

Projections such as these indicate the demand for land for housing development and supporting amenities.

Local area zoning and planning, which are underway, are needed to properly guide the allocation of land to meet growth in the housing stock.
Since 2014, there has been a significant increase in housing constructions due to the political targets of the current administration.

The Government also has a Settlement Programme which recommends the decommissioning of unoccupied subdivisions to encourage repurposing of the area.

Currently, some government-owned land is being converted into residential areas.
There is an artificial scarcity of residential land in Antigua, due to private landowners holding on to land as a means of financial security, a show of wealth, and to pass on to their children.27 In Barbuda, post-hurricane Irma, there has been a lot of housing replacement or repair following the same residential zones.
There has been a lot of downsizing of homes that are being built back, and a few are being resettled to avoid building back in the same spot.37 IT IS PROJECTED THAT APPROXIMATELY 1,184 UNITS OF NEW OR REPLACEMENT HOUSES WILL BE NEEDED PER YEAR BETWEEN 2001 & 2030.

THIS INDICATES THE DEMAND ON LAND FOR HOUSING DEVELOPMENT AND SUPPORTING AMENITIES.

LOCAL AREA ZONING AND PLANNING HAVE BEEN CRITICAL IN GUIDING THE ALLOCATION OF LAND TO MEET GROWTH IN THE HOUSING STOCK.
The Development Control Authority tracks all applications for residential and commercial (including tourism) developments, under categories Type A (new development), Type B (alternations and renovations) and Type C (demolition).

Figure 3-5 below shows that there has been a 58% increase in new residential applications.
Prior to this, they reported an unusual spike in residential development in 2006, which was due to Antigua hosting the World Cup Cricket, and a push by the government to promote guests staying with locals.
Commercial development has remained mostly stable over the past 10 years.38 S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 55 700 600 500 400 300 200 100 0 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 Residential 'Type A' Residential 'Type B' Commercial 'Type A' Commercial 'Type B' Figure 3-5: Applications for Residential and Commercial Type A and B Developments in Antigua and Barbuda between 2010 and 2020 (Source: DCA).
Industrial land use includes all activities, buildings and land use classes for the manufacturing and processing sector, including food processing, light industrial, research and development centres, general industry, storage and distribution.

Industrial land use, although not significant in Antigua and Barbuda, still needs to be mapped and monitored as change occurs over time so as to inform decision-making.
Industrial acreage increased from 584 acres to 778 acres between 1995 and 2010.25 SOCIAL AMENITIES Social amenities are places, buildings or infrastructural facilities which are shared convergence spots for the local and surrounding communities.

In many cases, these are not mapped in Antigua and Barbuda.

For Antigua and Barbuda, the following social amenities have been identified as the most relevant for consideration in the State of the Environment report.

1.
1.

Educational institutions or facilities – Any school, training centre, or college or such other institution of higher education as defined in the Education Act 2008 (Figure 3-6).

S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 56 S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 Figure 3-6: Location of educational Institutions in Antigua and Barbuda (Source: DMU, DOE) 57 2.
Health care facilities – Health services are delivered at the primary, secondary, and tertiary levels within the public and private sectors.

a.

At the primary level, Antigua is divided into six medical districts with a network of 25 public health clinics plus one clinic in Barbuda.

Clinics are located within 3.2 km of every major community.

b.
b.

Secondary and tertiary health services are provided at the Sir Lester Bird Medical Centre (SLBMC), Antigua, and the Hannah Thomas Hospital, Barbuda.39 The latter was damaged during Hurricane Irma, and part of it was reopened in 2020.

Emergency health care at nights is not available at the government health clinics and so night emergencies may result in overcrowding at the main hospital in St. John’s.
c. There was a private 18-bed multispecialty non-profit hospital in St. John’s called the Adelin Medical Center, but it is now no longer functional, and the private sector also offers numerous private doctor offices, labs, and pharmacies including the Winter’s Medical Centre and the Medical Surgical Associates.

3.

Sports, recreational and leisure facilities – Any centre, public or membership-based, where sport activities and recreational activities are performed, and where social aggregation occurs.
This includes community centres, sporting facilities including outdoor gyms, places for leisure and amusement, wellness centres, parks, playing fields, pools and other recreational facilities (Figure 3-7).

S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 Figure 3-7: Sports and recreational Facilities in Antigua (Source: DMU, DOE) 4.
Fire management infrastructure – These include Fire Brigade Stations and water hydrants and are reportedly insufficient to service the islands (Figure 3-8) 5.

Police Stations –There are 14 Police Stations and 5 Police Divisions in Antigua and Barbuda, but this number is also reportedly insufficient (Figure 3-8) 58 S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 Figure 3-8: Police and Fire Stations in Antigua (Source: DMU, DOE) 6.
Emergency Shelters – There are forty-eight structures that are mainly schools and churches and cover the 17 disaster districts throughout Antigua and Barbuda.

Some communities do not have shelters and in 59 the case of an emergency, vulnerable persons would have to utilize the shelters of nearby communities.40 The list of shelters is amended each year depending on the condition of the building and maps can be provided by DMU depending on the current list (Figure 3-9).
S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 Figure 3-9: Current Location of Emergency Shelters in Antigua (Source: DMU, DOE) The key stakeholders governing the social amenities as described above are the Ministry of Education, Sports and Creative Industries, the Ministry of Health, Wellness and the Environment, the Antigua & Barbuda Fire Department, the Royal Police Force of Antigua and Barbuda, the National Office of Disaster Services (NODS), and the Department of Environment that maps these amenities.
60 PUBLIC UTILITIES Antigua and Barbuda’s public utilities are all managed by APUA and include water supply, electricity and telecommunications.

They also manage sewerage, to some extent.

Solid waste is managed by the National Solid Waste Management Authority, and transportation by National Works.

3.3.4.1 WATER SUPPLY INFRASTRUCTURE Locations of water bodies, storage, access, plants and pumps follow a similar density pattern as the housing population (see Figure 3-10).
Groundwater sources in Antigua consist of approximately 50 active wells with major well fields.

There is also surface water storage in the form of ten (10) medium to small reservoirs, 550 ponds, and earth dams.
In Antigua, there are five (5) reverse osmosis plants (The APUA Crabbs RO Plant, The APUA Camp Blizzard Plant, The Ffryes Beach Reverse Osmosis Plant, The Pigeon Point RO Plant, and The Ivan Rodrigues RO Plant), and two (2) water treatment plants (Delapps and Bendals Plants) (Figure 3-11 and Figure 3-12).

Barbuda has one desalination plant on the southern tip.

Further details on water resources and supply are elaborated on in Section 4.3.
S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 61 Figure 3-10: Water Bodies, Storage and Access in Antigua (Source: DMU, DOE, and APUA) S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 Figure 3-11: APUA Water Treatment Plants and Pump Stations in Antigua (Source: DMU, DOE, and APUA) Antigua and Barbuda has a high dependence on groundwater resources, but also increasing incidents and severity of drought.
As a result, there is a priority for expansion or development of desalination plants over surface water plants.

Currently, they are 90% dependent on desalination plants.

62 S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 Table 3-3 below outlines existing plants, as well as those slated for development.

The capacity of each plant is shown to demonstrate its relative size and land use footprint.
Although most Barbudans have private wells, a second plant at River is to be developed to account for the planned tourism expansion projects.

This plant will be built on stilts to prevent storm surge damage, as occurred to the existing plant during Hurricane Irma.
Table 3-3: Water Plants in Antigua and Barbuda Name of Plant Capacity The APUA Crabbs Reverse Osmosis Plant Has a capacity of 4 million gallons / day, taking up 6 infrastructural units The APUA Reverse Osmosis Camp Blizzard Plant Has a capacity of 600,000 gallons/day, taking up 4 infrastructural units The Ffryes Beach Reverse Osmosis Plant The Pigeon Point Reverse Osmosis Plant The Ivan Rodrigues Reverse Osmosis Plant Currently has a capacity of 600,000 gallons / day, taking up 4 infrastructural units.
This plant is slated to be expanded by an additional 400,000 gallons/day, increasing its capacity to 5 infrastructural units Has a capacity of 350,000 gallons/day, taking up 1 infrastructural unit Has a capacity of 1.7 million gallons/day, taking up 4 infrastructural units Delapps Surface Water Treatment Plant (Potworks Reservoir) Has a capacity of 200 million gallons/day Bendals Surface Water Treatment Plant Has a capacity of 300,000 gallons/day NS Management Plant Privately operated plant (previously known as the Sembcorp Plant), with capacity of 600,000 gallons/day River Reverse Osmosis Plant (Barbuda) Has a capacity of 100,000 gallons/day Willoughby Bay Desalination Plant Fort James Desalination Plant River Reverse Osmosis Plant (Barbuda) New plant to be developed, with capacity of 3.2 million gallons/day New plant to be developed, with capacity of 500,000 gallons/day New plant with capacity of 100,000 gallons/day, to be developed at same location as previous There are 3 main government-owned irrigation schemes in Antigua: the Sanderson, Bethesda and Potworks irrigation projects.
APUA’s water distribution system is seen below in Figure 3-12, which also follows a similar population density pattern.

63 S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 Figure 3-12: APUA Water Distribution System (Source: DMU, DOE, and APUA) Due to the switch in dependence on desalinated water, Antigua and Barbuda’s metal piping systems are being corroded, resulting in significant water loss.
Pipeline replacement will be done based on priorities (major transmission lines with highest failure rates will be first) and budget.

Aside from a few housing projects that need additional branches from transmission lines, there are no plans in place for major expansion or decommissioning of the network, only replacing existing infrastructure.

Development in Barbuda is sporadic, posing a challenge for connectivity to water.
Generally, the customer pays for installation of the pipes after development occurs.41 3.3.4.2 SEWERAGE INFRASTRUCTURE Antigua and Barbuda has no central sewerage infrastructure network for collecting wastewater and sewage from residential and commercial areas, industries and farms.
Wastewater generated on the island is predominantly 64 S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 disposed either to on-site sub-surface disposal systems (soak-aways and drain fields) and/or to roadside gutters, culverts and watercourses.
This can result in land use conflicts, as was seen in Barbuda where sewage pits were being emptied and deposited in an allocated area which was also a natural salt pond environment.37 Due to new requirements by the Development Control Authority (DCA) and the Central Board of Health, almost 75 % of the hotels in the north-west tourism zone and 48% of the larger commercial buildings in St. John’s have wastewater treatment plants.38 However, the ratio of public sewage treatment facilities to high density settlements is not currently monitored.
3.3.4.3 SOLID WASTE INFRASTRUCTURE The National Solid Waste Management Authority (NSWMA) is responsible for waste collection and transport.

Solid waste transportation and collection are free to residences in Antigua and Barbuda, and as a result, 100% of households have access to and are provided with solid waste collection.

Commercial collections is also being done by the NSWMA even though commercial entities are responsible for their own waste.
Currently, there is a surcharge for commercial entities, however, there are plans to also offer this service free of charge to commercial entities.42 In Antigua, waste is officially collected and deposited at one (1) site, namely the Cooks Sanitary Landfill and Civic Amenities Site, located on the western part of Antigua.
There is one national recycling facility in Osbourn, Saint George that collects and exports plastic bottles (PET & HDPE), batteries, aluminum cans, scrap steel, scrap non- ferrous, and cardboard materials.29 There is a second solid waste facility in Burma, Antigua.

This facility receives solid, and liquid (sludge and septic tanks) waste.

The facility is not lined with geo-membrane and there are concerns that leachate is percolating into the soil and groundwater sources.
Both facilities require buffer zones, but progress has only been made at the Cooks Facility.35 This facility has space for expansion into a second phase, however, the general strategy is to reduce and recycle to minimize the amount of land space needed for landfills.35 In Barbuda, the sanitary landfill is located at Plantation.
Facilities and equipment include the sanitary cell and leachate treatment lagoon, equipment storage shed and office, two compactor trucks, and one side loader.43 The capacity of the Barbuda landfill is expected to serve the island for current and near future uses, therefore, no expansion is expected.
Furthermore, through a UNDP-funded project, Barbuda has recently received a commercial shredder capable of shredding all waste types into a form to be used in recycled projects.42 In 2019, the National Solid Waste Management Authority collected approximately 132,000 tonnes of waste over the categories household, industrial, commercial, institutional, construction and demolition (C&D), clean bulk, bulk waste, cruise ship, street swap, sewage, and tyres.
In general, the amount of waste collected has been increasing between 2006 and 2019, but with fluctuations.

3.3.4.4 ELECTRICITY NETWORK The electricity network is a system of energy production plants and facilities (e.g., power plants, solar farms, see Figure 3-13), and the network for distributing energy to residential and commercial areas, industries and farms (see Figure 3-14).
Electricity production in this section is concerned with land use, however, further details related to the energy sector are elaborated in Section 8.

Almost 99 % of the population is connected to the grid, with new developments requesting connection as they are done.41 The supply of energy to the public falls under the purview of the Antigua Public Utilities Authority (APUA) as the main stakeholder.
There are currently two (2) power plants operated by APUA, with plans to install an additional 40 MW LNG plant.

All power plants take up approximately 5 acres of land space.

Within the past 5 years, one older 30 65 MW plant was decommissioned.

The land space still houses some unused infrastructure and assets, however, there are no immediate plans for the area.
Land use maps do not show lands earmarked for renewable energy, however, two (2) major developments have been identified – the installation of a 10 MW solar project and a wind energy farm under the purview of the Ministry of Environment.41.

The project “Deploying Renewable Energy for Schools and Clinics via the Sustainable Financing Mechanism for Environmental Management – SIRF Fund” identified thirteen school and clinic beneficiaries to receive grid-interactive solar photo-voltaic systems.
Anecdotally, it was observed that the majority of owners / managers of these facilities were women.44 Additionally, the Green Barbuda Power Plant project (also referred to as the Masdar project) aims to install a new hybrid solar-diesel power plant northeast of Codrington on flat land taking up approximately 20,000m2.
The project is not yet complete but is scheduled to hand over in September 2021.45 S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 Solar Panels installed on homes in Antigua Photo by: Meeco.net 66 S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 Figure 3-13: Solar Arrays and Panels on Antigua (Source: DMU, DOE, and APUA).
67 S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 Figure 3-14: APUA Electricity Distribution System and Infrastructure (Source: DMU, DOE, and APUA) 68 In Barbuda, post-hurricane Irma damage, there is still a gap in coverage of, for example, street lights.

A solar panel project is being established north of the village to support part of the village.
The installation of underground wires has been proposed for the future, but there are considerable challenges (substrate is rocky).37 3.3.4.5 TRANSPORTATION NETWORK The transportation network refers to the national network of roads and railways, seaports, helipads and airports/airfields.

The main mode of transportation in Antigua and Barbuda is by road, air and water (see Figure 3-15 and Figure 3-16).
The uninhabited Redonda can be accessed via air transport (helicopter) only; no ports exist, and access via sea is not recommended.

There are two main airports, the V, C. Bird International Airport in Antigua and the Barbuda Codrington Airport.

The V. C. Bird International Airport underwent renovations approximately three years ago, with no new plans for expansion at the moment.

46 A new facility, the Barbuda International Airport started construction, and was subsequently halted by the DCA.
Its completion is still in the pipeline.

The Barbuda Codrington Airport which was damaged in 2017 by Hurricane Irma is still used for daily flights between Antigua and Barbuda.

There is a private airstrip located at the southern tip of Barbuda (Coco Point Lodge Airstrip).

There are helipads at the Sir Lester Bird Medical Centre (medical purposes only), and Fort Road.
The helipad at Jolly Harbour is no longer operational, however, there are efforts to establish a helipad for a private company (Calvin Air) in the Orange Valley area.47 The main seaport is located in St. John’s and accommodates sea freight ships which facilitate imports and exports.

The St. John’s seaport is slated for redevelopment to increase size and cargo capacity and to relocate the administration building away from the port.
Heritage Quay which facilitates cruise ships is also undergoing upgrading to include dredging for larger ships as well as expansion to include a parking facility especially for local taxi operators.46 There are also smaller ports located at the Naval Dockyard in English Harbour, Jolly Harbour and the Barbuda Port, which facilitate the docking of the Barbuda Express Ferry.

There is also the Port of Parham Harbour, which also facilitates the docking of vessels.
S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 V.C.
Bird International Airport in Antigua Photo by: Antigua Observer 69 S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 Figure 3-15: Main Transportation in Antigua (Source: DMU, DOE) 70 S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 Figure 3-16: Main Transportation in Barbuda (Source: DMU, DOE) Antigua has in excess of 250 kilometres (155 miles) of roads, about 25 % of which can be classified as highway.
Due to a steady increase in the number of motor cars, there is a demand to maintain and improve the condition and quantity of road network, and to provide adequate parking.48 Improvements would also include more efficient and accessible public transportation (e.g., bus stops every 400 metres along arterial roadways, strategic provision of taxi stands).35 Currently, there are efforts to improve the existing network, with expansion plans only occurring with the development of national housing schemes.
Expansions include width of carriageway and surface improvements, but are mainly centred on improving drainage which sometimes involves the clearing or modifying of adjacent land.46 Barbuda’s road network suffered damage during Hurricane Irma, but is also continuing to be degraded with the heavy use by construction vehicles.

There are no plans for expansion of the road network, only improving quality of existing ones.
71 The island of Antigua once had a railway network approximately 77km in extent, serving the sugar cane industry, however, it is no longer a form of transportation although visible tracks remain.

There are no plans to revive it.

Barbudans are faced with numerous transportation and logistical challenges.
The underdeveloped ports of entry, seaport and airport, affect inter-island commerce and movement of people generally ultimately affecting tourism, finance and social services.28 3.3.4.6 TELECOMMUNICATIONS NETWORK The telecommunications network refers to the network of cables, repeaters and stations that make telephone, mobile radio, television and internet communication possible.

Telecommunication falls under the purview of the Antigua Public Utilities Authority (APUA) as one of the main stakeholders.
In Barbuda, there are still no landlines established after the Hurricane Irma’s damage.37 COASTAL DEVELOPMENTS Coastal areas in Antigua and Barbuda are considered those land parcels that border the sea; however due to the size of the islands, all land is under coastal influence.38 Developments in Antigua and Barbuda largely include tourism- related infrastructure, resources and land uses that provide an attraction for visitors, and associated hospitality infrastructure, such as beaches, natural wonders, as well as hotels, restaurants and other eating and drinking establishments, visitor centres, interpretation centres, and shops.
Redonda has no coastal developments as it has largely steep coastlines making access via sea very dangerous.

It is not clear what percentage area is zoned for tourism activity.

However, there are over 45 listed hotels in Antigua, and these are concentrated along the coastlines, beaches and offshore islands such as Jumby Bay (see Figure 3-17).

The Development Control Authority includes tourism-related development under their ‘Commercial’ category, but does not separate it.
Commercial development (including both Type A and Type B) shows no significant increase or decrease over the past 10 years; the decrease in 2020 may be as a result of the pandemic (Figure 3-5).

Large-scale hotels and related recreational developments along Antigua's coastline have destroyed considerable mangrove forests and most of the salt ponds have been filled in to accommodate development.
The tourism industry, however, is a key factor in increases in the value of coastal properties, stimulating residential growth and expanding urbanization in coastal areas.
This is true for the north coast of Antigua, from Fort James in the west to Dutchman's Bay in the east as well as in the English Harbour/Falmouth area in the south of the island.49 S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 72 S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 Coastal erosion at Crabb Hill Beach Photo by: IPS News Agency 73 S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 Figure 3-17: Location of Antiguan Hotels (Source: DMU, DOE, Antigua and Barbuda Hotel & Tourism Association) In general, there is an increasing trend for overwater tourism-related applications, for example, floating docks and restaurants, and overwater bungalows.
Resort applications remain about the same.38 There is one major hotel development listed for Barbuda – the Peace, Love and Harmony Ocean Club – which has come under considerable 74 land use conflict given its location within the Codrington Lagoon (protected area and Ramsar xi site), and its destruction to mangrove wetlands and other coastal habitats.37 The Barbuda Belle Luxury Hotel is also located in Barbuda, on the north western tip.

Both islands have numerous white sand beaches.


In the 1990s, a joint collaboration between the Fisheries Division, DOE and DCA captured annual changes in beach width, however, this is no longer monitored due to the amount of effort needed by the Fisheries Division and conflicting priorities.
There are no plans to restart monitoring soon.50 Nelson's Dockyard National Park (English Harbour/Falmouth) is the nucleus of tourism-related development in the southern part of Antigua, and is the major centre for yachting in the country.
There are well over 100 berths in the area, including stern-to docking in Nelson's Dockyard.51 Antigua and Barbuda have developed their first set of floating bungalows (Royalton Antigua Resort and Spa, located on the north west coast), and have received more requests for other floating facilities and applications for marinas, emphasizing the trend of coastal developments expanding on to the sea floor.
In 2000 and 2016, it was estimated that approximately 70% of the nation’s tourism accommodation have beachfront locations, and most important resorts and central infrastructures, such as ports and airports, are located less than 6 metres above sea level.27 This is important as coastal and beach erosion, as well as storm surge and sea level rise, will have a significant impact on coastal developments and land use.
The above is further exacerbated and threatened by illegal sand mining, poorly designed and unregulated sea defences, building of concrete structures too close to the shoreline and marine pollution and flooding.

The northwest coast is of particular concern – Dickenson Bay, Fort James, and Runaway Bay.
The DCA reports that periodically (approximately 3/year) they will receive beach nourishment applications, or applications to build groynes or sea walls to protect beach area.38 S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 IN 2000 AND 2016, IT WAS ESTIMATED THAT APPROXIMATELY 70% OF THE NATION’S TOURISM ACCOMMODATION HAVE BEACHFRONT LOCATIONS, AND MOST IMPORTANT RESORTS AND CENTRAL INFRASTRUCTURES SUCH AS PORTS AND AIRPORTS ARE LOCATED LESS THAN 6 METRES ABOVE SEA LEVEL.
Barbuda is well known for being undeveloped and untouched, a result of among other things, legal arrangements such as the Barbuda Land Act (2007) which historically gave Barbudan residents control over their land use.

The Barbuda Council and residents of Barbuda are selective of their leased developments and their size52.

The act was amended to The Barbuda Land (Amendment) Act, 2016 to reflect an increase in the definition of ‘major development’ from $5.4 million to $40 million 53.
The aftermath of Hurricane Irma and subsequent build back approach may be seen as having an impact on Barbuda’s culture52.

xi A Ramsar site is a wetland site designated to be of international importance under the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands of International Importance Especially as Waterfowl Habitat, which is an international treaty for the conservation and sustainable use of wetlands.

It is named after the city of Ramsar in Iran, where the convention was signed in 1971.
75 S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 MINING AND EXTRACTION The Lands Division controls the seabed, but sand mining (from beaches) was recently placed under the authority of the Department of Environment.

Additionally, mining is generally considered the regulatory responsibility of the Ministry of Works.45 There are currently no legally zoned areas for mining in Antigua and Barbuda, and mining activities should follow an application process.
In the past five years, the Ministry of Public Works can only cite two such applications.

Any mining done outside of this is considered illegal.46 Antigua and Barbuda has a major challenge with uncontrolled and unregulated topsoil and sand mining.

Historically, mining in the streambeds of the Body Ponds, Christian Valley and Pattersons areas have impinged on farm fields and created unsightly areas that were prone to soil erosion during heavy rains.
Topsoil is also mined illegally in the Betty's Hope area and the material is used for landscaping and road construction.

There have also been illegal movement of sand from a number of beaches around the island with consequent beach erosion in areas such as Yorks, Valley Church and Dark Wood Beach.54 Additionally, ghaut sand mining and extraction in seasonal streams have occurred in Bendals, Red Hills beach, for example.
Reports have also been made that sand mining has impacted the major ground water source for Barbuda.29 Illegal sand mining coupled with the potential impacts of sea level rise and other climate-influenced coastal erosion events can lead to significant beach loss.
Offshore mining is being explored as an opportunity, and will require development of a regulatory framework as well as an assessment of available deposits.45 ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION The coral reef shelf region is quite narrow in some portions of the island, with depths of >100m found less than one kilometre from the shore, while in other areas, it is as much as 5km offshore.

Coral reefs are found around the island with an estimated coverage of approximately 44.74 km2 on the island of Antigua alone.
Extensive mapping of the spatial distribution of the reefs on Barbuda or Redonda has not yet been conducted.

Antigua and Barbuda are home to extensive mangrove wetland ecosystems.

It is estimated that Antigua and Barbuda’s mangrove coverage was approximately 11% of the total land mass in the 1980s, and 10% in 2010.
A 2001 survey estimated 3% of the land area in Antigua and 22% in Barbuda.25 According to Target 14 for the International Convention of Biological Diversity, “by 2020 at least 2 major watershed and mangrove wetland areas are effectively protected”.

Protected mangrove systems (under the Fisheries Act, 2006) include (in excess of two): Cades Coastal Mangrove, Carlisle Bay, Johnsons Point, the Narrows, Fitches Creek, Winthorpes Bay and all the fringing mangroves of the North-eastern Marine Management Area.
These protected mangrove systems are more than 44% of all mangrove wetlands on Antigua measuring over 400 hectares (ha) in area.

One of the largest mangrove sites is found in Barbuda, and it extends some 352 ha and is home to the Magnificent Frigate Bird Sanctuary.
76 Out of the thirteen watersheds that have been identified in Antigua, six, covering over 11,572 ha of land, are recognized as critical based on their agro- ecological, hydrological and socio-economic values (Body Ponds, Potworks, Fitches Creek, Parham, Bethesda and Christian Valley).

These six watersheds account for 43% of the land area in Antigua.

They sustain 50% of the forests and 90% of crops, while accounting for 90% of surface water, and 80% of groundwater supplies.
One of the main water catchments of Antigua is the Potworks Dam.

The Forestry Unit is responsible for maintaining a buffer strip nearby the Dam to reduce siltation and also to protect it from agricultural encroachment.

The Forestry Unit is also working on having the Body Ponds area set up as a Forest Reserve.

In 1990, it was reported that there was 13.45 kha of forest cover (terrestrial and wetland).
In 2003, the Forestry Division (Ministry of Agriculture) indicated that Antigua had a forest cover of 5.60 kha, but was not able to provide data for Barbuda.6 Barbuda has retained significant portions of its native forest, which consists primarily of an evergreen bush forest.

There is a significant decline in forest cover between 1990 and 2003, however, it is not clear if this is from actual land clearing, a change in monitoring methods or a combination of both.
In the last 10 to 15 years, a combination of aerial photography and ground-truthing activities allowed for updated data gathering.6 There are eight (8) designated protected areas in Antigua (see Figure 3-18) and six (6) in Barbuda (see Figure 3-19).
S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 77 S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 Figure 3-18: Protected Areas in Antigua (Source: DMU, DOE) 78 S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 Figure 3-19: Protected Areas in Barbuda (Source: DMU, DOE) 79 In addition to these, the Department of Environment is currently updating the Protected Areas Systems Plan as part of the Path to 2020 Project, which should include two to three new protected areas – Redonda, Boggy Peak and Shekerley Mountain Management Area (SMMA) (see Table 3-4).
There are also currently activities underway to review the zoning and management plan for the Barbuda (Codrington) Lagoon National Park.
Table 3-4: Protected Areas in Antigua and Barbuda Name Island Type Cades Bay Marine Reserve Devil’s Bridge National Park Diamond Reef and Salt Fish Tail Reef Fort Barrington National Park Green Castle Hill National Park Nelson’s Dockyard National Park and World Heritage Site North East Marine Management Area (NEMMA) Wallings Forest Reserve Boggy Peak National Park* Shekerley Mountain Management Area* Goat Island Flash Sanctuary Goat Point Sanctuary Low Bay Sanctuary Palaster Reef Sanctuary Two Foot Bay Sanctuary Codrington Lagoon National Park and RAMSAR site Redonda* * proposed sites Antigua Antigua Antigua Antigua Antigua Antigua Antigua Antigua Antigua Antigua Barbuda Barbuda Barbuda Barbuda Barbuda Barbuda Marine Marine and terrestrial Marine Marine and terrestrial Terrestrial Marine and terrestrial Marine Terrestrial Terrestrial Terrestrial Marine Marine Marine Marine Marine Marine and terrestrial Redonda Marine and Terrestrial S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 One of the key objectives of establishing the Shekerley Mountain Management Area (SMMA) is to create a conservation corridor linking the Wallings Forrest Reserve (188 ha) in the southeast part of the SMMA with the Boggy Peak National Park (1,039 ha) in the centre-west of the SMMA (see Figure 3-18 above).
In addition, the SMMA is situated above the Cades Bay Marine Reserve, a premier coastal and marine conservation area in the country, and thus contributes to the connectivity between protection activities (e.g., reducing downstream runoff into the marine environment).55 Despite its international protection status (as a RAMSAR site), the Codrington Lagoon in Barbuda is currently being threatened by a tourism (hotel) development, highlighting the land use conflicts that exist between environmental protection areas and coastal development.
80 3.4 IMPACTS 3.4 IMPACTS High demand for land for residential space The increasing population has created a high demand for more residential space and affordable housing (new and replacement units).

The rise of informal settlements has a direct impact on current and future land use.

Many individuals and/or families reside in substandard housing, build in/on unsuitable lands, and engage in illegal backfilling of sites or resort to squatting25.
The backfilling of wetland and water catchments (ponds) for building purposes (residential and commercial) is a major challenge and impact on land use because of informal settlement development27.
The Cashew Hill area consisted predominantly of cane fields that were eventually converted into house lots and sold at low prices; this represents the loss of agricultural lands for development purposes, but also an irreversible change as the hydrological conditions of this natural water catchment were altered to satisfy the needs of a growing suburban population25.

Decrease in natural land cover There has been a decrease in natural land cover (wetlands, forests etc.
), due to the building in water catchment areas during dry spells or inadequate setback from stream ways.

This is prevalent in several rural and urban areas island wide, and notably in the NEMMA due to construction by Yida International Antigua Limited.

Decrease in natural land cover can alter the natural water channels and has been a significant contributing factor to immediate and future flood vulnerability.
Damage to the water table Considerable mining of ‘ghaut sand’ by the construction sector, and specific to Barbuda, the removal of sand deposits in the Palmetto Area, has raised the effective water table by several feet and resulted in the drying out of some of the shallow freshwater aquifer.

It should also be noted that the sand mining activities have increased the vulnerability of the island to saline intrusion and impacts of storm surges25.
Exposure to climate change infrastructure, With so much of critical tourism infrastructure located along the coastline, they are becoming increasingly exposed to high sea levels and storm surge due to climate change.

This means there is an urgent need to focus on adaptation measures that will increase the resilience of these infrastructure so that less is spent each time following a major event.
Great Bird Island, Antigua 81 Photo by: Chaso Media and Unmanaged and unregulated agricultural land use This can also have severe impacts on land use.

For example, the introduced citronella grass, one of the most noted invasive species in Antigua and Barbuda, occupied over 345 acres of land in 2010, and is constantly pushing out the native species from their natural habitats.

Unregulated burning of this grass can and has resulted in the loss of forest cover.
Uncontrolled grazing on public and private lands, and improper land use and farming practices on slopes in the south of the island (especially clearing of hillside vegetation) without terracing, or other mitigation contingencies have also in frequent created drainage problems, resulting flooding, erosion, and subsequent instability of infrastructure.
Environmental degradation can also occur through pollution of water resources from the runoff of chemicals (pesticides and fertilizers) from farms, which can impact adjacent land areas and their uses.

Collection of waste include Collection of waste is chronically challenged by financial constraints for operations and enforcement of the Litter Control and Prevention Act, 2019.

Consequences illegal dumping areas and the of this unregulated disposal of hazardous wastes like asbestos and medical waste.
There are also reports of sewage being used to put out fires at old dump sites.

Due to the lack of sewage treatment plant facilities, sewage, both in Antigua and Barbuda, is taken to their respective landfills for disposal.

In addition to this, there are instances when sewage is illegally emitted into the sea.

There are several government and private sector initiatives related to minimizing waste generation through reduce, reuse and recycle mechanisms.
82 St. John’s, Antigua Photo by: Antigua and Barbuda Tourism Authority S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 3.5 WHAT ARE WE DOING ABOUT IT?

As a result of the negative impacts, several plans, policies and regulations have been put in place to monitor and manage land use in Antigua and Barbuda.
These include: United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (1996): This is the only binding international agreement linking environment and development to sustainable soil management.

The Convention focuses specifically on arid, semi-arid and sub-humid and dry areas, where some of the most vulnerable ecosystems are located.
National Disaster Management Act (2002): This Act provides for the effective organization of the preparedness, management, mitigation of, response to and recovery from emergencies and disasters – natural and man-made – in Antigua and Barbuda.

The Agricultural Land Use Policy (2010): This policy supports the development of the agriculture sector under the guidance of the Agricultural Development Strategy.
The policy considers the location, size, function and growth of existing and new settlements, as well as their spatial and functional relationships.

This policy provides a framework for the provision of physical and social infrastructure and opportunities for economic activity, in accordance with a comprehensive settlement strategy.
The Sustainable Island Resource Management Zoning Plan (SIRMZP, 2012): The primary goal was to present a forward-looking strategic, national spatial development framework that addressed current development issues, and provided a platform for feasible private and public sector development initiatives over the next twenty (20) years.

This plan was designed to serve as a revised NPDP that meets the criteria of the Physical Planning Act.
The SIRMZP seeks more specific options to optimize the productive use of environmental resources while protecting critical ecosystems and promoting the local economic development, notably in the tourism, services, agriculture and industrial sectors.

It does so by providing geographic and sectoral analyses to suggest low-carbon development scenarios, and climate change adaptation measures, such as minimum ground floor elevation.
This plan is also known as the National Physical Development Plan (2012).30 National Environmental Management Strategy (2017): This strategy reflects the overall national targets, and those in the OECS, namely, Saint George's Declaration of Principles for Environmental Sustainability, and therefore encourages sustainable land use practices.
Antigua and Barbuda Road Infrastructure Rehabilitation (2019): This project will rehabilitate 8.7 km of major road to improve safety, capacity and drainage along the Sir George Walter Highway and the Friars Hill Road.

The project will also strengthen the institutional capacity of the Ministry of Works and Housing by upgrading the materials laboratory.
Environmental Protection and Management Act (2019): This Act sets up an institutional and administrative framework that details the rights and duties of institutions responsible for dealing with offenses, protected areas, and the control and mitigation of pollution.

The document allows the government to declare an area protected if the function of a carbon sink is identified following the UNFCCC principles, and to monitor the given area.
Land Degradation Neutrality (LDN) Targets:56 The targets are set by countries as a mark of their commitment to their contribution to Goal 15, Target 15.3 of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG), which aims to “combat desertification, restore degraded land and soil, including land affected by desertification, drought and floods, and strive to achieve a land degradation neutral world” by 2030.
In 2018, Antigua and Barbuda identified the following two (2) targets at the national level: (i) achieving LDN by 2030 to include the existing 9 percent degraded lands becoming neutral or improved; and (ii) the Target Setting Programme which is aligned to the global SDG15, to be achieved by 2030.

The LDN sub-targets are as follows: 83 1.

The land use/land cover indicator reflects a 5 percent change towards the improvement of the land by 2030; 2.
LDN is achieved in Saint Mary (priority), and in the parish of Saint John by 2030, compared to the 2015 baseline, through sustainable land management practices.

The government (through the Department of Environment and the Development Control Authority) is currently undergoing activities to develop Local Area Plans, with the first phase focused on areas that have significant flooding problems.
These plans are intended to guide development to avoid negative impacts of improper land management in the future.

To date, one (1) Local Area Plan has been completed for Cashew Hill (community level).

Two (2) others, for Saint Mary (parish level) and McKinnon’s (community level), are in development.

There are also proposed Local Area Adaptation Plans (proposed start in 2021) for St. John’s City, Darkwood Beach and Willoughby Bay.
The Caribbean Youth Environment Network is establishing spaces for young persons who are keen on sustainable land use and biodiversity.

There is no clear trend on where youths’ interest in land use activities lie; and are instead based on topical issues57.
In addition to the above, the Development Control Authority (DCA) was established as a statutory corporation, to be governed by the Antigua and Barbuda Physical Planning Act of 2003, and mandated to implement physical and land use planning and development functions in Antigua and Barbuda.
The DCA is charged with the responsibility to ensure orderly and progressive development of land in urban and rural areas to grant permission to subdivide or develop land; and to carry out related functions as described in the Physical Planning Act 2003.

The official building code currently in use in Antigua and Barbuda was ratified in 1995.

The OECS Building Code, 7th edition was updated in 2016, and has been vetted, reviewed and adjusted for use in Antigua and Barbuda.
It is now in the hands of the Antigua and Barbuda Government seeking ratification for official use in this country.38 The recently published Maritime Blue Economy Plan for Antigua and Barbuda (2021) is a step toward managing those sectors that contribute to the Blue Economy including some mentioned in this Land Use chapter such as environmental protection, coastal developments and mining and extraction.
The document outlines high level, strategic issues that require further discussion and development before implementation but include, among other recommendations (i) the establishment of a Blue Economy Department within a government ministry; (ii) ongoing development of a National Ocean Policy; (iii) creation of detailed implementation plans and funding applications, and several sector-specific recommendations.58 S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 84 S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 WATER Potworks Dam in Antigua Photo by: Nickbert Thomas 85 S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A WATER RESOURCES in Antigua and Barbuda include primary freshwater resources from rainwater, surface water, and groundwater (from wells and springs).
2 0 2 1 | 4 WATER 4.1 WHY IS IT IMPORTANT?

in streams, rivers, ponds, Water resources, specifically freshwater resources, refer to all the water that is lakes, reservoirs, wetlands and collected underground caverns and aquifers (excluding brackish and sea water).

These resources are replenished through the water cycle.

For Antigua and Barbuda, the primary freshwater resources include rainwater, surface water (ponds, no defined rivers exist), and groundwater (from wells and springs).
The demand for water often exceeds the supply potential of the natural freshwater resource, that is, surface-water catchments and groundwater wells.

As such, Antigua and Barbuda utilizes the process of desalination, applied through Reverse Osmosis plants, to meet the additional demands for freshwater.

Freshwater resources are vital for the sustenance of life and the support of ecosystems and human development.
The water cycle functions to provide a constant freshwater supply that is critical to sustaining biodiversity, supporting ecosystems and facilitating human development.

Anthropogenic activities including inter alia food production, manufacturing and sanitation are also heavily dependent on the availability and quality of freshwater.
In Antigua and Barbuda, there is a growing demand on freshwater resources caused by a growing population, which, in turn, contributes to changing patterns in the use and demand of freshwater, and greater emphasis being placed on increased food production.
This is compounded by the impacts of climate change, resulting in changing rainfall patterns, extended periods of droughts, and increased intensity and severity of storms, which, in turn, affect the country’s ability to sustainably manage its freshwater resources.

Since Antigua and Barbuda is limited in geographic area, it means that the availability, use and management of freshwater resources are critical to supporting economic and social development, while preserving the natural environment.
The vital and cross-cutting nature of freshwater resources to the natural heritage and sustainable development of Antigua and Barbuda means there will inevitably be synergies with other thematic areas, primarily climate change, land use and biodiversity.

Therefore, to avoid repetition, this theme focuses primarily on water resources, specifically supply and water quality.

Climate change will only be discussed in terms of its impacts on water resources.
4.2 DRIVERS AND PRESSURES The availability of freshwater resources and the maintenance of good water quality are critical for the functioning of anthropogenic and natural systems and are influenced by various drivers and pressures.

The geographical area of Antigua and Barbuda means there are limited freshwater resources, including ground-water wells and surface storage.
Principal among these drivers and 86 pressures is population growth, with the nations’ population increasing from 63,878 persons in 1991 to 86,295 59 in 2011.

The population expected to grow to 106, 365 by the year 202660, thus, the demand for freshwater will increase, resulting in greater pressures on the freshwater resources.

As the need for freshwater resources increases, the pressures on the surface storage and groundwater supplies will augment resulting in a reduction in the availability of water.
This can have negative implications on groundwater supply, as excessive amounts of extraction from groundwater wells can lead to saltwater intrusion into the well systems.

Population growth also increases the production of wastewater, which combined with poor waste management practices can leach into the natural environment with negative consequences.
The infiltration of wastewater into freshwater and marine systems can reduce water quality resulting in negative implications for human and environmental life.

The primary source of freshwater rechargexii in Antigua and Barbuda is rainfall.

Antigua and Barbuda is already highly dependent on reverse osmosis for much of its freshwater, but climate change will further increase the negative impacts.
Climate change (as described in Section 2) is very likely to result in reduced annual rainfall and affect rainfall variability.

The distribution and quantity of rainfall across the nation are not uniform, and in general, the island can be separated into two sections based on the long-term weather monitoring stations: Greencastle Monitoring Station representing the “wetter” Southwestern portion of the island and the V. C. Bird Monitoring Station representing the “drier” northeastern side of the island.
Antigua and Barbuda experiences peak rainfall around the month of May and later in October.

This pattern of rainfall distribution is driven by the North Atlantic high-pressure system and aided with the passage of cold fronts.

Even with its limited geographic scope, rainfall distribution greatly affects the ability of surface and groundwater storage systems to capture adequate water to meet the demands of a growing population.
Watersheds and waterways are critical to enable the capture of rainfall and facilitate the replenishment of surface and groundwater storage systems.

Farming, invasive species and poorly managed anthropogenic developments within these watersheds can alter the land cover, affecting water flow and reducing the ability of these watersheds and waterways to capture freshwater and facilitate the recharge process.

Historically, Antigua and Barbuda has been subject to drought conditions on a 5–10 year cycle.
61 The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change’s (IPCC) Regional Climate Models (RCM) indicate that the length of dry seasons and the variability of rainfall patterns will likely exacerbate drought conditions.61 Furthermore, evaporation rates, that is, the rate of water loss from surface water storage systems due to changes in temperature, humidity and other climatic factors, may also be affected by climate change.
Thus, if a warmer climate increases the rates of evaporation, it affects the ability of ground and surface water to maintain the necessary quantities of freshwater resources.

S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 THERE ARE LIMITED FRESHWATER RESOURCES IN ANTIGUA AND BARBUDA, INCLUDING GROUNDWATER WELLS AND SURFACE STORAGE.
AS THE NEED FOR FRESHWATER RESOURCES INCREASES, THERE ARE IMPLICATIONS FOR GROUNDWATER SUPPLY AS EXCESSIVE EXTRACTION FROM GROUNDWATER WELLS CAN LEAD TO SALTWATER INTRUSION INTO THE WELLS.

xii Freshwater recharge is the natural replenishment of freshwater resources.
87 S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 The growing drivers and subsequent increasing pressures demand greater monitoring and management of the processes affecting the availability of freshwater resources, and the overall quality of water resources in Antigua and Barbuda.

4.3 HOW IS IT CHANGING?


WATER RESOURCES Natural freshwater resources in Antigua and Barbuda are highly dependent on precipitation and the ability of watersheds and waterways to capture and funnel these into ground and surface water storage systems.

Rainfall is captured via watersheds, which then facilitate replenishment of freshwater storage systems.

Redonda, however, has no known natural freshwater storage systems or groundwater wells.
Antigua’s bi-modal rainfall pattern has two peaks, in May and October, with an annual rainfall averaging 1,050mm/yr.

More recently (1990s and 2000s), rainfall observations indicate a gradual shift to a less pronounced pattern in comparison to earlier data (1970s and 1980s), with two peaks occurring between August and November though still exhibiting a bi-modal distribution2.
The Barbuda Weather Monitoring Station has existed for a shorter time span, and thus does not have the data from pre-2000s for long-term data analysis.

Data collected for the 2000s indicate a single rainfall distribution peak in October.
Barbuda experiences some 750–900mm per year in annual rainfall based on data collected between 1993– 2010.2 Nationally, over the period1972–1990, there has been an increase in the number of wet days (0.15) and very wet days (6.85) per decade.61 This suggests that there is an increase in the intensity and duration of heavy rainfall events61.

Antigua has thirteen watersheds (Figure 4-1).


Six (6) of them (Body Ponds, Potworks, Fitches Creek, Parham, Bethesda and Christian Valley) have been identified as major catchments based on socio-economic and agro- ecological conditions.
These six (6) watersheds occupy 43% of Antigua’s total land area and are protected under the Environmental Protection and Management Act (EPMA, 2019).62 They contain 80% of the groundwater supplies and 90% of the surface water storage.63, and the two largest watershed units are Body Ponds (11,055 acres) and Potworks (9,415 acres).
Some of these watersheds are being overgrown by the invasive lemon (citronella) grass, which affects their ability to capture water In Barbuda, there are currently six (6) watersheds.

Seven wells are located in the lowlands of the western end of the island.

There are also two ponds in the southern section along the coastline.2 ANTIGUA HAS 13 WATERSHEDS, 6 OF WHICH OCCUPY 43% OF THE TOTAL LAND AREA AND CONTAIN 80% OF GROUNDWATER SUPPLY AND 90% OF SURFACE WATER STORAGE.
88 S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 Figure 4-1: Watersheds in Antigua2 89 S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 Figure 4-2: Water Storage Areas, Wells and Pipes (Source: DMU, DOE and APUA) 90 4.3.1.1 WATER SUPPLY AND DEMAND Surface water storage in Antigua is primarily found in ten (10) reservoirs, ponds and dams, with a total capacity of 1.6 billion imperial gallons, and the ability to supply 2.2 million imperial gallons per day.
Groundwater access is primarily via wells and the major well fields are in Bendals, Cades Bay, Diamond Hole, Jennings, Bristol, Pineapple, Feenes, Hamilton Claremont and Collins.2 Groundwater storage supplies 0.4 million imperial gallons per day, with the six (6) major watersheds accounting for 80% of the yield.

Barbuda has no major surface water storage systems, and wells are not monitored by the Antigua Public Utilities Authority (APUA).
Anecdotal evidence and stakeholder consultations reveal that a number of private households on Barbuda utilize wells for their freshwater needs, yet there is no official record of this, and water extraction from the Barbuda well system remains unregulated.

The shortfall in the distribution of freshwater resources for Antigua and Barbuda is addressed through the process of reverse osmosis of sea water.
In Antigua, the first two major desalination plants became operational in 2005 and produced 3.6 million imperial gallons/day.

Additional desalination plants have been added to the network over the years, and they produce 6.23 million imperial gallons/day (Figure 4-3).

Freshwater supply in Barbuda is primarily via desalination, with a single plant (Figure 4-4) producing 30,000 imperial gallons/day.61 A limited additional supply is via private wells, but these are not monitored.
S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 91 S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 Figure 4-3: Antigua Water Supply Areas (Source: DMU, DOE and APUA) 92 S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 Figure 4-4: Barbuda Water Supply Areas (Source: DMU, DOE).

Water demand is driven primarily by agriculture, domestic and industrial needs, government, and the tourism sector.
The domestic sector is the largest contributor to water demand, requiring 64%, followed by the commercial sector (23%) and the agriculture sector (1.7%).2 In 2000, overall water demand was estimated to be 2.5 million imperial gallons/day, increasing to 3.5 million imperial gallons/day in 2010, and 5.6 million imperial gallons/day in 2013.2 Current estimates indicate water demand to be 7 million imperial gallons/day.64 Rainfall values are insufficient to meet the water demand of the country, resulting in heavy dependencies on the desalination plants 2 so the current demand is met in part by surface water, which accounts for 36% of water supply and groundwater at 17%, with the remainder accounted for from desalination plants.61 93 There is an ageing water infrastructure resulting in leakages in the water distribution system65, leading to some 42% of the water supplied being unaccounted for.
This is estimated to translate to approximately 2 million gallons of water lost daily,66 and this is classified by the APUA as non-revenue water.xiii WATER QUALITY Water quality monitoring is conducted by several agencies in Antigua and Barbuda, however, there is no national water quality standard.

The Department of Environment (DOE) has defined standards in their EPMA,62 2019 but these have not been nationally accepted.
The lack of a nationally accepted and enforced standard means that there is no standard approach to how sampling is done, the choice of parameters to focus on, sampling objectives, periodicity, and regularity of monitoring.

This has resulted in no long-term data/reports which analyze trends in water quality over the years.

The Department of Analytical Services (DAS) serves as the principal technical agency, and conducts testing of water samples on behalf of government agencies.
They also provide technical advice and assistance to agencies conducting testing.

However, this agency has no regulatory authority and has highlighted the need for a national, coordinated focus on water quality monitoring, and comprehensive regulations to guide water quality issues in Antigua and Barbuda.75 The Central Board of Health (CBH) monitors the endpoint of the water production system to ensure that water is safe for human consumption.
CBH monitors sewage systems, particularly those within the city of St. John’s and those associated with hotels, to ensure they are safe for discharge into the natural environment, but these systems are often poorly maintained.67 Inadequately managed sewage systems can lead to the contamination of freshwater supply systems, and contamination of groundwater wells have been noted as a result.61 The periodicity of testing is often challenged by a lack of resources,67 and there are no data reports to examine trends in the water quality.
APUA is a producer of water and has no authority over the regulations and management prescriptions of Water Quality in Antigua and Barbuda.

APUA internally conducts ground and surface water sources testing for physical and chemical parameters and treats the water via its water distribution system so that it is safe for human consumption.68 There were no data reports available to examine trends in these samples.
The DOE monitors 28 marine sites and 16 surface water bodies in Antigua, but no sites in Barbuda (Figure 4-5).69 They have used the standards as defined in the EPMA, 2019.

The DOE assess sites by looking at the following parameters: Phosphate, Nitrate, Turbidity, DO and pH, and whether each site was suitable based on its associated standard concentration, from which a “PASS” or “FAIL” is assigned70.

Of the 28 coastal sites monitored in 2019, 29% of sample sites were within the acceptable range.
This figure increases to 93% of sites in the 2020 sample period (Figure 4-6).

While the cause for this improvement in water quality has not been identified, the DOE notes that further attention is needed as coastal water quality is affected by both land and sea anthropogenic activities.69.

S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 THERE IS NO NATIONAL WATER QUALITY STANDARD FOR ANTIGUA AND BARBUDA.
THE LACK OF NATIONALLY ACCEPTED AND ENFORCED STANDARDS LIMITS THE CONTROL ON WATER QUALITY SAMPLING, PARAMETERS SAMPLED, AND FREQUENCY OF MONITORING.

THIS HAS RESULTED IN NO LONG-TERM DATA/REPORTS WHICH ANALYZE TRENDS IN WATER QUALITY xiii Non-revenue water is determined by the amount supplied minus the amount billed.

94 The National Parks Authority (NPA) also conducts testing of marine (14 sites) and point source (5 sites) within the Nelson Dockyard National Park.
This programme was initiated in 2018, and tests are conducted during the peak tourist season (February) as well as during the summer season (July).

This is done to understand the impacts of the tourism sector and its associated activities on the marine environment.

Analysis is based on information provided by the DAS, but a finalized report on the water quality testing has not been produced.

Water quality data on Barbuda was collected in the past as part of the Codrington Lagoon management programme71.
The water quality programme began in 2010 and continued up to 2015, and parameters collected included: Depth (ft), Water Temp (0C), Dissolved Oxygen (mg/L), Total Dissolved Solids (mg/L), and pH, and covered 30 sites throughout the Codrington Lagoon.

This programme however came to an end after the passage of Hurricane Irma in 201771, and no reports are available on the conclusions of the programme.
S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 95 S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 Figure 4-5: Marine Water Quality Sampling Sites in Antigua (DOE, 2020).

96 S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 Figure 4-6: Water Quality Health Status 2020 (DOE, 2021).
97 4.4 IMPACTS Reduction in environmental water The growing water demand due to population growth, commercial and industrial activities has led to greater extraction of freshwater resources from the natural environment, reducing its availability for natural processes.

Unfortunately, no monitoring of this has been done to clearly understand the impact that the reduction of the naturally available freshwater resources is having on the aquatic ecosystems.
Additionally, no monitoring is done as it relates to the impacts of the increasing use of desalination and the discharge of brine into the marine environment.

Increased reliance on desalination and wells Due to the increasing demand for water combined with the low annual rainfall, the production capacity of natural freshwater systems has been exceeded80.

Desalination plants have increasingly been utilized to supplement the shortfalls from natural water the production and meet population.
Water production is also supplemented via the drilling of additional wells, particularly to meet the needs of the agricultural sector.

the demands of Saline Intrusion With increasing dry periods, greater demand for water and sea level rise, the risk for saline intrusion has increased.

During the dry season, this is often enhanced resulting in wells becoming unusable for potable water3.
Additionally, as dry periods become more frequent, and temperatures continue to rise due to climate change, evaporation of the surface water storage systems in a reduction of their capacity.

In Antigua, the largest storage reservoir, Potworks, which accounts for 83% of total surface storage capacity, has a shallow zone with high evaporation rates.

However, these rates have not been measured.


increases resulting Potworks Dam 98 Photo by: Antigua News Room citratus)72 affe cts watershe d’s ability to capt ure water from,as it increa ses run-off and re duces infiltration rates .
Additional devel opments within waters hed areas, w hich occur in the a bse nce of an I WM, also a ffe ct the ability of these watershe ds to ade quately ca pture pre cipitat ion event s and repl enish freshwater storage syste ms. 2 Improper ma nagement of fres hwater resources - The li mited distribution of weather stations acr oss Antigua and Bar buda (none in Red onda ) mea ns there is i nade quate understanding of the quantity of rainfall affecting the isla nd on a monthly and yearly basis .
Improving the understa nding of the quanti t ies and distribution of rainfall a cross all the isla nds can lead t o greater manage ment of fre shwater res ource s, ens uring availability of water for a nthropogeni c and natural pur pose s. Poor national water quality monitoring- T he lack of a national g uidance on water quality continues to be a hindrance t o the monitoring of water quality and manage me nt of wastewater syste ms. E nvironmentally, there are several agen cies whi ch monitor e nvironmental water resources for quality issues , but there is very little colla boration between the se agen cies, leadi ng to repeat sa mpling and poor us e of re sour ces.
Sewage and wastewater systems are monitored, but often s uffer from poor manage ment, leadi ng to dis charge into the natural environme nts.

Poor surface water capture lack of a national impacted surface storage systems The integrated watershed management (IWM) policy, local area plans (LAPs), along with the presence of invasive alien species (IAS) affecting watersheds and poor farming practices have negatively in Antigua and Barbuda.
The invasive lemon grass (Cymbopogan citratus)72 affects the watershed’s ability to capture water from precipitation, as it increases run-off and reduces infiltration rates3.

Additional developments within watershed areas, which occur in the absence of an IWM, also affect the ability of these watersheds to capture precipitation events adequately and replenish freshwater storage systems.
Improper management of freshwater resources The limited distribution of weather stations across Antigua and Barbuda (none in Redonda) means there is inadequate understanding of the quantity of rainfall affecting the island on a monthly and yearly basis.

Improving the understanding of the quantities and distribution of rainfall across all the islands can lead to greater management of freshwater resources, ensuring availability of water for anthropogenic and natural purposes.
Poor national water quality monitoring The lack of a national guidance on water quality continues to be a hindrance to the monitoring of water quality and management of wastewater systems.

Environmentally, there are several agencies which monitor environmental water resources for quality issues, but there is very little collaboration between these agencies, leading to repeat sampling and poor use of resources.
Sewage and wastewater systems are monitored, but often suffer from poor management, leading to discharge into the natural environment.

Pools of surface water Photo by: CCS Caribbean 99 4.5 WHAT ARE WE DOING ABOUT IT?

Given the destruction to watersheds across the islands, the DOE has embarked on several projects aimed at improving the management of watersheds and waterways.

The following highlights these initiatives.


The DOE has a Water Quality Monitoring Programme which monitors 28 marine sites and 16 surface water bodies in Antigua.

This programme compares its data to the standards issued in the Environmental Protection and Management Act of 2019.
A National Drainage Code is being developed via the Adaptation Fund and the Special Climate Change Fund, which will create guidelines for drainage development on a national level, while supplying crucial information that can be incorporated into a National Integrated Watershed Management Policy which would guide operations around watersheds and the associated surface catchments.62 The Meteorological (Met) Office has created a listing of sites for the placement of additional weather monitoring stations.73 These will not only provide a better distribution of rainfall patterns around Antigua and Barbuda, but also provide information on freshwater recharge processes which will improve the management of surface catchment and groundwater systems.
The NPA’s Water Quality Monitoring Programme is being used to better understand the impacts of the tourism activities on the marine environment within the NDNP.
Data from these samples are being used to identify point- sources, and management actions are being conducted in conjunction with partner agencies such as the Central Board of Health (CBH).74 The Central Board of Health (CBH) conducts water quality testing at the end-point of the water distribution system to ensure a safe supply of water is available to the population.

Additionally, the CBH is tasked with monitoring and regulation of sewage systems.
The DAS is part of the working group looking at the Land-based Sources (LBS) Protocol under the Cartagena Protocol.

The LBS Protocol can be used to provide guidance both for source and end-point water quality checks.75 The CBH has been involved in the creation of a CARICOM standard for the emission of sewage effluent for the region.

The development of these protocols should inform the creation of a national standard, to streamline water quality monitoring and management in Antigua and Barbuda.
The National Adaptation Project (NAP) project, funded by the Green Climate Fund also aims to develop Local Area Adaptation Plans for St. John’s City, Willoughby Bay and Darkwood Beach.

The EPMA, 2019 also calls for the establishment of the “Water Resources, Watershed and Wetland Management” committee, which will guide the adoption and implementation of any wetland or watershed management plan.
S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 100 S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 BIODIVERSITY Antiguan Racer Snake Photo by: Nick Hollands 101 S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 BIODIVERSITY underpins all life and is important to the health of mankind.
Natural biological systems are intertwined with food systems, recreation and wellness and therefore into human health.

5 BIODIVERSITY 5.1 WHY IS IT IMPORTANT?

Biodiversity is the variability among living organisms from all sources, including terrestrial, marine, and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are a part.

It includes diversity within species and between species and of ecosystems76 Biodiversity underpins all life and is important to the health of mankind.
Natural biological systems are intertwined with food systems, recreation and wellness, and therefore with human health.

The interrelationships of biodiversity produce ecological functions and when influenced by natural physical processes result in a number of ecosystems.
Evergreen forests, xerophytic (dry) forests, watersheds, scrubland ecosystems, grassland ecosystems, mangrove forest ecosystems, herbaceous swamp ecosystems, salt pond ecosystems, marine and coastal ecosystems are all ecosystems that have been identified in Antigua and Barbuda.
The islands’ ecosystem variety is enhanced by its physical topographic and geological features, including the presence of caves in many parts of the country; by natural seasonal drainage channels and ponds; a highly irregular coastline; and many small offshore islands.

While there is some mention of Barbuda’s Biodiversity in this chapter, the Department of Environment will be publishing a more comprehensive Barbuda Natural Resources Inventory Report in 2021.
This report will provide baseline data for the island.

A draft NRIR was delivered in 2018 and the final version is expected to be published by the end of 2021.

That report will contain information on three main areas, i.e.

physical, natural and socio-cultural environments of Barbuda.

Due to delays beyond the control of the DOE, the final NRIR was not yet available at the time of publishing the current report.

The biodiversity in Antigua and Barbuda is an important catalyst for economic growth.
The country’s main economic activity is the tourism industry and its biodiversity contributes significantly to the attractiveness and quality of Antigua and Barbuda as a destination, and therefore, to the competitiveness of the country’s tourism product.

The country’s tourism marketing tools feature biodiversity heavily: for example, clean coastal water and pristine beaches; vibrant underwater ecology and life; and naturally-vegetated landscapes.
All these ecosystem services contribute to the destination’s attractiveness.

However, Antigua and Barbuda’s biodiversity and ecosystems are vulnerable to natural and anthropogenic changes.

Historically, the biodiversity of Antigua has been impacted by the sugar industry and cotton production and more recently, by tourism developments.

The country is also vulnerable to natural hazards such as tropical cyclones, drought and earthquakes.
These have all led to significant losses of biodiversity on the islands.

An ecosystem’s resilience is essential to mitigating the impacts of biodiversity loss, while sustaining human economic, social and cultural activities.

Biodiversity and ecosystems in Antigua and Barbuda 102 S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 are delicately balanced and provide a variety of goods and services.
Robust, resilient ecosystems which have a high biodiversity help build resilience to pressures.

Antigua and Barbuda is committed to sustainable development and therefore sustainable utilization of its biodiversity.

The country has enacted several national laws and signed international treaties as part of its commitment to manage, protect and build resilience to mitigate biodiversity loss and ecosystem change.

As a consequence, goals and targets have been set and regular monitoring is critical.
In Antigua and Barbuda’s 6th National Report to the Convention on Biodiversity, presented in 2020, the country outlined its achievements in the management and protection of biodiversity.

The measures included a variety of legislative, policy and collaborative management tools across government, the private sector and communities.

5.2 DRIVERS AND PRESSURES Biodiversity loss and changes to ecosystems occur as a result of pressures exerted by direct and indirect drivers.
Indirect drivers of biodiversity loss and ecosystem change, also known as underlying causes, include natural and anthropogenic factors.

They operate diffusely by altering and influencing direct drivers as well as other indirect drivers.

Direct drivers can also be natural or anthropogenic, but these unequivocally influence biodiversity and ecosystem processes.

Direct drivers are also referred to as pressures.


77 The primary underlying causes of biodiversity loss and ecosystem change include population pressure and economic growth which result in land-use change/habitat change, pollution, natural resource use and exploitation, and invasive species introduction.

Climate change is also a significant driver of biodiversity loss and ecosystem change due to changes in temperature and rainfall.
The Fifth Assessment Report (AR5) of the Inter- governmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) highlights the warning that if global average temperature increases reach 4°C, climate change will likely become the dominant driver of ecosystem changes and biodiversity loss.78 Antigua and Barbuda’s population has doubled since the 1960’s, it was estimated at 80,16179 in 2011 and 97,895 in 2020, it is projected to be 106,395 in 202680.
This growth and the associated demographic changes have resulted in increased demand for residential housing and expansion of urban areas; traditional villages have also expanded, and new housing settlements created to accommodate the demand.

This has resulted in the need to clear lands, thus negatively impacting biodiversity and ecosystems.
The demographic shifts have, in turn, resulted in increased importation of packaged goods which often contribute to litter and pollution issues across the island and have impacted inland water as well as marine and coastal biodiversity.

The changes in the population demographics have also led to increased pressure on nearshore fisheries, and also wildlife that is traditionally harvested for consumption.
The country’s economy was historically dependent on sugar and cotton which significantly impacted the biodiversity of Antigua, in particular.

The clearing of much of the country’s primary vegetation during colonial rule, to accommodate sugar and cotton production for three hundred years, resulted in the loss of biodiversity and by extension, severe impacts on vegetation and terrestrial ecosystems.
During this time of sugar and cotton production, the accidental introduction of rats (1800s) which stowed away on ships, followed by the deliberate introduction of mongooses (1890s) in an effort to curb the rat population.
The joint impact of these invasive species led to the extinction of several species of native biodiversity including the Antigua Burrowing Owl, Nightjar, Curly Tailed Lizard, Parrot and many other endemics.81 The shift to tourism development in the late 1970s has led to a partial recovery in vegetation biodiversity; however, it is not as robust as before the era of the sugar plantation and is in marked contrast to neighboring Caribbean islands on which sugar production was less intense.
103 S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 THE SHIFT TO TOURISM DEVELOPMENT IN THE LATE 1970s HAS LED TO A PARTIAL RECOVERY IN VEGETATION BIODIVERSITY; HOWEVER, IT IS NOT AS ROBUST AS BEFORE THE SUGAR PLANTATION ERA.
Despite this recovery due to the shift from sugar, the more recent focus on coastal tourism, which is a major contributor to the economy, has also led to significant biodiversity loss and ecosystem change; wetlands have been destroyed for coastal tourism development and beach ecosystems which support turtle nesting have been impacted by inadequate coastal setbacks and removal of vegetation.

High-end tourism residential development has now become the predominant real estate trend.
High-end villas are rapidly occupying upper watershed areas which offer magnificent views.

While they have a smaller footprint and should have fewer environmental impacts, mandatory regulatory environmental risk assessments do not tend to be conducted as there is no mandatory requirement for Environmental Impact Assessments (EIA) for villas.

Additionally, there has been no cumulative impact assessment of the biodiversity effects of residential tourism type developments.
increased The cruise ship and the yachting industries have also developed rapidly over the last 20–30 years.

These, along with importation of goods, driven by demographic trends, have resulted in increased maritime traffic and led to the dredging of coastal areas to create and expand marinas and ports.

A number of marina and yachting facilities were constructed in sheltered wetland ecosystems.
While these activities create livelihood opportunities, there has been localized biodiversity loss, and critical ecosystem services have been severely compromised.

Invasive species have also had a significant impact on biodiversity and ecosystems.
They have entered Antigua and Barbuda via a number of pathways and have been identified as a key driver of biodiversity loss through predation, competition and habitat alteration Increased shipping traffic and inadequate monitoring of imports, lack of implementation or monitoring of tourist and awareness of biosecurity measures have been blamed for the introduction of invasive alien species which deplete local genetic diversity.
Figure 5-1: Progress in Removal of the invasive Fever Grass (Cymbopogon citratus) from Body Ponds 2008 vs 2019 Additionally, hurricanes and storms can negatively affect terrestrial ecosystems.

Hurricane Irma (2017) resulted in extensive damage to Barbuda’s vegetation and habitats.

Since then, the more resilient areas have recovered, however, the degraded areas have not recovered as well.
Coastal and marine ecosystems have also been 104 negatively impacted by unsustainable coastal development practices, poor water quality, illegal dumping, unsustainable fishing and climate change.

Coral reefs are also vulnerable to climate change impacts such as elevated water temperatures, as well as invasive species and disease.

5.3 HOW IS IT CHANGING?

The changes recorded due to natural and man-made drivers and pressures have generally resulted in a trend towards biodiversity loss.
Most of the ecosystems in Antigua and Barbuda are in a state of decline/loss, except for wetlands, which appear to be stable.

The following sections describe in greater detail the status and trends for the ecosystems in Antigua, Barbuda and Redonda.
NATURAL RESOURCES AND ECOSYSTEMS 5.3.1.1 TERRESTRIAL ECOSYSTEMS As described in Section 5.2, Antigua and Barbuda has been significantly impacted by forest degradation and loss of floral ecosystem services which has, in turn, impacted terrestrial fauna as well as nearshore marine habitats.

This largely began in the colonial era to facilitate sugar production and continued following the introduction of tourism.
This is particularly evident on Antigua where the landscape experienced significant ecological disturbance over time.

However, many ecologically diverse and important terrestrial systems are still found in relatively undeveloped areas and some are undergoing natural recovery.

5.3.1.1.1 FORESTS AND WATERSHEDS Antigua was originally covered with low forest or scrub, which was over time completely removed to create sugarcane and cotton plantations, reduced to pastures, or used for fuel.
By the end of the 18th century, nearly 142 km2 were under cultivation; this reduced to only 101km2 in 1960, leaving about 178 km2 covered by secondary types of vegetation.

Terrestrial vegetation coverage on Antigua now is therefore largely secondary growth, with very few areas of primary growth.

The floral community consists of shrublands/grasslands, lowland tropical forest, montane forest, and mangrove forest.
Barbuda has retained significant portions of its native forest, which consist primarily of an evergreen bush forest.

Data on forest cover is collected by the Department of Environment in support of Greenhouse Gas Inventories.

Unfortunately, data was not available for Barbuda in 2015 and so the trends below reflect Antigua only.
S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 HISTORICALLY, ANTIGUA WAS COVERED WITH LOW FOREST OR SCRUB, WHICH WAS REMOVED TO CREATE SUGARCANE AND COTTON PLANTATIONS, REDUCED TO PASTURES, OR USED FOR FUEL.

BY THE END OF THE 18TH CENTURY, NEARLY 142 KM2 WERE UNDER CULTIVATION, LEAVING ABOUT 178 KM2 COVERED BY SECONDARY TYPES OF VEGETATION.
105 S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 Table 5-1: Showing the Change in Forest Cover on Antigua 2015–2019 Type Forest Grassland Year 2015 Year 2019 Area in hectares Change in hectares Trend in % 14050.72 3444.05 11,604.95 3,469.01 -2,445.77 24.96 -17 1 Data Source: Greenhouse Gas Inventory for Antigua and Barbuda 2015 and 2019 Forest cover declined by 17% between 2015 and 2019, just over 4% per annum.
This loss has been attributed to indiscriminate bulldozing and clearing of land and ghauts, free-roaming goats and the setting of illegal fires.

The invasive exotic Asian grass Cymbopogon citratus, known locally as Fever Grass, has spread throughout hills in the southwest coast watershed areas.

There are extensive areas of fever grass in Body Ponds, Hamiltons, McNish, Brecknocks, Sawcolts, John Hughes, Bishops, Signal Hill, Swetes, Buckleys, Olivers and Saint Lukes.
Many of these areas are burned at least every dry season; some areas burn several times per year.

Fires set at the hottest and driest time of the day, burn very fiercely destroying almost all animal life and all vegetation in their path, except for the Fever Grass Fires.

The fever grass species often forms monotypic savannas, excluding native species and reducing biodiversity.
A rehabilitation pilot project initiated in 2008 has achieved visible success in eliminating the grass from a small area in Body Ponds.

Within the terrestrial ecosystems in Antigua, Barbuda and Redonda, the following flora and fauna are found.
5.3.1.1.2 FLORA Inventories of the country’s vegetation (including Redonda) conducted in 1997 reveal 1,158 known plant species, a large percentage of which is classified as rare and endangered.82 In 2009, a comprehensive vegetation assessment recorded 1,190 species of vascular plants.

This included 1,140 species recorded by botanists over the past 40 years and about 50 additional species.
Of these 1,190 species, 648 trees, shrubs, monocots and ferns were noted as seriously threatened.83 Additionally, it was noted that 153 species from the 1997 list were not found during the 2009 assessment; these are thought to be extremely rare or have been eradicated since the original observations.
Table 5-2: Plants observed in Antigua, Barbuda and Redonda shrubs, Trees, monocots, vines, ferns Other species Small Herbs Cultivated plants Grasses sedges and Submerged aquatics Total 106 S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 648+23xiv 268 129 135 10 2213 Data Source: Environmental Awareness Group Plant Conservation Project – Project Completion Report Draft C (EAG, 2009) and The Regional Red List of Pteridophytes of Antigua, Barbuda and Redonda.
(EAG, 2017) Many varieties, subspecies and hybrids of pteridophytes xv have been recorded in vegetation assessments.

The number of species of pteridophytes recorded for all three of the major islands of Antigua, Barbuda and Redonda has increased over time.

Thirty (30) species were recorded in 1935; this increased to 50 in 2009 and to 73 in the most recent assessment conducted in 2011.84 There has also been an increase in the number of invasive plants as well as plant diseases.
The Global Register of Invasive Alien Species (IAS) identifies five (5) verified IAS of the plant kingdom for Antigua and Barbuda.85 5.3.1.1.3 FAUNA (WILDLIFE) recent comprehensive islandwide wildlife No assessments have been undertaken for Antigua and Barbuda.

However, comprehensive assessments have been undertaken for Redonda and for the offshore islands.
Antigua and Barbuda including Redonda serve as important habitats for birds and are home to 12 Important Birding Areas (IBAs) totaling 196 sq km (20% of which is land area).

These are Bethesda Dam, Christian Cove, Potswork Dam, Christian Valley, Wallings Forest, Fitches Creek Bay–Parham Harbour, Offshore Islands, Valley Church Bay, Hanson’s Bay–Flashes, McKinnon’s Saltpond, Codrington Lagoon and Creek and Redonda (Figure 5-2).
Two hundred and three (203) species of birds have been recorded around Antigua, Barbuda and Redonda, 65% of which are Neotropical migratory birds.

Of these, 23 are of major concern and are the driving force behind the designation of the IBAs.

The offshore islands are home to breeding populations for neotropical migrants which are xiv 23 Additional Pteridophytes observed in 2011. xv A pteridophyte is a vascular plant that disperses spores.
107 Figure 5-2: Antigua and Barbuda Key Birding Areas (Extracted from Antigua and Barbuda Important Birding Areas Prosper et.

al.

(EAG, 2009) globally significant (Laughing Gull Larus atricilla) and populations that are regionally significant including the Vulnerable West Indian Whistling-duck Dendrocygna arborea, White Crowned Pigeon Patagioenas leucocephala, Brown Pelican Pelecanus occidentalis, Royal Tern Sterna maxima and Least Tern Sterna antillarum.
Redonda is home to 1% of the global population of Brown Boobies (Sula leucogaster) and is also home to Masked Boobies (Sula dactylatra), Red-footed Boobies (Sula sula), and Magnificent Frigate Birds (Fregata magnifcens).

Table 5-3: Birds observed in Antigua Barbuda and Redonda Total 203* Land Birds Migratory 100 156 Breeding Endemic Seabirds Waterbirds 1 37 89 Data Source: Country profile: Antigua and Barbuda.

BirdLife International (Checked: 9th May 2021).


*NB: The numbers are not meant to add up to 203, some may overlap eg., there may be a migratory land, sea or water birds.

S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 Broad-Winged Hawk Photo by: Nick Hollands Regular bird surveys are carried out on the mainland and the offshore islands, and these are spearheaded by the Environmental Awareness Group (EAG) in partnership with Birds Caribbean.
However, there is need for basic research to assess population size, habitat use and threats to the country’s key bird species to ensure that major conservation initiatives are based on sound science, and their efficacy monitored.

Birds on the offshore islands and Redonda have benefitted from the removal of invasive species which has caused some bird populations to rebound.
Species such as the West Indian Whistling Duck (Dendrocygna arborea) and the Caribbean Brown Pelican (Pelecanus occidentalis) have begun to thrive in these areas.
Bird populations have resurged on islands where rats are not present, in some cases with a >500% increase.86 However, the EAG has observed that on offshore islands where rats have been reintroduced, the presence of nesting birds has declined.87 108 S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 The Barbuda Warbler (Setophaga subita) is endemic to Antigua and Barbuda but only present in Barbuda.
The warbler’s habitat is dry thickets and scrub near water and mangroves, and the small population is very vulnerable to extreme weather events and habitat loss from development pressure, leading to its status as Near Threatened on the IUCN Red List.

After Hurricane Irma in 2017, it was feared that the population had been wiped out as none were seen for 2 weeks, prompting a rapid survey later that year by the EAG to determine the species’ numbers and distribution.
The Barbuda Warbler demonstrated its resilience to climate change and remained abundant and widely distributed but had suffered a significant population decline since 2013, with estimates in 2017 of 2,500 individuals.88 Follow-up surveys conducted in 2019 show that the population was still well distributed and follows the same trends as above.
Barbuda is home to the largest breeding colony of Magnificent Frigatebird (Fregata magnificens) in the Caribbean, estimated at 1,743 nests and 5,300 birds in March 2008.

After Hurricane Irma, their habitat within the Codrington Lagoon IBA was severely degraded with many of the red mangroves completely denuded and as little as100 frigates visible.

In 2019, a population of 7,451 frigatebirds were recorded by the EAG and Birds Caribbean during a rapid survey.89.
None of Antigua and Barbuda's 17 terrestrial mammals are globally threatened.

Bats are the only native terrestrial mammals in the country, of which 8 species are present and 7 confirmed on both islands.90 The first formal survey of Antiguan bats was performed by Matthew Morton and Kevel Lindsay in 1994.

Another series of surveys was carried out between 1998–2003 and these surveys as well as records were used to determine the initial bat list for Antigua.
One additional species was recorded in 2008.91 No recent bat surveys have been published; however, the DOE has reported that some work is underway as part of the Path to 2020 biodiversity project’s bat assessment programme within the Shekerley Mountain Management Area (SMMA), the offshore islands and Barbuda.
Type Frugivore Nectarivore Carnivore Insectivore Table 5-4: Antigua and Barbuda Bat List Species Name Common Name Artibeus jamaicensis Common Fruit Bat Brachyphylla cavernarum Pig-faced or Rat Bat Ardops nichollsi Tree Bat Monophyllus plethodon Long-tongued Fruit Bat Noctilio leporinus Fishing Bat Natalus stramineus Funnel-eared or Long-legged Bat Molossus molossus Velvety House Bat Tadarida brasiliensis Brazilian Free-tailed Bat Data Source: First record of Ardops nichollsi from Antigua, Lesser Antilles (2010) Very little information on invertebrates exists for Antigua and Barbuda.
The following are included among the more popular species: Beetles (Coleoptera), Spiders, Mites, Ticks (Arachnida), Centipedes (Chilopada), Dragonflies (Odonata), Grasshoppers, Crickets (Orthoptera), Ants, Bees, Wasps (Hymenoptera), Flies, Mosquitoes (Diptera), Butterflies and Moths (Lepidoptera).

There is no population data on these organisms.


However, anecdotally communities have reported that the population of dragon flies, fireflies and other flying insects has reduced with the widespread mosquito fogging programmes for residential communities.

109 S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 There is high endemicity of lizard species on Antigua and Barbuda’s mainland and offshore islands.
There are four endemic lizard species – Watts’ Anole (Anolis wattsi), Leach’s Anole (Anolis leachii) Antiguan Ground Lizard (Pholidoscelis griswoldi) and Antigua Least Gecko (Sphaerodactylus elegantulus) on Antigua and Barbuda.

Redonda has 3 critically endangered endemic species – Redonda Tree Lizard (Anolis nubilis), Redonda Ground Dragon (Pholidoscelis atratus) and the Redonda Dwarf Gecko (Sphaerodactylus sp.

nov).92 The blind snake (Typhlops monastus geotomus) is common on both Antigua and Barbuda.
The critically endangered Antiguan Racer (Alsophis antiguae) was once widespread across our twin island state, but was severely decimated by the introduction of rats and mongooses that it was erroneously declared extinct twice.

In 1995, a mere 51 individuals remained on Great Bird Island, making it the rarest snake on the planet.

(Daltry and Day, 1996).


But through the EAG’s invasive species removal efforts, the racer has been reintroduced to three other offshore islands (Rabbit, York, Green) and its numbers have climbed steadily, with a population estimate of 1200 individuals across 63 hectares in 2020.
Antiguan Racer Snake Photo by: Jenny Daltry 5.3.1.2 MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS Connected marine and coastal ecosystems with corals, mangrove wetlands and seagrasses are important nursery areas and corridors for resident and transient species.

Additionally, intact wetlands provide higher quality habitat, protect shorelines, and improve water quality.

There is no national database for marine flora.


However, based on records of sightings and site-specific assessments, the marine flora of Antigua, Barbuda and Redonda includes several species of brown and green macro algae as well as filamentous algae, calcifying algae and seagrasses.

5.3.1.2.1 WETLAND ECOSYSTEMS Mangrove plants combined with the intertidal area make up the Mangrove Wetland ecosystem.

These ecosystems are a common coastal feature on Antigua and Barbuda.
Four types of mangrove plants have been identified in the country: red mangrove (Rhizophora mangle); black mangrove (Avicennia germinans); white mangrove (Laguncularia racemose); and buttonwood mangrove (Conorcarpus erectus).

Both the trees and the ecosystems have been singled out separately for special protection under the Environmental Protection and Management Act of 2019 (EPMA 2019).

Antigua’s mangrove wetlands also include salt ponds, tidal mud flats and intertidal flashes.
Some have a single species of mangrove tree, while others are complex with a variety of mangroves and other vegetation.

Barbuda has two coastal lagoons located on the northern and western side of Barbuda.

They are bordered by mangroves, salt marshes and sand.

Although the entire area is sometimes referred to as the Codrington Lagoon there are two separate lagoons making up the system.

The larger deeper lagoon is Codrington and the smaller 110 shallower lagoon is known as Goat Island Flash.
Both Lagoons are part of the Codrington Lagoon National Park (CLNP).

A range of animals, plants, landscapes and livelihoods are associated with and supported by the Barbuda Lagoons.

The Barbuda Lagoons are a major breeding ground for economically important fish and lobster.

The ecosystems that support these interactions include mangrove wetlands, salt marshes, sand dunes, submerged seagrass beds, algal mats, shoals and coral reefs.
In 2006 CLNP recognized as Wetland of International Importance and declared a Ramsar Site.

It is still the only area in Barbuda with an international designation93.

In 2012, the 36 recognized wetland sites in Antigua were reported to cover 3% of the land and 9 mangrove wetland sites in Barbuda were reported to cover 22% of the land.94 Data collected in 2010 and 2019 show that the mangrove wetland area in Antigua remains stable.95 However, wetlands have suffered from backfilling and pollution.
In 2019, the Environmental Awareness Group through their annual “Trash Challenge Antigua” initiative collected a total of 16 tonnes of trash from 3 wetlands and in 2020, 10.86 tonnes were collected from 10 wetlands, while over the period 2019 to 2020, there was a 32.13% reduction in trash collected.

5.3.1.2.2 MARINE BENTHIC ECOSYSTEMS A 202096 assessment of benthic habitat, an update of the previous 201697 exercise, was performed for Antigua and Barbuda.
The 2016 exercise used satellite imagery to determine biological cover supported by ground-truth points using a tethered drop camera (dropcam) with which high-definition seabed video was acquired.

The 2020 survey was carried out using satellite imagery and benthic data from a remote towed operated vehicle (RTOV) which not only allowed for the capturing of high quality seabed imagery but also greatly improved the altitude and orientation control of the unit.
The 2020 survey identified five primary habitat classes: Coral and sponge-dominated reef; sand and mud; algal-dominated pebble gravel; and two seagrass habitats (native seagrasses and Halophila dominated beds) as outlined below in Table 5-5 and Figure 5-3.

Three secondary reef habitat classes were defined and two of these were mapped.

There are a few differences between the 2016 and 2020 assessments, however, these are not believed to be due to any environmental pressure.
Rather the differences appear to be due to the limitations of both studies.
Table 5-5: Data produced from 2020 Benthic Assessment for Antigua and Barbuda S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 Antigua Area in Km2 73.42 89.17 NA 49.04 171.36 Barbuda Area in Km2 71.75 117.24 NA 265.85 208.07 Cluster 4 91.82 76.26 Type Cluster number Cluster 1_1 Cluster 1_2 Cluster 1_3 Cluster 2 Cluster 3 Algal dominated hard coral reef Octocoral and sponge dominated patchy reef Encrusted fragmented (algal dominated) reef and gravels Mobile sand with sparse biota Sponges, octocorals and Caulerpa on sand swept gravels and rubble Seagrass (Syringondium and Thalassia) 111 S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 Type Cluster number Seagrass (Halophila sp.)
Cluster 5 Antigua Area in Km2 112.69 Barbuda Area in Km2 NA Data Source: Seabed habitat mapping for Antigua and Barbuda, 2020 Despite the limitations, the spatial distributions of the classes mapped in the 2020 study are broadly similar to the 2016 mapping exercise.

The 2020 study provides a more accurate prediction of habitats in deeper waters (<10 m) and the 2016 study maps are likely more accurate for habitats in very shallow waters.
Figure 5-3: Benthic Assemblages as defined in the 2020 Assessment for Antigua, Barbuda and Redonda Antigua and Barbuda also have the most extensive seagrass beds in the Eastern Caribbean.

In 2016, the area was reported 64 km2 for Antigua and 83 km2 Barbuda.98 Information from 202096 surveys suggest that seagrass coverage could be as high as 204.51 km2 for Antigua and 91.82 km2 for Barbuda.
The recent benthic mapping exercises have benefited from improvements in mapping techniques which have led to more areas of seagrass being documented for the country, however, it has several limitations and have not benefited from ground-truthing.

Seagrass beds provide fish, conch, and lobster habitat as well as sea turtle and bird foraging areas.

They are often impacted by sediment runoff, destruction, and storms.
Seagrass ecosystems are also at risk of damage from the shipping and yachting sector’s demand for anchorages and dredging of channels to access ports; these are pressures that impact seagrass.

Healthy seagrass stabilizes sediments, reduces beach erosion, and improves water clarity.

The primary species of seagrass found are Turtle Grass (Thalassia testudinum), Manatee Grass (Syringodium fliforme), Shoal Grass (Halophila writti)99 and the invasive Broad-Leaf Seagrass (Halophila stipulacea).
However, the invasive seagrasses of the genus Halophila appear to be abundant in the nearshore region of Antigua and are predominantly associated with areas of high energy and greater depths.
Site-specific surveys also suggest that Halophila is colonizing previously sandy or bare benthic environments.100 The primary seagrass species observed around Redonda is the Broad Leaf Seagrass H. stipulacea, however, none of this type has been detected around Barbuda.96 112 S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 Antigua Marine Life, a volunteer group, has confirmed the presence of 87 invertebrates by photographs; these include Lobster, Shrimp, Crab (Crustacea), Shell creatures (Mollusca), Starfish, Sea Urchins, Sea cucumbers (Echinodermata), Flatworms (Platyhelminthes), and Worms (Annelida).
The most researched of these is the Caribbean spiny lobster (Panulirus argus) and the Queen Conch (Strombmus gigas) which are commercially important species.

In 2012 and 2013101, morphometric studies were conducted on Queen Conch (Strombus gigas) by the Antigua and Barbuda Fisheries Division.

These studies concluded that, due to difference in the morphology of conch at different locations across the country, including Barbuda, a multi-faceted approach to sustainable management of the species is required.
The Fisheries Division actively enforces the 2016 Fisheries Regulations which include closed seasons, protected areas as well as size and weight restrictions to ensure the long-term sustainability of the conch fishery.

THERE ARE APPROXIMATELY 87 TYPES OF MARINE INVERTEBRATES INCLUSIVE OF LOBSTER, CRABS, SHRIMP, ISOPODS, URCHINS, SEA STARS, SEA CUCUMBERS, OCTOPUS AND SQUID.

In 2014102, the Fisheries Division conducted an analysis of status and trends for lobsters caught across Antigua and Barbuda.
No significant negative trends were detected for mean size of lobster landed or mean catch per unit effort, even when compared with the 1970s data.

The lobster fishery has therefore been considered sustainable, however, there is an enforced closed season as well as size limits.

Specifically in Barbuda, the 2013 assessment conducted by the Waitt Institute examined several sites around Barbuda for lobster and conch.
Of the 52 sites surveyed, lobsters of legal size were found at 26.9% of the sites while 38.4% of sites had lobsters of sub legal size.

Conch were present at 86% of the 35 randomly selected sand and seagrass sites.
53% of the sites had adult conch and juveniles were present at 71% of the sites.103 5.3.1.2.3 CORAL REEF ECOSYSTEMS In the 2020 assessment, it was estimated that Antigua had 159.59 Km2 of coral reefs and 88.99 Km 2 in Barbuda.96 Coral reef surveys carried out in Barbuda in 2013 reported an islandwide coral cover of (2.6%) for Barbuda which is much lower than the Caribbean average of 17%.103 As it relates to coral reef health, comparison of available data over the period 2015–2019 suggest a continuous decline in the condition of coral reef ecosystems in Antigua, Barbuda and Redonda and have now been rated as poor.
In 2016, a coral reef health assessment was produced from a compilation of site-specific assessments such as those conducted for Barbuda in 2013, the North East Marine Management Area (NEMMA), and other sites.97 A recent updated assessment produced a compilation of data collected between 2017–2019 from 3 sites (Redonda, the NEMMA, and the Nelson’s Dockyard National Park) and rated overall reef health as poor.

(Table 5-6).
113 S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 Figure 5-4: Coral Reef in Antigua Table 5-6: Antigua and Redonda Reef Health Data Comparison 2016 islandwide Study and 3 site-specific Studies (NEMMA, NDNP and Redonda) Indicator Coral reef Cover (%) Fleshy Macro algae (%) Poor Poor Herbivorous Fish Fair Commercial Fish Poor Score Average 2015 2019 2015 2019 Poor Poor Fair Good 9 18 2,810 500 9 23 2,765 1914 Trend No change Negative Negative Positive Data Source: Status of coral reefs in Antigua and Barbuda: using data to inform management.
Camacho R, Steele S, Challenger S, Archibald M. 2020.

Calcified crustose coralline algae is important to cement coral reefs together.

In 2013, their presence on reefs around Barbuda was recorded at 2% cover.103 An abundance of turf algae cover of 66% was also recorded.

The 2013 survey of Barbuda’s reefs also identified a coverage of 13% of macroalgae of the sites surveyed.
Based on the data collected by the Waitt Institute, the average percentage cover for both turf and macro algae combined was 79% for Barbuda.

In 201697 it was reported that many reefs around Antigua had more algae than live coral.

There was less macroalgae and more herbivores on Antigua northeastern reefs than on the western and south western reefs.

Lack of crustose coralline algae means that there is less substrate for coral recruits and therefore limits the opportunities for new coral reefs to grow.
5.3.1.2.4 MARINE PELAGICS In total, 7 cetaceans are known to occur in Antiguan or Barbudan waters.

Only one marine mammal (sperm whale, Physeter macrocephalus) is threatened.

Antigua and Barbuda do not harvest cetaceans and there are currently no captivity programmes.

114 In 2020, as part of the 6th National Report to the Convention on Biodiversity, Antigua and Barbuda reported that 165 species of reef fish have been observed in the waters around Antigua, Barbuda and Redonda, none of them endemic86.
More recent information collected by Antigua Marine Life reveal the presence of 216 species of fish as of January 2020104.

Data on commercial fish is collected and analyzed as part of the fisheries management processes.

The Waitt Institute surveyed 116 sites around Barbuda in 2013; in general, fish abundance was determined to be low compared to other Caribbean locations.
Antigua, Barbuda and Redonda have been affected by the Caribbean invasion of Lionfish, which is an extremely productive voracious predator.

Coastal pelagic stocks are not widely targeted by local fishers in Antigua and Barbuda.

Currently, only one vessel uses a beach seinexvi as its principal gear.

A few fishers, on a seasonal basis, target jack, herring and ballyhoo.

Coastal pelagics are considered to be underexploited.
The queen conch, Strombus gigas, is considered to be overexploited in shallow waters around Antigua.

Three species of endangered sea turtles are known to nest in Antigua and Barbuda: the Hawksbill (Eretmochelys imbricata), the Green (Chelonia mydas) and the Leatherback (Dermochelys coriacea).

The Loggerhead (Caretta caretta), considered globally vulnerable, is not known to nest here, but is occasionally observed in open waters.
There are anecdotal accounts of Olive Ridley (Lepidochelys olivacea) being caught in Barbuda.

There is a high rate of private sector and non-governmental organization (NGO) involvement with iconic endangered species.

Regular monitoring of nesting turtles is carried out by the Environmental Awareness Group, the Barbuda Ocean Club Development Project and the Jumby Bay Island association.

The Fisheries Division is the Widecast Focal Point.
THREE SPECIES OF ENDANGERED SEA TURTLES ARE KNOWN TO NEST IN ANTIGUA AND BARBUDA: THE HAWKSBILL, THE GREEN SEA TURTLE AND THE LEATHERBACK S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 5.3.1.2.5 OFFSHORE ISLANDS Antigua and Barbuda is estimated to have over 50 offshore islands105: that are characterized by limestone cliffs, xeric dry scrub and cactus vegetation; some are surrounded by mangroves and coral reef systems.
The majority range in size from 40–0.25ha and are concentrated off the north-east coast of the mainland, the Five-Island islets are located to the west of the mainland and the largest, Redonda, is130ha and located 35 miles west of Antigua.
The Environmental Awareness Group (EAG) conducts invasive species control and monitors the Biodiversity on Great Bird, Galley Major, Galley Minor, Rabbit Island, Redhead, Lobster, Lobster Extension, Maiden West, Maiden, Green, York, Pelican, Guardhouse, Codrington, Redonda and Smith Islands.

These islands are hubs for birds, lizards and some are home to the critically endangered Antigua Racer (Alsophis antiguae), which is endemic to Antigua and Barbuda, and is the most iconic reptile in the country.
Biodiversity of the offshore islands is threatened by invasive and introduced species such as the black rat (Rattus rattus) Small Asian mongooses (Herpestes javanicus) and more recently by development pressure.

xvi A large net with sinkers on one edge and floats on the other that hangs vertically in the water and is used to enclose and catch fish when its ends are pulled together or are drawn ashore.
115 Rat eradication exercises and mongoose removal form a major part of the conservation plan for the biodiversity of offshore islands, and to date rats have been eradicated from 16 offshore islands.

Redonda was declared rat-free in June 2018, Green and Smith Island eradications were conducted by the EAG with additional eradication exercises planned for and in July 2021.
Due to the proximity of the islands to the mainland, and regular visits by tourists and locals alike, rats are able to reinvade islands without much encumbrance.

There have not been any reintroductions of black rats to Codrington and Guardhouse, York, the North Sound Islands, and Redonda as of 2021, and these 12 islands form the conservation core of the EAG, due to their importance for local native and migrant biodiversity.
TRADITIONAL AND CULTURAL USE OF BIODIVERSITY Biodiversity is used in traditional remedies.

“Bush” is traditionally used for colds, fever, elimination of gas, asthma, diabetes, diarrhea and a number of other ailments.

A list of medicinal plants was produced in 1996.

There is an oral history of which types of plants are to be used in relation to curing certain ailments or diseases, however, documentation is not readily available.
Corn is used to make ashum, which is a sweet treat made from ground corn and sugar.

Corn husks are then dried, and the material plaited and used to make hats.

Dried seeds of mint are used to make potpourri or even tea.

Coconut fiber husks are collected and prepared as orchid bases.

Turpentine is used for boat making and wattle is used to make fish pots and for landscaping and décor.
In the agricultural sector, local varieties exist for some important crops and livestock, these include, eggplant, hot peppers, cowpea, pineapple, table squash, pumpkin, gourd, “Cruffy” cucumber, corn, Barbuda lima bean, Sea Island cotton, and Redonda goat.

There are 10 sweet potato types, one variety of yam, 2 varieties of cassava, and one variety each of indigenous corn, pumpkin, eggplant, okra, squash and local chive under conservation.
The Caribbean Agricultural Research and Development Institute (CARDI) has many varieties of corn, pumpkin, squash, okra, eggplant and twenty-eight varieties of sweet potato being grown in situ to ensure conservation of these particular varieties.

Antiguan and Barbudan hot pepper germplasm has been stored at the facilities at the University of West Indies, St. Augustine Campus for preservation.
The Agricultural Stations in the Ministry of Agriculture are responsible for 3 varieties of coconut, 3 varieties of breadfruit, 7 varieties of mangoes, 4 varieties of citrus and the Antigua Black Pineapple.

Bees are important pollinators for agriculture and local honey is widely used.

In February 2005, varroa mites (Varroa destructor) were observed in bee colonies in Antigua and the infestations spread across the northern half of Antigua.
The mite infestation resulted in a decrease in honey yields and significant decreases in crop pollination.

After extensive management intervention by the Beekeepers’ Association in 2011, the population had recovered.

There is now a wide variety of products on the local market from apiaries in Antigua and Barbuda; these include raw honey, wax, candles, lip-balms, lotions and scrubs.
The Beekeeper’s Association is not actively collecting information on honey production; however, plans are in place for data collection in the near future.

Many wild animals are harvested on a subsistence basis for use in traditional dishes; these include the land crab (Cardisoma guanhumi), whelks (Cittarium pica) and cockle (Trachycardium isocardia).

In Barbuda, the Fallow Deer, wild boar, and various game fowl are hunted.
However, there is no data or information on the consumption patterns or health of the various populations.
S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 116 Figure 5-5: Area of Wetlands backfilled resulting in Loss of Sediment Control Function (Observer Media Group, 2020) S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 117 5.4 IMPACTS 5.4 IMPACTS Decline in coral reef ecosystem health This has resulted in changes to fish catch and the ability to provide ecosystem services and there are several examples.
Coral cover is low because of the various pressures exerted on coral reefs.

There are some healthy small corals in some areas, however, large corals responsible for reef structure are diseased.

For example, there are very few live Elkhorn which are critical to reef structure.

In 2005, a bleaching event was reported to have impacted >35% of corals in the NEMMA.

Climate change, particularly the warming sea temperatures, increases the likelihood of the occurrence of these events.
Fleshy macroalgae are abundant and are outcompeting corals on reefs.

Many reefs had more algae than live corals.

There is also a lack of crustose coralline algae which affects recruitment of new corals on to the reef.

Forest degradation and disturbance Impacts to vegetation forests and watersheds are widespread.

The 4% annual change in forest cover can be attributed to unregulated land clearing.

Land “cleaning” is a cultural/ local practice.


Large tracks of land have been cleared as part of the “cleaning” resulting in fragmentation of habitats.

Coastal degradation Land use changes, and poor developmental practices have also resulted in fragmentation of habitats in coastal ecosystems.

Sand mining has also negatively affected vegetation.

Ecosystem integrity in the Palmetto area in Barbuda has been severely compromised and the dunes and vegetation have been damaged by sand mining.
Sand has been mined so severely that the water table is exposed.

Sand mining is unregulated and is ongoing.

Clearance of the dunes and forests has also had a very adverse impact on wildlife.

Despite the known negative effects sand mining has continued because of its importance for jobs.

Much of the ecosystem services, habitats and biodiversity have already been lost.
Seagrass degradation Seagrass beds that provide food for fish and turtles and function as nurseries for young conch, spiny lobsters, shrimp, and a variety of fish show signs of degradation which have been attributed to anchor damage.

118 Mermaid Garden, Antigua Photo by: Jervez Lee Wetland degradation Wetland habitats in Antigua have historically been impacted by land use changes and illegal dumping.

The impact of which has been a reduction of these important habitats and their sediment control function.
Wetlands are also impacted by drought and hurricanes whose local effects are exacerbated by the other pressures.

Codrington Lagoon mangrove wetlands were severely impacted by Hurricane Irma and have not recovered fully.

Hanson’s Bay wetlands are suffering from die-off, first observed in 2017.

This is believed to be caused by hypersaline conditions.

Beach degradation Of the 25 beaches monitored in Antigua and Barbuda, ten, which are considered important sea turtle nesting beaches, show signs of erosion.
This poses a significant threat to nesting sea turtles, decreasing the availability Inadequate building of appropriate nesting sites.

setbacks on beaches, removal of natural vegetation and replacing them with exotic species, artificial lighting, and alteration of nesting beaches with the installation of beach stabilization structures such as groynes, breakwaters and seawalls also affect turtle habitats.
Shift in coral reef ecology This has occurred as a result of overfishing of herbivorous species such as parrotfish.

This, in turn, has contributed to the overgrowth of macroalgae (and phase shifts) on reefs which negatively affects coral growth.

Rising ocean temperatures increase coral bleaching, disease and mortality.

Corals have been affected by past coral bleaching and are susceptible to future events.

A bleaching event was most recently recorded in Falmouth Harbour in 2020.
As the impacts of climate change continue to occur, slow onset effects such as ocean acidification will reduce calcification in corals and other calcifying animals.

The intensity and frequency of hurricanes will increase as oceans continue to warm and damage corals, coastlines and infrastructure.

Rising sea levels will flood coastal areas and may reduce light in seagrass beds and coral reefs.
119 Green-throat Hummingbird Photo by: Nick Hollands Loss of ecosystem goods and services This occurs when important ecosystems are damaged or lost.

Mangrove wetlands are vital to maintaining healthy beach and reef systems.

They act as natural breakers and buffer zones which protect the coastline from erosion during storms.

Additionally, the mangroves act as sediment traps, protecting the reefs from being smothered by eroded soil and other geological material from the land.
They also act as nurseries, breeding and feeding grounds and provide a habitat for both marine and terrestrial wildlife.

The loss of wetland ecosystems has resulted in a corresponding loss of these ecosystem goods and services.

Forest ecosystems have declined over the past 10 years and at least one Key Biodiversity Area (KBA), the Dunnings Dam forest, has been removed and several habitats lost.
In 2016,98 the country was 2 coral reef ecosystems; these estimated to have 76km have since been impacted by Hurricanes Irma and Maria in 2017. intensive management of exploited marine The species of commercial value has positively impacted livelihoods.

The Fisheries Sector is actively managed, and commercial fish stocks are relatively healthy.

The Caribbean spiny lobster, Panulirus argus, is heavily exploited in nearshore areas, particularly around Barbuda.
The export of lobsters from Barbuda is a critically important livelihood activity, with much of the catch exported to the French territories in the region.

In 2013, Fisheries Division did not find any statistical differences in the size of lobster caught when compared to data from the 1970s.
In 2015, the Fisheries Division detected no negative trends for the mean catch per unit effort and no evidence of recruitment overfishing for the Red Hind (Epinephelus guttatus) and concluded that red hind fishery is sustainable at current fishing effort.

Approximately 50% of the fishing industry for Barbuda depends on the Codrington unfortunately, Hurricane Irma opened the lagoon in 3 places and up to mid-2021, the largest breach had not closed.
ecosystem; Lagoon Hibiscus 120 Photo by: Colin Banks Introduced Invasive Species These can be detrimental.

Antigua and Barbuda is reported to have 22 verified invasive Alien Species.

The Giant African Snail (Achatina fulica), Black Rat (Rattus rattus), Lionfish (Pterois volitans), and Lemon Grass (Cymbopogon citratus) have been categorized as priority invasive alien species by the Government of Antigua and Barbuda.

Seven are of the plant species and 15 animal species.
One hundred and twenty-six (126) unverified introduced species have also been identified Antigua and Barbuda.

Seven are of the plant species and 15 animal species.

126 unverified introduced species have also been identified Antigua and Barbuda.

Introduced predators include small Indian mongoose (Herpestes javanicus), dogs, cats, rats, and mice which are impacting breeding seabirds, ducks and shorebirds on the main islands and offshore islands, including Redonda.
Roaming donkeys and livestock have been a significant contributor to vegetation degradation.

The establishment of the Donkey Sanctuary has allowed for stray donkeys to be collected into one area and managed.

In general, livestock is better controlled.

However, there are small pockets where small ruminants are prevalent in the eastern sections of Antigua and on Barbuda.
The broad leaf seagrass Halophila stipulacea, first recorded in 2011, has been observed to colonize deeper waters and bare benthic environments.

Studies are ongoing to determine the effect that the broad-leaf seagrass will have on the ecology of the islands, particularly how it will influence the foraging areas of the Green Turtle.

However, there is not much concern, as the Green Turtle has been seen feeding in the broad-leaf seagrass.
Invasive Lionfish 121 Photo by: Sea Mester S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 5.5 WHAT ARE WE DOING ABOUT IT?

In Antigua and Barbuda’s 6th National Report to the Convention on Biodiversity, the country outlined its achievements in the management and protection of biodiversity.

Antigua and Barbuda, as a party to the United Nations Convention on Biodiversity (UNCBD), has pledged to implement the 20 Aichi Biodiversity Targets.
Figure 5-6: Aichi Biodiversity Targets In its most recent report to the Convention, 19 of the 20 targets are on track for achievement by the deadline.

Antigua and Barbuda has grouped the targets into 5 main categories: 1.

Address the underlying causes of biodiversity loss and normalize biodiversity in government and society; 2.

Reduce the direct pressure on biodiversity and promote sustainable use; 3.

4.

Enhance the benefits to all from biodiversity and ecosystem services; 5.
Enhance implementation through participatory planning, knowledge management and capacity building.

Improve the status of biodiversity by safeguarding ecosystems species and genetic diversity; The 6th National Report outlines various actions taken to achieve the 2020 Aichi Biodiversity Targets.

These include legislative measures, enhanced collaboration with over 23 government, community-based and private sector organizations, and actions undertaken directly by the Department of Environment.
Antigua and Barbuda has also completed the following actions that were outlined in the National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan: The Nagoya Protocol Ratified, Requirement for Environmental Impact Assessments; Sustainable Island Resource Framework (SIRF) Fund established; Rehabilitation of major biodiversity hotspots and birding areas in Redonda.
Additionally, there are many smaller scale projects being carried by various community- and faith-based organizations, and newly formed NGOs, through the work of the Global Environment Facility - Small Grants Programme (GEF-SGP) National Coordinator, which are contributing to various National Biodiversity Targets.

Also, a number of new legislative instruments have been created.

The Environmental Protection and Management Act of 2019 is chief among these.
To support the EPMA, 2019, the DOE is preparing a legal and 122 regulatory action plan that aims to identify and propose priority amendments to support the implementation of key provisions of the Act relevant to protected areas.

The passage of the Physical Planning Act (PPA) 2003 made Environmental Impact Assessments mandatory for certain categories of development activities.

The EPMA, 2019 gives clarity to the EIA process and mandates the publication of EIAs for public comment.
The EPMA, 2019 also includes coverage for the management of wetlands, watersheds, as well as genetic material.

A number of sites in Barbuda have also been designated as marine protected areas, and new Fisheries Regulations, including the Barbuda Coastal Zone Regulations, 2014, have been enacted.

As a result of overfishing, a number of management measures, including limits on size and closed seasons, have been implemented.
These are expected to have medium- to long- term positive effects on the lobster population.

A similar approach has been adopted for the management of the queen conch.

This National Invasive Species Strategy and Action Plan 2020–2030, (NISSAP) is currently being prepared and will guide Antigua and Barbuda’s efforts to protect its natural heritage and people’s health and livelihoods from the negative impacts of invasive species.
A Protected Area System Plan (PASP) 2021–2031 is currently being prepared and will provide the framework for the management of all protected areas (PAs) in Antigua and Barbuda and allow all agencies involved in biodiversity conservation to work effectively and efficiently in a collaborative manner.
To contribute to various national targets, a National Biodiversity Gap Analysis is being finalized to identify wildlife for the update of Schedule VIII – List of Protected Wildlife in the EPMA Act 2019, to identify the coverage provided by existing PAs to critical ecosystems/species, and identify additional areas to be protected.
S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 123 | A CONSERVATION SUCCESS The Redonda Restoration Programme (RRP) which was launched in 2016, was responsible for the removal of invasive mammalian alien species.

This includes approximately 6000 black rats and 60 feral goats.

These two invasive alien species (IAS) had catastrophic impacts on the island destroying all of the vegetation resulting in deforestation and extreme soil erosion and catastrophic rainfall.
Goats were airlifted off the island, due to the rugged landscape and strenuous accessibility to the island heightened the level of complexity during the eradication, skilled rope crews had to scale the inaccessible parts of the island to plant poison.

During 2017, with the help of strong partnerships the eradication program on redonda was declared successful.

Shrubs and trees were observed to be growing in 2018.
Seabirds reappeared, the population of Redonda Ground Dragons doubled, and Redonda Tree Lizard population have tripled.

Results like these were projected to happen with 5 years and were observed within months.

A true testament of local conservation efforts.

Redonda is internationally recognized as an Important Bird & Biodiversity Area and a model for island restoration.
In 2009, Redonda was acknowledged as a top priority island to restore due to the endemic wildlife species found on this unihabitated offshore island.

This includes the Redonda Tree Lizard, Redonda Ground Lizard, and the Dwarf Gecko.

The transition of RRP to the Redonda Ecosystem Reserve (RER) is tailored to continue the conservation efforts on Redonda and work on the governance and management structure to govern the reserve.
It is hoped that Redonda will be the first terrestrial and marine protected area designated under the EPMA, 2019.

This reserve is expected to cover approximately 30,000 hectares; 60 hectares of land and the remaining area comprising of marine ecosystems.
Work towards designating Redonda and the surrounding sea as a protected area will need to be maintained through restrictions and stronger protection to prevent reintroduction of invasive species and to allow for recovery of vegetation and wildlife populations.

STORY REDONDA 2012 .

124 Figure 5-7: Redonda Landscape in 2020.

Photo credit Daltry and White CULTURE AND HERITAGE Carnival in Antigua and Barbuda Photo by: Caribbean and Co. 125 6 CULTURE AND HERITAGE 6.1 WHY IS IT IMPORTANT?
\ For those countries still affected by the impacts of colonialism, there is a need to tap into their culture and heritage to become self-confident nations, capable of embracing and accessing the wealth in their diversity in language, religion, art and technology.106 Historical events, culture, heritage, traditions, and the research of same, can provide baselines and the framework within which a nation, especially a SIDS, identifies priorities and goals to advance their sustainable development agenda, inform new policies, plans and actions, and make its unique mark on an international level.107 For Antigua and Barbuda, their diverse history comes together to form a unique and complex culture heritage.
As early as 3,106 BC there is evidence of inhabitation on Antigua from possibly both Central and South America.108 Then, starting around 250 BC the Arawaks and later the Tainos and Kalinagos, contributed to the culture of Antigua and Barbuda on many levels including food, economies and language.

The English colonists who next arrived, eventually converted the islands into plantation economies involving enslaved African labourers, and British army and navy influences.
Post emancipation saw the introduction of indentured workers from China, India, and Portugal.

The Chinese and Indians migrated on to Trinidad and Guyana but the Portuguese remained and developed thriving economies.108 109 Although geographically near, Antigua and Barbuda are in many ways, culturally different from each other.

Barbuda, an island that remains greatly undeveloped provides great insight into people-environment connections.
Barbuda’s cultural heritage is influenced by its land and legal traditions, including the Barbuda Land Act of 200753 which allowed Barbudan residents legal control over their land and its use.
This has played a role in the lack of major developments on their island, as residents have more input into lease decisions.52 The island’s historical use through its lease to the Codrington family was not the traditional sugar plantation agriculture that was seen on Antigua, but leaned more toward producing food to support the Codrington’s Antiguan estates.110 This involved rearing livestock and fishing but in addition, the Codringtons introduced many exotic species such as deer, guinea fowl, and wild pigs for sport and hunting.108 111 As a consequence of these land uses, the slaves on Barbuda were not tied to the routine of sugar cane cultivation and production, and were therefore able to hold on to their African culture and develop unique Barbudan culture and traditions based on a subsidence, independent way of life.112 113 A ‘living off the land’ culture, including hunting still exists, with some of the imported species such as the wild boar and Fallow Deer still present to this day, the latter of which is recognized as Antigua and Barbuda’s national animal, and an important cultural symbol.114 115 This is important in demonstrating the long-lasting impact history, colonization and land use has had on the culture of the islands, but also how the island’s history has impacted other colonized areas.
For example, 126 CULTURE & HERITAGE represent a country’s source of solidarity, inclusion, progress and pride.

evidence of cattle ranching methods (including several manmade wells and sinkholes) used by the Africans in Barbuda pre-date those used in America.108 109116 Several emerging challenges (e.g.
globalization, climate change and migration, and human displacement) can impact a nation’s culture, making it important to maintain traditional and cultural values which will support generations to adapt to these challenges, whilst keeping their cultural identity intact.
Local and indigenous knowledge’ has been identified as one of the key resources for empowering communities, in particular: ► traditional practices of land, water and marine resource use; ► partnerships between indigenous peoples (cultural diversity) and ecosystems (biodiversity); ► transgenerational transmission and the use of vernacular languages; and ► intellectual property regimes for the protection of traditional knowledge.
107 Traditional and local knowledge form an important component of a nation’s heritage and culture which, along with physical assets (e.g.

areas of biological and geological importance, pre-historical, historical and cultural sites) represent valuable resources for Antigua and Barbuda’s cultural identity.

They can and have also helped to diversify and improve the marketability of their tourism product.
117 For example, at the World Heritage Site Nelson’s Dockyard, visitor arrivals constitute 20 percent of revenue, and the yachting economy contributing more than twice that.118 The heritage attraction has also driven the development of the villa industry, boutique hotels, boating industry (including docking and fueling jobs), restaurants and other spin off industries which all contribute to GDP.118 Antigua and Barbuda is also signatory to the World Heritage Convention (1972) which “recognizes that, without prejudice to national sovereignty or property right, the conservation and protection of the World Heritage properties in their national territories are shared with the international community because of their outstanding universal value.” There is increasing recognition of the contribution of World Heritage Sites (and by extension important national heritage sites) to the well-being of local communities and wide human society.119 Culture also plays an increasingly important role in the development of Antigua and Barbuda’s Orange Economyxvii, which emphasizes the benefits of using culture and heritage as a career path and business opportunity.120 Antigua and Barbuda have limited natural resources and land space, making culture and human capital even more important to generate revenue through the Orange Economy opportunities.45 Research and studies, especially archaeological studies, also help to add new perspectives to historical accounts written by English colonists, missionaries and planters, providing a
 combined heritage narrative that speaks to the injustices of slavery.109 Bringing awareness of these can provide support to Antigua and Barbuda’s quest for reparations.109121 6.2 DRIVERS AND PRESSURES Tourism is one of the main drivers of Antigua and Barbuda’s economy.122 In 2019, there were 300,990 arrivals to the island, representing a relatively steady number of arrivals from 2006.123 The industry contributes to over half of the GDP and accounts for 1 in 2 jobs.124 Competition in the tourism market requires a nation to diversify its product and maintain its uniqueness; an approach commonly done through promoting its culture and heritage; indeed ‘Heritage Tourism’ has been identified as its own category for Antigua and Barbuda demonstrating its importance to the sector.125 The identification and protection of national heritage and cultural resources, as well as the incorporation of them into the tourism product has been identified as tourism sector objectives in the Antigua and Barbuda Tourism Strategy Policy and Plan (2005-2009).126 Most land-based tours in the country also include a visit to at least xvii Also called the ‘Creative Economy’ encompasses the immense wealth of talent, intellectual property, interconnectedness, and, of course, cultural heritage of a region.
(IADB, 2013).
127 one heritage site.125 In Barbuda, the most requested cruise ship visitor experiences are reportedly for heritage and natural assets, including caves such as Indian Cave and Codrington Lagoon.37 Tourism however, comes with certain pressures on culture, heritage and the natural environment that some of the heritage assets are based on.127 One of the main pressures is the acculturation effect128, including the influence of traditional appetite of tourists’ on local food, which can result in a shift from supporting local agriculture to importing unnecessary products.
There has also been an increase in western music over cultural songs at hotels and other tourism events, as well as significant influence of European and American culture on locals and children as they adapt to tourists’ needs and desires.125 These can result in the creation of an evolved hybrid culture, or modification of the existing culture.129 HERITAGE TOURISM IS AN IMPORTANT CONTRIBUTOR TO THE SECTOR AS MOST LAND-BASED TOURS IN THE COUNTRY INCLUDES A VISIT TO AT LEAST ONE HERITAGE SITE.
HOWEVER, THIS CAN IMPACT THE CULTURE, HERITAGE, AND THE NATURAL ENVIRONMENT ASSOCIATED WITH SOME OF THESE HERITAGE ASSETS.

Economic growth and development also apply pressure on Antigua and Barbuda’s culture and heritage.

The population has grown from 63,878 persons (1991) to 97,895 persons (2020), with a projected increase to 106,395 persons in 2026.123 The island’s economic growth, though small is nevertheless positive.
It was higher in 2018 than 2019; GDP growth in 2019 was 5.0% (versus the 7.4% in 2018).

Developmental growth comes with increased pressure on resources, as well as globalization of a country’s identity and culture.
There will also be an increase in demand for land to develop supporting housing and infrastructure, which may impact physical cultural and historical assets.123 Heritage and cultural assets can come under physical pressure through competing uses for natural resources, for example, for space (land clearing for development and subsequent loss of artefacts) or resources (loss of salt pond birding habitats from unregulated solid waste disposal).
Generally speaking, competition for resources can also lead to social and use conflicts that go against the principles of cultural and heritage preservation principles for national cohesion.
Globally, it has been identified that pressures from human or natural causes can cause ecosystem degradation and impact the natural environment that many of the heritage sites depend on.119 Unmonitored tourist activities can also result in the exploitation of resources, destruction or removal of heritage assets, as well as exceeding the carrying capacity of the site.

Several heritage sites in Antigua (e.g.

sugar mills) have lost artefacts to visitors.


For example, one of Antigua’s largest sugar factories has been lost to neglect, and removal of assets by visitors, and similarly some park land has been lost in the Devil’s Bridge area due to development of a hotel.118 The impacts of climate change can cause significant damage or loss to, in particular, coastal heritage assets as has already been seen in both islands.
More than 90% of structures in Barbuda were damaged or destroyed by Hurricane Irma in 2017, with impacts to the research institutions, portions of a pre-Columbian archaeological site, culturally important buildings and historic records.130 128 The COVID-19 Pandemic which started in 2020, significantly reduced the number of tourism arrivals to the island (less than half of the previous year), and has subsequently had a negative impact on the country’s overall economy.123 The pandemic also restricted or canceled many of the cultural events that would normally be held.131 These impacts are important, as the government (like many around the world) are forced to prioritize attention and budget to immediate economic needs, rather than advancing the preservation of heritage and culture.132 For example, the recently started (right before the onset of the pandemic) renovation of Betty’s Hope Estate has stalled significantly due to a change in government priorities.
118 125 THERE IS NO LEGISLATION IN PLACE TO PROTECT ASSETS LOCATED OUTSIDE OF NATIONAL PARKS WHICH HAS RESULTED IN LOSS AND NEGLECT TO SITES LIKE ANTIGUA’S LARGEST SUGAR FACTORIES AND THE DEVIL’S BRIDGE AREA WHICH WAS RECENTLY DOWNSIZED DUE TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF A HOTEL Barbuda is well known for being undeveloped and untouched, a result of among other things, legal arrangements such as the Barbuda Land Act (2007) which historically gave Barbudan residents control over their land use.
The Barbuda Council and residents of Barbuda are selective of their leased developments and their size.52 The act was amended to The Barbuda Land (Amendment) Act, 2016 to reflect an increase in the definition of ‘major development’ from $5.4 million to $40 million.53 This control allows many of Barbudan’s cultural and heritage assets to remain untouched and preserved.
The aftermath of Hurricane Irma and subsequent build back approach may be seen as having an impact on Barbuda’s culture.52 The islands of Antigua and Barbuda have a strong foundation and track record of research, both locally and internationally that drives discovery of new assets, and helps to highlight the importance of preservation of existing ones.
Several publications (books and academic papers) to name only a few, include: ‘Heritage Treasures’ by Desmond Nicholson, ‘The Geology of Antigua’ by John Tomblin, ‘History of Antigua’ by Brian Dyde, ‘Shipwrecks and other Marine Disasters’, ‘The Sea Will Rise, Barbuda Will Survive: Environment and Time Consciousness’ (Perdikaris and Hejtmanek, 2020)133, ‘Cultural Heritage and local ecological knowledge under threat: Two Caribbean examples from Barbuda and Puerto Rico’ (Boger et al., 2019) 134, ‘Plantation Soilscapes: Initial and Cumulative Impacts of Colonial Agriculture in Antigua, West Indies’ (Wells et.
al., 2018).135 Several of the work and research has been presented at international events such as academic conferences.

Further details on research activities are found in the next section.

6.3 HOW IS IT CHANGING?

Currently there is no specific single agency or body responsible for all cultural and heritage assets in Antigua and Barbuda.
Various aspects are spread throughout Government, private sector and NGO’s and include the Historical and Archaeological Society, The National Parks Authority, The Precision Centre, The National Archives, UNESCO, Department of Environment, the Barbuda Council and Barbuda National Parks.

For example, the National Parks Authority (established in 1984 under the National Parks Act) has jurisdiction over Nelson’s Dockyard National Park.
129 Fort Barrington and Green Castle Hill are also national parks but are under (limited) management by the government and the Bendal’s community respectively.

The Ministry of Tourism is reportedly responsible for any area the National Parks Authority is not, and recently began the renovation of Betty’s Hope.

Barbuda also has a separate National Parks Council to manage parks on the island.

There has been no move to merge all heritage and/or cultural aspects under one organization.
There is also no formal process for national declaration, although this process is being developed following an international system.108 Due to this fragmentation and lack of formal declaration process, there is no clear way to track the number of nationally declared and preserved heritage assets.
There are two important categories of sites or assets in Antigua and Barbuda: (i) (ii) Internationally declared and preserved heritage assets (World Heritage Sites): There is only one declared World Heritage Site, the Antigua Naval (Nelson’s) Dockyard and Related Archaeological Site.
There is an active UNESCO committee which looks at other potential sites for international declaration, and they are currently considering a serial nomination for a new World Heritage Site under a culturally important theme (e.g.

fortifications).118 In addition to the World Heritage Site above, Barbuda has one (1) RAMSAR site – a ‘wetlands of importance’- the Codrington Lagoon which supports healthy, diverse marine ecosystems and offers natural heritage views for visitors136.
Nationally declared and preserved heritage assets: Currently, there is no national government registry of cultural and heritage assets or formal process for declaration of sites.108 The Museum of Antigua and Barbuda has a database of culturally significant and heritage ‘records’ in Antigua and Barbuda, as well as map of important sites on Barbuda.

Other lists of important sites and assets are available from researchers and interested stakeholders.
Although culture and heritage assets are an important part of the tourism product in Antigua and Barbuda, no data exists on the percentage contribution that they make toward the country’s tourism sector.
The project (partly funded by UNESCO) “Measuring economic contribution of cultural industries to Antigua and Barbuda’s national development”, which started in 2020 aims to support this by collecting data on how the creative industry influences Antigua and Barbuda’s GDP.131 It will involve the generation of a database with a full listing of forces within the creative industry, as well as economic contribution data.
The project is a strong collaboration between Department of Culture, Statistics Division, National Parks Authority and Ministry of Tourism, and mapping is intended to begin in 2021.

Its focus is on intangible cultural heritage, but this inherently has a relationship to landscapes and the environment around them.
For example, there currently exists a group of jewelry workers in the Nelson’s Dockyard area that rely on the seeds and beads from trees in the National Park for their business.118 Additionally, whilst there is a general vision for preserving a few major historic sites, and carnival, there is no holistic and thorough strategy for preserving the country’s heritage and cultural resources.

With respect to cultural assets, government funding tends to be focused on hosting Carnival and social-cultural events.
There is a general belief that the limited fiscal resources of government should instead go to important and essential infrastructure such as hospital, roads, utilities etc.

and historical sites and related activities are left to NGO’s and private sector.

This funding priority has been further exacerbated by the COVID-19 pandemic.
HISTORICAL SITES AND ASSETS The historical and natural sites assets of Antigua and Barbuda include; (i) Plantation/Sugar estates and their various artefacts and relics; (ii) Places of Memory: African Heritage; (iii) Exceptional natural landscapes; (iv) Interesting natural features and mystical sites; (v) Historical churches and graveyards and their various artefacts and relics (See Figure 6-1); (vi) Environmental sites: trees as living monuments of history (See Figure 6-1); (vii) Underwater cultural heritage and its various artefacts and relics; (viii) Military and Naval sites and their various artefacts and relics; (ix) Prehistoric sites and their various artefacts and relics (See Figure 6-1).117 130 Figure 6-1: Historical church St. John’s Cathedral (left), early Arawak pottery (middle), and ancient lava flow (right) (Sources: Antigua and Barbuda Tourism Authority; Murphy n.d.; Murphy n.d.) Changing economies and land uses have resulted in the decline of several important historical sites and assets.
The transition out of the sugar industry, and emancipation in 1834 resulted eventually, in a lessening of European interest and the abandonment of many structures.

Today, only 93 of about 174 wind powered sugar-mills remain standing.109 With the exception of the former British naval dockyard, only about a dozen of the forts and defense platforms have standing structures.
The best of these include Forts James, Barrington, the Citadel, Berkeley, Cuyler, Dows Hill and Shirley Height's.109 With the decrease of open-range cattle herding on Barbuda, starting in the 1980s and attributed to several different reasons, the historic stone stockwells used in capture began to decline, with some eventually being repurposed for road gravel.120 There were attempts in the 1960s and 70s to map all cultural heritage sites of Antigua, Barbuda and Redonda including Archaic, Ceramic and Historical Period sites, and currently there are volunteer efforts to re-survey and document these.108 109 This new national inventory of sites is being done by volunteer researchers and interested stakeholders in an effort to preserve assets for their innate value, assist in the identification and selection of potential candidates for World Heritage nomination, for their contribution to education and tourism development, and for their preservation and management.
There is a great need for a comprehensive national registry to help with the preservation of heritage assets on Antigua and Barbuda, which are currently being lost to development and climate change impacts.

These losses represent a clear trend in Antigua and Barbuda’s heritage and culture at the present moment.108 Research into Antigua and Barbuda’s heritage assets occur through a variety of different external institutions including governmental departments, universities, NGOs and interest groups.
There is no dedicated umbrella institution that is able to track the value of funded research towards the protection of assets, or for assets under threat from climate change or environmental degradation.
Trends in research tend to be dependent on the focus of the academic institution, funding sources and the type of research, but there is strong interest in food culture, social interactions and climate change.108 There are volunteer efforts to reassess all sites, especially those considered endangered or threatened, and those coastal sites with potential climate change impacts, with approximately 10 of 150 sites completed.108 Important events in the research of cultural and heritage assets on Antigua, Barbuda and Redonda include108 109: ► Establishment of the Field Research Centre (in 2000) by Dr. Reginald Murphy which is located in the ruins of the Georgian Period Artillery Officers Quarters at Dow's Hill, Antigua, and upstairs the Nelson's Dockyard Museum.
This is a collaborative venture by the National Parks, Antigua and Barbuda and the Historical and Archaeological Society of Antigua.

It also houses the open access, peer reviewed, online journal ‘Caribbean Connections’.109 Research field schools on Antigua started approximately in 1994, and facilitate new 131 research and graduate students.
These are primarily led by Dr. Reginald and Nicola Murphy, in partnership with the Museum of Antigua and Barbuda and the National Parks department.108 ► Establishment of the Barbuda Research Complex and its Barbuda Archaeological Research Centre (BARC) which facilitates extensive research (especially mapping coastal sites and the salvaging of artefacts) of several sites in Barbuda, including but not limited to natural hunting camps, caves, and the famous Strombus (conch) line from Martello Tower to Palmetto Point.109 Research operations on Barbuda are primarily led by Dr. Sophia Perdikaris, in partnership with Brooklyn College and several other universities.108 There have been and are also several archaeological projects which involve monitoring and excavations, with the below reported as currently activexviii108: ► Active projects on Antigua include research and archaeological investigations in the National Parks at the Middle Ground settlement and Shirley’s Heights.
Betty’s Hope is currently on temporary hold, but research is still active at Indian Creek (which started as far back as the 1970s).

Archaeological digs have also occurred at the Warner Site, Galleon Beach and Hospital Hill.

► Active projects on Barbuda are located at Sea View, Indian Town, Spanish Point Archaic, the Caves, Highland House, the Castle, River, and the Strombus Line.

In addition, all of the wells and fresh water systems are being explored.
► Redonda is isolated and difficult to access making research activities challenging, although research has been done.
There are ruins of the mining (phosphates to Europe) operation and residential activities, and evidence of a small pre-Columbian presence on the island (Arawak), who likely used the island seasonally as a source of capturing birds and eggs.108 As a result of these and other initiatives, a tremendous volume of highly academic information has been produced and presented on the international stage on all aspects of archaeology, culture, the natural environment, plus social studies/cultural anthropology.
Research continues to be active and growing108, with international university partnerships, including (those currently active xviii) Brooklyn College (City University of New York), University of Lincoln Nebraska, and University of California San Diego.108 Historically, partnerships have occurred with many institutions, for example the Barbuda Ecological Project (2009-2012) involved more than twenty-four (24) participating institutions.
There are several museums or interpretation centres on Antigua and Barbuda that facilitate education, awareness and research into heritage assets.
The Museum of Antigua and Barbuda located on Antigua, is home to the Historical and Archaeological Society of Antigua, and keeps records (approximately 34,796) relating to heritage and culture as well as several permanent exhibits specifically - ‘Steam Engine Model’, ‘Basketry’, ‘Archaeological Excavation Display’, ‘Minerals’, ‘Archaic Tools’, and ‘Barbuda Exhibits’.137 The last, installed in 2021 includes a hard copy map of seventy-four (74) important historical and heritage sites on the island.
138 On Barbuda as part of the Barbuda Research Complex (established 2013), there is also a Barbuda Museum, Barbuda Children’s Museum and Barbuda Aquaponics Facility.108 139 There are also smaller interpretation centres at Nelson’s Dockyard (Dow’s Hill) and Betty’s Hope.

The below Table 6-1 presents some of the important Historical Sites and Assets identified in literature and through stakeholder consultations, but is by no means a comprehensive list.
It does not include for example some of the smaller sites, the numerous historical wells, lime kilns, marine wrecks, the stone pathways and demarcations created by the enslaved over 300 years ago, or the new sites are still being discovered.108 xviii At this time of this report 132 Table 6-1: Key Historical Sites and Assets in Antigua, Barbuda and Redonda Important Historical Sites and Assets Location Antigua Naval Dockyard and its Related Archaeological Sites All Saints Village Bat Cave Betty’s Hope Sugar Plantation Bethesda Tamarind Tree Carpenter’s Rock Trail and Grotto Castle Hill Bay Area and Cave Clarence House Codrington Castle (including well) Codrington Government House Codrington Lagoon Cotton Ginnery Darby Cave and Sinkhole Dark Cave Deep Bay Shipwreck ‘Andes’ Devil’s Bridge Falmouth village Falmouth Harbour and Faces of Stone Figtree Drive Fishing Creek Fort Barrington Fort Charlotte Fort Cuyler Fort Berkeley Frigate Bird Colony Ghut Gilbert’s Memorial Methodist Church Grays Farm Reservoir Great Bird Island Green Castle Hill Ceremonial Site Gun Shop Gunthorpes Sugar Factory Half Moon Bay Arch and Cave 133 Antigua Antigua Antigua Antigua Antigua Antigua Barbuda Antigua Barbuda Barbuda Barbuda Barbuda Barbuda Antigua Antigua Antigua Antigua Antigua Antigua Barbuda Antigua Antigua Antigua Antigua Barbuda Barbuda Antigua Antigua Antigua Antigua Barbuda Antigua Antigua Hell’s Gate Highland House Highland Road Indian Town Trail and Cave Jones Valley Hiking Trail and Historical Dam Liberta Village Martello
 Tower Middle Ground Trail Monk’s Hill (Fort George) Montpellier Sugar Factory Newgate Street Commemorative Stone Orange Valley Rock Dungeon Parson Maule’s Dungeon Pearn’s Point volcanic and Arawak site Pillars of Hercules River Shirley Heights Ridge and Artillery Quarters, Lookout, Blockhouse and Cliffs Spanish Point and Tower St. John’s Cathedral St. Peter’s Church Stony Hill Gully Suffers Taylor House The Strombus line Two Foot Bay Cave Sea View Redonda North Sound Islands Barbuda Barbuda Barbuda Antigua Antigua Barbuda Antigua Antigua Antigua Antigua Antigua Antigua Antigua Antigua Barbuda Antigua Barbuda Antigua Antigua Antigua Barbuda Barbuda Barbuda Barbuda Barbuda Redonda Rendezvous Bay Arawak Site, Old Plantation and Trail Antigua Rubbish Bay Well Warner’s Plantation and Tombs Wallings Dam and Nature Reserve Welch’s Barbuda Antigua Antigua Barbuda The premier historical and heritage site in Antigua and Barbuda is the Nelson’s Dockyard and its related archaeological sites, which is a declared UNESCO World Heritage Site under the World Heritage Convention (see Figure 6-2).
The area is the only internationally declared heritage site in Antigua and Barbuda.

It is protected and being managed under the National Parks Authority and has a high degree of authenticity and a secure buffer zone (see Figure 6-3).
Visitor entries are recorded, which on an average year (before the COVID-19 Pandemic), would be 134 approximately 130,000 to 200,000 paying visitors per year.118 The Dockyard is also the site of big celebrations and has associated hotels and marina, which also contribute to the visitors.
Figure 6-2: Antigua Naval (Nelson’s) Dockyard (Source: Nicola and Dr. Reginald Murphy) Figure 6-3: Antigua Naval Dockyard and Related Archaeological Sites Protected Area 135 Other than the Dockyard, Fort Barrington, Fort James, and Betty’s Hope have historically been, and continue to be priorities for preservation on Antigua.125 Fort James has been increasingly popularized, but without the proper facilities or mechanisms to collect funds, the site is becoming littered with solid waste.125 The Betty’s Hope sugar plantation site has recently (started in 2019) undergone renovations through the Ministry of Tourism’s newly developed Heritage and Infrastructure Unit.
This management committee includes government and private sector.

Activities have mainly revolved around the development of an interpretation centre and maintenance of the grounds.
Between July and December 2020 (during the pandemic), Betty’s Hope logged more than 1,200 visitors, with this number expected to increase over the next year.125 Improvements are expected to continue, although several challenges exist with regards to security, condition of the assets, and available budget.125 Barbuda also offers several important heritage and cultural sites such as Highland House and Martello Tower (Figure 6-4).
Figure 6-4: Darby Cave, Highland House and Martello Tower are three of the popular historical sites on Barbuda (Source: Simply Antigua and Barbuda, Barbudaful websites) Underwater cultural heritage and its various artefacts and relics remain an important part of Antigua and Barbuda’s heritage.

Murphy (n.d.) reported that there are 146 known shipwrecks recorded for Barbuda and 127 for Antigua.117 Several of the wrecks (e.g.
Palrosa, the Red Jacket and the Amersfort) are still visible but most have been broken on the reefs.108 The most recent discovery in 2021 is believed to be an 18th century French warship.140 Historically the colonists on Barbuda made enormous profits from salvage, however today the removal of these historical and cultural assets is a significant concern for Antiguan and Barbudans, and the nation became signatory to the 2001 UNESCO Convention for the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage, under which commercial salvage and looting of these national assets is forbidden, and activities are restricted to observation and scientific research only under specific guidelines.108 141 There are challenges in making qualitative identification of trends due to lack of available data and gaps in assets that are not formally managed and regulated.
Anecdotally however, there are positive trends as it regards locals’ appreciation and value of these heritage sites.118 125 131 This has been seen for example, through the increasing amount of public attention received when a heritage site is threatened (e.g.
removal/destruction) 118 125 131, and the increase in local visitors exploring heritage sites (especially Green Castle Hill monoliths, Boggy Peak, Wallings Dam hiking area and Fort Barrington), in part due to increased hiking trips during the COVID-19 Pandemic.

A key strategy used by the National Parks Authority, is to make the assets, sites and history more relatable to Antiguans and Barbudans, especially those sites with Amerindian influence.
This positive trend is translating into more activities, investments and actions to preserve them, as well as improved marketing material as visitors capture photos and footage on their visits.

It has also given the Ministry of Tourism, and the National Parks Authority 136 increased opportunity to spread awareness on the importance of heritage structures, and their conservation.
118 125 131 CULTURAL SITES AND ASSETS Antigua has a rich cultural heritage deeply rooted in a mixture of African Heritage melded with the influence of Colonialism creating a vibrant, spirited culture which remains strong until this day.

Cultural assets include food (see Figure 6-5), rum, art and craft, monuments etc.

Antigua is also home to a handful of local lager makers that put their own spin on microbrew, often using recipes honed over generations.
There is a strong connection between culture and biodiversity, in for example the traditional use of biodiversity in foods such as that of using hermit crab roe in fungi, a dish with African roots.142 Local and traditional food is typically served at most restaurants island wide, with a special showcasing at the national food fair during Independence.131 Figure 6-5: Traditional and cultural food items in Antigua and Barbuda – from left to right, Ducana, Fungie and Saltfish and Souse (Sources: Sandals, NewsAmericasNow, MangoCobbler websites) There are several art galleries listed for Antigua and Barbuda including but not limited to Zemi Art Gallery, Fig Tree Studio Art Gallery, Art at the Ridge, Heavenly Art Gallery, Cedars Pottery, Things Local Gallery, Gilly Gobinet Art, Art Café, The G Art Gallery and Cultural Centre, and Guava de Art Gallery.143 These galleries are important as it helps to preserve local artists work (see Figure 6-6).144 Figure 6-6: Pieces from G Art Gallery and Cultural Centre (Antigua Nice, 2012) Sports also plays a big role in Antigua and Barbuda’s culture with the Antigua Recreation Ground being cricket’s 52nd Test venue in 1980-81, during which Sir Vivian Richards, one of Antigua’s sports cultural icons, bat an iconic hundred.145 The grounds have also hosted other sports and athletics and events such as carnival and concerts.
The 137 recreational centre began to decline in condition and a new stadium – the Sir Vivian Richards Stadium – was built as an alternative.145 The Rising Sun Park and YASCO Sports Complex (and athletics track) are other important sites that support and develop national sporting culture.131 Betty’s Hope and Nelson’s Dockyard (discussed in the previous section), as well as the Antigua Recreation Ground are important sites that host large cultural events such carnival, whilst smaller festivals (e.g.
Moods of Pan), theatre and concerts sometimes occur at the Dean William Lake Cultural Centre.131 The Victoria Park Botanical Gardens was established in 1893 and was a culturally important site that encouraged people-environment interaction in green spaces, education and environmental awareness and recreational activities.

146 The DOE has since taken over responsibility of the Botanical Gardens and is now home to its offices.
The Multipurpose Cultural and Exhibition Center was built in the 1990s and acts as another important display and gathering site.

There are also a number of culturally significant natural sites in Antigua and Barbuda, including exceptional natural landscapes and interesting natural features and mystical sites which are tied to significant historical, heritage and cultural events (see Figure 6-7).

Many of these are included in the section above.


Figure 6-7: The Arch at Half Moon Bay (left); Cave at Half Moon Bay (middle); The Pillars of Hercules (right) (Source: Murphy, n.d. (left, middle), N. Hollands (right)) INTANGIBLE CULTURAL ASSETS Antigua and Barbuda’s intangible cultural assets include music, sports (especially cricket), dance, language and cultural expressions, stories and festivals (see Figure 6-8).
Figure 6-8: Antigua Dance Academy (left); Carnival in Antigua and Barbuda (right) (Source: Antigua and Barbuda Tourism Authority (left); Caribbean and Co (right)).

138 Antigua and Barbuda have a strong calypso, soca and steel band music culture.

Some musical cultural icons include Calypso Joe, Short Shirt, Swallow, Obstinate, Onyan, Smarty Jr, Roland Prince and Aubrey ‘Lacu’ Samuel.
Well-known steel bands include Brute Force, Hells Gate, Harmonites, Supa Stars, and Halcyon147 along with soca bands like Burning Flames.

Several of these artists or bands have contributed significantly to the musical landscape for decades.

For example, the original soca group Burning Flames has been, and is still seen as the driving force of ‘jam band’ and party music today.
The Hellsgate Steel Orchestra is allegedly the oldest existing (continuous) steelband in the world who recently received the highest recognition by the Government of Antigua and Barbuda.148 The institution also has the record for the most Panoramaxix wins ever in the country.131 There has been a decline over the years in the interest and viewership of traditional events, such as ‘Out of the Drum Dance Festival’ or ‘Moods of Pan’, which features more ‘Afro’-style music.
There has also been a shift away from Calypso music in general to the more mainstreamed Soca genre.131 The Department of Culture has begun the groundwork to revive these cultural events and assets as the groups themselves are still in existence.

There has also been a positive trend in the increased investment in music, especially youth in steel pan, as a vibrant, economical, high level career and not just a hobby, in keeping with the Orange Economy framework.
This includes more persons advancing their studies in pan (composing and planning), more investment in pan building as a career (e.g.

using recycled material to create drums), and more investment in equipment to compete on an international level.131 Sports remains one of the dominant cultural aspects of Antigua and Barbuda, with a big focus of cricket showing some of the influence of European culture.
The Sir Vivian Richards Cricket Grounds was built in 2007 the same year Antigua and Barbuda played host for the Cricket World Cup.

Antigua and Barbuda has also been represented at the Olympics (first in 1976) and continuously since then with the exception of the 1980 games.
In the last 2020 Olympic Games, Antigua and Barbuda was represented by six competitors in the fields of Athletics, Boxing, Sailing and Swimming.149 Football or soccer is also an important sport for the country with the Antiguan national football team joining the World Cup in 1974 and 1986 onwards.150 The traditional game ‘Warri’ is the national mancala game of Antigua and Barbuda, which originated from West Africa.
151 It is still actively played today, through the Warri Academy and as individuals, though the game is reportedly mainly by men.152 Some sports icons from Antigua and Barbuda include Sir Vivian Richards and Sir Curtley Ambrose (cricket), Daniel Bailey and Brendan Christian (athletics) and Kerry Skepple (football).153 There are several important writers that have originated from Antigua and Barbuda including Jamaica Kincaid, Ralf Prince, Elaine Olaoye, Joanne C. Hillhouse and Dorbrene Omard.154 The Wadadli Youth Pen Prize (debuted in 2004) is a writing competition for Antiguan and Barbudan youths, with a goal to nurture and showcase literary arts in Antigua and Barbuda.
The Wadadli Pen website acts as a blog and archive of Antiguan and Barbudan literature, and has also supported other smaller competitions, workshops and community driven literature arts initiatives.155 The Wadadli Film Studio offers film production services with several national and international products in their portfolio.156 Wyland Wall, Nancy Nicholson (Rhythms of Blue Gallery), Lucy Tulloch, Nick Maley, and Claire Frank are some of the many talented artists associated with Antigua and Barbuda.156 157 Among the popular arts and crafts are ethnic dolls, sculptures (wood and steel), pottery, photography, painting and scrimshawxx.
Antigua and Barbuda play host to numerous cultural events, some national and international, that draw visitors from around the world.

Some of these are131: ► Antigua & Barbuda Independence Festival -Antigua gained total independence on November 1st 1981, and this is celebrated annually with a week of celebration, competitions, parades, expos and food fairs – for all Antiguans living both home and abroad and residents of Antigua, as well as visitors.
xix The Panorama Steelpan Competition is the largest steelpan competition in the world and takes places in and during Trinidad and Tobago’s Carnival (Source: GoTourismGuides) xx Scrimshaw: ancient sailor’s folk art of carving on whales’ teeth or driftwood (Source: Antigua-Barbuda website) 139 ► Antigua & Barbuda Mango Festival now the Piango Festival, is a festival celebrating the mango and pineapple fruit, which are plentiful in Antigua.
► Antigua Barbuda Horticultural Society aims to educate, teach, conserve and to achieve excellence in plant knowledge, garden design and an appreciation of plants.

► Antigua Carnival takes place for two weeks yearly at the end of July into early August, and is one huge party in the streets of St. John's the capital.
► Antigua Opera Society is an organisation whose objectives are to stimulate the development of classical music, to create an annual Opera festival, and develop master classes for young Antiguan and Barbudan talent (both instrumentalists and singers).
► Barbuda Caribana - The island's carnival is always over the long Whit weekend and is five days full of pageantry, dance, calypso and fun.156 Similar to the above two sub-sections, there is no formal record of intangible cultural heritage, however, the “Measuring economic contribution to cultural industries to Antigua and Barbuda’s national development” project previously mentioned, and its associated outputs have a heavy focus on intangible cultural assets and will be invaluable to the advancement of Antigua and Barbuda’s culture.
Otherwise, there is no formal record of the number of initiatives geared towards the definition and conservation of intangible cultural assets (e.g.

music, poetry etc.

).131 Another positive trend is the increase in the interest (especially by the youth), and investment in Antigua and Barbuda’s Orange Economy, with examples of131: • Development of businesses using traditional and natural products (e.g.
fever grass) • • Creating and conducting small cultural businesses from home Interest in craft, and more consciousness of the need to invest in local products 140 6.4 IMPACTS visitors158.
6.4 IMPACTS Destruction of historical and cultural artefacts Several historical and cultural artefacts have already been physically and negatively impacted either in part (damage), or wholly (complete loss) by several factors including removal by locals and visitors for souvenirs, damage to the structures and sites from neglect, and climate related events.

Given their location and size, Antigua and Barbuda’s assets are extremely vulnerable to climate change.
Heritage sites and assets are also impacted by development activities (e.g.

activities in Devil’s Bridge, Antigua and Palmetto Point, Barbuda).

Mitigation for this would require a more accurate and comprehensive heritage database for informed decision-making, and improved legislation29.

The COVID-19 pandemic on culture and heritage rather The COVID-19 pandemic has had negative impacts on Antigua and Barbuda’s culture and heritage.
An overall economic decline forces the government to prioritize resources for short-term compensation of loss of revenue, longer-term protection or conservation activities.

Other negative impacts include the decline in the tourism industry including tourism events (festivals, associated craft sales, etc.

), which are intangible cultural assets158.

The key to preserving pandemic has also restricted access to, for example, the research station (BARC) on Barbuda.
than Long-term negative impacts on culture and heritage Land use changes and activities, such as sand mining, have also resulted in fragmentation of habitats in coastal ecosystems.

In particular where practices are unregulated (sand mining, land clearing), ecosystems and functioning can be severely compromised with much of the ecosystem services, habitats and biodiversity already reported as lost.
Land grabbing and coastline changes can also impact access to, and structures of heritage and cultural assets.
141 UNESCO World Heritage Site Nelson’s Dockyard , Antigua Photo by: UNESCO World Heritage Centre S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 There have also been positive impacts for Antigua and Barbuda’s culture and heritage, such as the increase in local visitors exploring heritage sites, the development of the mask business, and a rise in use (and capacity building) of online platform for cultural events131.

6.5 WHAT ARE WE DOING ABOUT IT?


Antigua and Barbuda are at an important point in their cultural and heritage history, with efforts being made to revive cultural traditions, preserve existing assets, invest in assets for tourism potential, and develop the valuable Orange Economy.

The Government are taking steps and actions to mitigate the impacts identified above, and preserve their culture and heritage.
These include national legislations and plans: ► 2003 Physical Planning Act which speaks to the need and allows for actions to protect and conserve cultural heritage during any development159 ► 1984 National Parks Act and the National Parks Development and Management Plan provisions for the preservation, protection, management and development of the natural physical and ecological resources and the historical and cultural heritage of Antigua and Barbuda160 ► 2019 Environmental Protection and Management Act which allows for the management of cultural heritage sites in collaboration with the National Parks Authority161 ► Land Use or Physical Development Plan which defines and establishes zones for appropriate land use ► Building Guidelines have been designed to orient conservation interventions of historical buildings and archaeological remains and to set standards for new architecture and new guidelines, and; ► 2016 Heritage (Protection) Bill which speaks to the Authority and management of heritage, discovery/loss, permitted, activities, ownership, impacts and enforcement.
It includes a special section for underwater heritage beyond national jurisdiction.

This Bill is important given that there is no legislation to protect assets that exist outside of the few designated parks.

However there is little public knowledge or awareness on this Bill, and the process to have it passed has stalled.

A new group of concerned citizens has been formed to revise the Bill and increase efforts to have it passed108.
Several Multilateral Environmental Agreements (MEAs) ratified by Antigua and Barbuda provide significant guidance, financial and technical assistance and other advantages in relation to culture and heritage.

These include: ► 1972 UNESCO World Heritage Convention ► 2001 UNESCO Convention for Protecting the Underwater Cultural Heritage ► 2003 UNESCO Convention for Safeguarding the Intangible Cultural Heritage ► 2005 UNESCO Convention on Protection and Promotion of the Diversity of Cultural Expressions.
Currently, there is interest from Ministry of Tourism to develop another World Heritage Site, along the lines of a serial nomination under a theme or cultural trait (e.g.
fortifications).118 The Government is also making a push for sustainable and local tourism products, which support the principles of culture and heritage preservation, through: ► Plans to develop a Sustainable Tourism Action Plan which will seek to establish community-based cultural tourism projects in Antigua and Barbuda and map cultural heritage sites across the twin-island nation.162 ► Development of the Sustainable Tourism Unit by the Ministry of Tourism29; and creation of a Destination Stewardship Council.163 ► Plans in place for niche marketing e.g.
Agro- and Eco-tourism, Rural and Cultural Tourism.
142 S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 ► Recognition as an Emerging Sustainable Destination for 2021 by The Lonely Planet164 ► Implementation of the Green Tourism Initiative, and the establishment of the Green Corridor, among others.165 There are also several institutional actions to support culture and heritage preservation which include: ► Linkages with universities to conduct explorations, research and assess the state of historical remains in undeclared sites, as previously discussed.
The DOE is also collaborating with a consultant to develop a Natural Resources Inventory Report for Barbuda which will present information on the natural, physical and socio-cultural environments of Barbuda and will include information on several important sites and assets on the island.30 ► Preservation of artefacts, literature and cultural assets at the Museum of Antigua and Barbuda, the BARC, site-specific museums e.g.
Betty’s Hope, Nelson’s Dockyard, and cultural institutions such as the several art galleries ► Establishment of a Heritage and Infrastructure Unit which focuses on the restoration and management those heritage sites which fall under the Ministry of Tourism’s oversight.

Currently their focus has only been on Betty’s Hope, but they plan to expand in the future in particular to Fort Barrington and Fort James.
Infrastructure would include for example, road conditions leading to heritage sites.166 ► In 2020, one of the nation’s most prestigious awards – The Most Precious Order of Princely Heritage – was amended to recognize the contributions of institutions (and not just individuals) to arts and culture in Antigua and Barbuda.167 There is an increased effort to track the number of visitors; Nelson’s Dockyard National Park is looking to improve their data collection through issuance of annual passes, more focus on demographics of visitors, and improving their existing carrying capacity study to look at how visitor flows impact the site and resources.118 The recent initiatives at Betty’s Hope have also started tracking visitors, with plans to improve this data collection at this site, and eventually others.125 The DOE is also looking to establish a Green Card system under the Sustainable Pathways Protected Areas and Renewable Energy (SPPARE) project, which will grant access to protected areas and possibly heritage sites.45 The establishment of the Wallings Nature Reserve in 2018 was another important step toward preservation of important natural and traditional assets.
The Reserve acts as a case study examining local community management, social inclusion, sustainable development and the protection of the biological diversity of Antigua and Barbuda.

The Reserve monitors, maintains and manages 680 ha of rain forest in the Sherkley Mountain Protected Area.168 The volunteer efforts to create a detailed database on heritage and cultural assets is an important step toward formal management and regulation.
It can help identify the need for restrictions, as well as opportunities for expansion, which can prevent loss of valuable assets to exploitation or physical damage.
There has been an identified need to minimize the potential adverse impacts of tourism on assets, through protocols and policies on proper use.169 170 Efforts have also been done to improve gender inclusion in Antiguan and Barbudan culture, notably through the group Women Against Rape.171 They have partnered with other organizations to research and improve the stigma and discrimination in women, but also the Lesbian Bisexual, Gay, Transgender and Questioning (LGBTQ) groups.
Activities include international networking events, community-level training and sensitization and movements in legal reform and advocacy around domestic violence laws to make them more gender inclusive.172 The project “Cultural Rights to foster behavioural changes and women’s empowerment against Domestic Violence in Barbados and the Eastern Caribbean” raises gender inequality surrounding, for example, carnival – where women are being held more responsible for their actions than men; and popular songs that encourage Gender Based Violence.
This has also raised the need for a national media monitoring body, similar to the Global Media Monitoring Project.173 143 Like many countries in the Caribbean, there has been active effort in Antigua and Barbuda to make “the moral, ethical and legal case for the payment of Reparations by the Governments of all the former colonial powers and the relevant institutions of those countries, to the nations and people of the Caribbean Community for the Crimes against Humanity of Native Genocide, the Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade and a racialized system of chattel Slavery”.174 The Antigua and Barbuda Reparations Support Commission has been established with activities such as responsibility for leading national celebrations for important cultural dates.
175 Antigua was also host to the 2nd Caricom Reparations Conference in 2014.176 These are also important steps to keeping the history and culture alive locally and internationally, and highlighting the impact and importance of Antigua and Barbuda’s role in western civilization.
S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 144 S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 0 CROSS-SECTORAL AREAS Nelson’s Dockyard, Antigua Photo by: Antigua Nice 145 S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 THE CROSS- SECTORAL AREAS include tourism, food security and the health sector.

7 CROSS-SECTORAL AREAS 7.1 WHY IS IT IMPORTANT?


The cross-sectoral areas considered in the State of Environment Report are tourism, food security and health.

Tourism - Antigua and Barbuda is a service-based economy with tourism being the main driver of growth, accounting for over 60% of the country’s GDP.177 The tourism industry can be divided into three areas: accommodations, tours, and transportation (which includes transportation by air, sea and land).
The industry is characterized by a number of small to large-scale accommodations, attracting all types of visitors.

Tour operations play a major role in the tourism product, however, this is one aspect of the sector that goes unmonitored.

The number of tourists to the sister islands is directly related to visitor expenditure, a direct contributor to the country’s GDP.
Food Security exists when all people, at all times, have physical and economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food that meets their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life.178 Food availability, access, utilization, and stability are key dimensions of food security and as such, the health and sustainability of the agricultural sector are critical for achieving food security.
Antigua and Barbuda’s agricultural sector is characterized by small holdings, short-term leases, and backyard farming.

This sector is important in maintaining a healthy labour force and the tourism industry is also heavily reliant on this sector for providing visitors with safe and healthy food options.
The health sector is responsible for the well-being of local and visitor populations including the prevention of non-communicable and climate-related illnesses and diseases, the provision of safe water and food, and equal access to proper nutrition and healthcare as part of the country’s commitment to the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals.

7.2 DRIVERS AND PRESSURES TOURISM Antigua and Barbuda’s tourism product is heavily dependent on its natural resources.
Tourists visit the island mainly for the sun, sea and sand.

Therefore, the quality and availability of these natural resources are considered drivers of the tourism industry.

Tourism can also exert significant pressure on natural resources and the environment which leads to various impacts such as exceeding carrying capacities.

146 The main tourism markets are the United States of America, followed by the United Kingdom, Canada, and then other Caribbean markets.
The amount of foreign exchange generated is largely dependent on the number of visitors to the island who contribute to the island’s foreign exchange income.

Global health and geopolitical issues have a significant effect on the number of visitor arrivals and their average length of stay and are thus considered key drivers of tourism.
The significant decline in general visitor arrivals by air and sea for 2020 was as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic which severely impaired the industry due to travel restrictions, border closings, country lockdowns and loss of income for many travelers.
Other geopolitical factors, such as BREXIT which involved the withdrawal of the United Kingdom from the European Union and the European Atomic Energy Community at the end of January 2020, also had a negative impact on tourism.179 Economic performance of the main tourist markets such as the US, UK and Canada in turn drives the tourism sector in Antigua and Barbuda and ultimately the economy.
As previously mentioned, these countries account for a significant proportion of stayover tourists and visitor expenditure, a sizeable share of remittance flows into the Eastern Caribbean and are major providers of overseas development assistance.

For example, the economic fallout from BREXIT, which included a slowdown in the UK market, the depreciation of the GBP against the US dollar by 7%, and increased uncertainty, resulted in a decrease in UK tourists between 2016 and 2018.
Figure 7-1: UK Visitor Arrivals to Antigua (2013–2019) Climate change is a driving force of the tourism industry.

Climate change can either positively or negatively impact on the attractiveness of a destination.

Factors such as intense rainfall and increased temperatures can affect visitor satisfaction.
Annual projected reductions in the contribution of tourism to Antigua and Barbuda’s national GDP as a result of the reduced amenity value from beach loss is estimated to be between US $102 million in 2050 to over US $340 million in 2080 (based on a mid-range SLR scenario).

S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 levels are anticipated to impact Rising sea infrastructure along the coastline.
According to the CARIBSAVE Climate Change Risk Profile, 1m sea level rise (SLR) places 10% of the major tourism properties at risk, along with 2% of road networks and 100% of seaport lands.

A 2m SLR would result in 18% of major tourism resorts being impacted and 100% of airport lands.
For the period 2009–2015, erosion was the dominant feature with only about thirty percent (30%) of the beaches showing a dominance of accretion.180 147 S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 Figure 7-2: Antigua and Barbuda Beaches Change in Profile Area and Width 2009–2015 (Ministry of Agriculture) As was mentioned previously, tourism comes with certain pressures on culture and heritage.
One of the main impacts of tourism is the acculturation effect, which refers here to the influence of visitors on the local population 148 S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 – food, culture, dance, music and more.

The influx of tourists has resulted in a shift from supporting local products and services in preference for imported products and services that are representative of the destination countries of our visitors.
As a result of the growth of the tourism sector, there are pressures that are exerted on supporting sectors.

These include demands for increased infrastructure, the provision of drinking water, energy, and health services.

The impacts of these will be discussed in subsequent sections.

FOOD SECURITY One of the main drivers of food security is population growth.

There has been a steady increase in the population throughout the years.
As the population continues to grow, there is a need to increase food production.

Population in Antigua and Barbuda 98000 96000 94000 92000 90000 88000 86000 84000 82000 80000 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 2016 2018 2020 Figure 7-3: Population in Antigua and Barbuda (2005–2019)181 The tourism sector is another important driver.

The tourism industry is one of the largest consumers of locally produced food.
Many resorts are All Inclusive and guests are provided with unlimited food options, while others offer a European Plan where they purchase food in restaurants on the island.

Although resorts and hotels have a high rate of importation themselves, due to limited food produced locally, many hotels also support backyard farmers.
The Ministry of Agriculture Extension Division estimates a total of over 500 backyard farmers that are currently supported by resorts and other accommodation or tourism- related establishments.

Global events such as the recent pandemic also play a significant role in the shaping of the food security sector on the island as there is now a recognized need to focus on food security, nutrition and local purchasing.

An increase in the demand for food production leads to an increased water demand.
Water availability is therefore considered a key driver/pressure with regards to food security.

Currently, distribution is restricted to those farms in close proximity to surface or municipal supplies.

When water is restricted, municipal needs are given priority over agriculture.

HEALTH The following have been identified as drivers of the demand for health care services in Antigua and Barbuda.

149 The changes in population are expected to drive the demand for different types of health care services.
The majority of the population falls within the age range of 15 to 64.

This age group accounted for over 60,000 persons on an annual basis between 2010 to 2019.182 The number of persons under 14 amounted to over 20,000 each year for the same period.

These demographics influence the areas of focus of the health care system in Antigua and Barbuda.

Demographic data shows Antigua and Barbuda's population is also ageing.
The number of inhabitants in the age range above 65 years grew continuously over the last decade.

1991 2001 2011 Figure 7-4: Population Pyramids, 1991, 2001, 2011.

(Source 2011 Population and Housing Census) The prevalence of certain types of illnesses and the general awareness levels of the population when it comes to lifestyle diseases are also drivers of the health sector.

Malignant neoplasm (cancer) was the leading cause of death in Antigua and Barbuda in 2012.
The second ranked principal cause of death in 2012 was heart disease followed by diabetes mellitus.183 S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 150 S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 Table 7-1: Total Number of Deaths recorded for 2012 A driver of the growth of the health sector is typically reflected in the country’s investment in health care.
The total expenditure on health as a percentage of GDP (Figure 7-7) has been between 4–6% for the last 10 years.

7.3 HOW IS IT CHANGING?

TOURISM In 2014, travel and tourism directly supported 5,000 jobs (15.9% of total employment).

In 2019, the travel and tourism sector in Antigua and Barbuda contributed to nearly 91 percent of the country's total employment.184 As a result of this, tourism is the largest employer on the island.
IN 2019, THE TRAVEL AND TOURISM SECTOR IN ANTIGUA AND BARBUDA CONTRIBUTED TO NEARLY 91% OF THE COUNTRY'S TOTAL EMPLOYMENT.

With a total of 300 accommodations on the island, Antigua has a total room capacity of 3,500.

Hotels vary from large All Inclusive (AI) chains with over a hundred rooms to smaller intimate villas.

According to the Antigua and Barbuda Tourism Authority, the accommodation capacity is expected to double with an estimated 2,535 rooms and units by 2021.
An increase in room count is a good indication and a direct result of the rapid growth in the tourism industry.

151 There are a total of 29 accommodations between Antigua and Barbuda that would be considered nationally as "green".

Of these, about 8 have achieved global certification.

These certifications include third-party verification systems like Green Globe, Earth Check as well as the TripAdvisor GreenLeaders Program.
According to the United Nations World Tourism Organization (UNWTO), Antigua and Barbuda surpassed the one million mark of foreign visitor arrivals in 2017 to 2019, registering around 770 and 890 thousand arrivals in previous years.185 There have been between 3,000 to 4,600 vessels arriving on an annual basis from 2007 to 2019 with a drastic decline to 2,474 in 2020 due to the pandemic.
Cruise vessel arrival data from 2007 to 2019 show that yachts currently account for the largest percentage of arrivals by sea.186 In 2017, visitor spend was $606,918,606.00 and increased to $640,989,841 and $776,127,230.00 in 2018 and 2019 respectively.

There has been a general upward trend in visitor spend from 2000 to 2020 with the lowest visitor spend reported being $349, 301,971.00 in 2020 due to the pandemic.
S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 Figure 7-5: Visitor Expenditure Many of the accommodations are located on the coastlines and are vulnerable to the effects of climate change such as coastal erosion and flooding.

Climate change projections for the island include accelerated coastal erosion and inundation, lower average annual rainfall, increased rainfall intensity causing flooding and a likely increase in tropical storm intensity.
Properties located on the coastlines of Antigua, especially those on the Atlantic Ocean side, have been faced with the issue of sargassum on their beaches.

To date, there is no data showing the amount of sargassum coming on shore and the financial effects on coastline resorts.

FOOD SECURITY Agriculture contributed 3.8% to the Gross Domestic Product in 2009.

Figure 7-6 outlines the increase in the sector’s contribution to GDP from 2000 to 2013 with a decline in 2014, 2015 and 2016.
The sector’s contribution increased in 2017 and then declined slightly in 2018.

152 S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 Figure 7-6: Contribution of Agriculture to GDP In 2020, there was a total of 1,800 registered farmers with over 500 homes currently having backyard farms.

It is estimated that approximately 25% of the population economically active in agriculture is female and 75% are male.
187 The main vegetable and fruit crops grown include tomatoes, peppers, yams, cassava, sweet potatoes, watermelons and cantaloupes.188 Agriculture is dominated by livestock production with goats being the dominant species.

More than 75 percent of livestock production of Antigua is carried out in the Central Plains and the North- Eastern Limestone Formation.
Barbuda is devoted entirely to livestock production with the exception of a few agricultural stations and fenced farming areas.189 The food import bill for 2020 stood at $900 million Eastern Caribbean dollars with the majority of the bill being spent on poultry and bovine cuts.

In 2017, the poultry import bill in US dollars was $29,512,226.10 and increased to $34,789,177.87 in 2018.

In 2019, the bill was $34,643,880.30 with a decline in 2020 to $29,407,684.35.
Antigua and Barbuda experiences extended dry periods fairly regularly.

Droughts occur every five to ten years and during those periods the country faces critical water shortages.

As a result, farmers have taken advantage of irrigation and other technologies and a small group with medium-sized farms (5 to 15 hectares) has developed highly efficient, mechanized production technologies and has demonstrated the potential to produce high quality produce competitively.
However, lack of continuous water supplies and difficulties with gluts caused by imported produce have deterred many from investing further in needed infrastructure or marketing systems.

Many farm on land rented from the Government with little security of tenure, further reducing willingness to invest.

The dry climate of Antigua and Barbuda is well suited to livestock production and the grassland areas support considerable populations of cattle and small ruminants.
However, production remains a part-time hobby for many livestock owners, who rely on wasteland as pasture.

Livestock production generally remains a low-input/low-output enterprise, subject to the vagaries of the weather.190 At the time of this report, there were 20 farmers using hydroponics, over 800 using drip irrigation , and about 20 involved in aquaculture faming.
According to the Agriculture Extension Division, 99% of all farmers are using open field practices which is a conventional method of farming.

The vast majority of farmers grow produce in open fields and this farming method is better for the environment.

153 HEALTH SECTOR Antigua and Barbuda is divided into six medical districts each governed by a district medical officer.

Health centres are responsible for delivering primary healthcare, and are located within a 3km radius of each major settlement.
The main medical care facility in Antigua is the Sir Lester Bird Medical Centre which is a 185-bed teaching hospital which provides services such as casualty, maternity, and radiology, amongst others.

Barbuda currently has one 8-bed health facility on the island.

Prior to September 2017, Barbuda’s health care facilities were centred in Hannah Thomas Hospital building which was capable of attending to only with minor issues.
At that time, there were no laboratories, surgery/operating facilities, X-rays or drug services.

Any moderate to serious medical issue required airlifting to Antigua.

Government expenditure on healthcare expressed as a percentage of GDP was 5.4% in 2000 and declined steadily to 4.19% in 2009.

There was then an increase in 2010 and this was maintained at around 5.2% from 2015 to 2018.
Health Expenditure (% of GDP) 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 Figure 7-7: Current Health Expenditure (% of GDP) – Antigua and Barbuda (Source: World Health Organization Global Health Expenditure Database) One of the achievements of the nation’s healthcare system is nearly full coverage for vaccine preventable diseases.

Antigua and Barbuda’s life expectancy is 77.47.

The life expectancy for males is generally lower than females.
S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 154 Life Expectancy (males and females) 84.00 82.00 80.00 78.00 76.00 74.00 72.00 70.00 y c n a t c e p x e e f i l e g a r e v A 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 Year Male Female Figure 7-8: Life Expectancy in Antigua and Barbuda from 2000–2017191 Adolescent fertility rate (births per 1,000 women between 15 and 19 years old) for the years 2000 to 2014 decreased steadily from 61.9 in 2000 to 40.88 in 2019.192 The crude death rate per 1,000 persons was 6.2 in 2000 and declined steadily to 5.99 in 2005.
After 2005, there was a steady increase in the crude death rate reaching up to 6.3 in 2018.

The highest number of deaths from 2008 to 2018 occurred in the 85+ age group, while the lowest number of deaths occurred in the 5–9 age group.
Crude Death Rate (per 1000 persons) S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 6.4 6.3 6.2 6.1 6 5.9 5.8 5.7 Figure 7-9: Crude Death Rate per 1,000 Persons (www.data.worldbank.org) Figure 7-10 shows the number of infant deaths per 1,000 live births from 2000 to 2019.

There has been a steady decline in the number of infant deaths dropping to 5.8 deaths per 1,000 live births in 2019.
About 70 % of infant deaths occur during the neonatal period with main causes being birth asphyxia, prematurity, and injuries.

155 S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 Figure 7-10: Antigua and Barbuda’s Infant Mortality Rate (2000–2019)193 Overall, there was a 27% increase in the number of reported cases of all communicable diseases comparing the year 2012 with 2014.
The country is undergoing an epidemiological transition with non- communicable diseases accounting for 85% of deaths.

The three leading causes of death were cancer, heart disease, and diabetes.

The government is implementing cost-effective prevention activities focusing on obesity, exercise, and reduction in tobacco and alcohol use.194 As it relates to mental health challenges on the island, the three top disorders are not the same for men and women.
While men are mostly affected by alcohol use disorders, headaches and somatic symptom disorders with prominent pain, women are mostly affected by headaches, depression and anxiety disorders.xxi The effects of climate change on the health sector manifests itself in vector-borne and respiratory illnesses.

There was no current data available related to climate change and vector-borne and respiratory illnesses at the time of this study.
The Ministry currently conducts inspections on breeding habitats to reduce the effect of vector-borne illnesses and also conducts water quality testing in communities.

Figure 7-11 below shows the number of homes inspected from 2012 to 2020 for breeding habitat.
xxi The burden of mental disorders in the Americas, Antigua and Barbuda, 2019 156 Number of homes inspected 70000 60000 50000 40000 30000 20000 10000 0 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 Figure 7-11: Number of homes inspected from 2012 to 2020 for Breeding Habitats (Source: Ministry of Health, 2021) As the health care system has to be resilient to external pressures, such as climate change and extreme weather conditions, the Ministry of Health in 2021 has a total of 8 facilities with Disaster Management Plans, but all facilities are guided by the draft All Hazard Plan for Ministry of Health since 2015.
The plan has since then been updated, but every health facility, apart from the Sir Lester Bird Medical Centre (SLBMC), is in need of training and revamping of the facility’s health disaster committees.

In Barbuda, livestock poses a significant health risk especially in areas close to water.

Horses, cattle, goats and other animals roam freely and their waste is released into the shallow waters of the lagoon as well as on rural and coastal lands.

Horses are also washed in the lagoon.


These activities increase the risk of contracting dangerous diseases such as Leptospirosis, meningitis and other serious conditions according to the Marine Mammal Center (2018).
S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 157 7.4 IMPACTS 7.4 IMPACTS TOURISM Terrestrial and marine pollution The impacts of tourism and its activities include coastal erosion, damage to coastal and marine habitats through solid and liquid waste discharges causing terrestrial and marine pollution.
Tourism activities, such as diving, snorkeling and tours, generally go unmonitored and in some cases, the extent of damage caused to ecosystems may be difficult to track and quantify.

Destruction of mangroves for tourism development has been an ongoing concern in Antigua and dredging is also a major part of tourism development on the coastlines.

In Antigua, developers dredge primarily for two purposes: for ship and boat channels; and for beach nourishment.
Near St John’s, Antigua’s capital, harbour dredging to accommodate additional cruise vessels in an effort to drive tourism has significantly altered the coastal environment.

Sand mining in Barbuda has also been an environmental issue of concern.

Solid and liquid waste Accommodations, transportation and recreational tours generate a significant amount of solid and liquid waste.

These waste products include food waste, paper waste, plastics and also metal and electronic waste.
Hazardous waste, such as chemicals, pesticides, liquid waste from sewage generation at resorts and wastewater from kitchens and bathrooms, is also generated.

Chemical and pesticides The tourism industry utilizes a lot of chemicals and pesticides in its operation for cleaning and sanitizing especially during the current pandemic.

These have the potential to cause harm to the terrestrial and marine environment.
Greenhouse gas emissions and lighting together Hotel operations, tours and transportation generate a significant amount of greenhouse gas emissions, such as carbon dioxide, through the use of vehicles and heavy-duty machines as well as high energy consumption in the accommodation sector.

Air-conditioning for approximately two-thirds of total electricity use in Caribbean hotels.
The Climate Change Risk Profile showed that current tourism-related energy use and associated emissions are estimated to be the equivalent of 50 – 80% of estimated national emissions of CO2.

Aviation (38%), cruise ships (29%) and accommodation (17%) were identified as the major direct consumers of energy and contributors to carbon emissions in the tourism sector.
account 158 Solid Waste in the Marine Environment Photo by: Antigua News Room FOOD SECURITY Increased food prices Water supply and other challenges faced by the sector often lead to an increase in the price of produce because of the high demand and the low supply.

Marine pollution Marine pollution from solid and liquid waste associated with agriculture leads to damage of fragile ecosystems such as mangroves, coral reef and seagrass beds.
For example, the improper disposal of harmful chemicals and pesticides can cause damaging effects on the marine and terrestrial ecosystems.

Nearshore marine pollution is also of concern in coastal tourism development areas such as the Palmetto Development in Barbuda, which has raised significant concern based on the proximity to nearshore fragile marine environments.

Uncontrolled grazing of livestock Livestock, like sheep, goats, donkeys and cattle, negatively affects vegetative cover.
Ruminant animals, such as sheep, cattle, and goats, are reared on the vast tracts of under-utilized lands which were former sugar agricultural estates.

These animals contribute the degradation of land used for agriculture through the negative effect of grazing and trampling of the land.

This is widely perceived as one of the country’s leading environmental problems.

There is currently no recent data available at the time of this report to track the number of roaming animals.
to Greenhouse gas emissions The International Panel on Climate Change (IPCC's) 2019 Special Report on Climate Change and Land estimates that agriculture is directly responsible for up to 8.5% of all greenhouse gas emissions with a further 14.5% coming from land use change (mainly deforestation in the developing world to clear land for food production), exploitation of land and poor agricultural practices.
Agriculture emits all three greenhouse gases: carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), and nitrous oxide (N20).

159 Antiguan Lobster Meal Photo by: Ayngelina HEALTH SECTOR Production of biohazardous waste The production of biohazardous waste within the health centres, hospitals and clinics accounts for a significant portion of the total waste being produced by the health sector on the island.
The improper disposal of biohazardous medical waste generated by hospitals and clinics has the potential to cause harm to marine and terrestrial ecosystems.

The use of chemicals for cleaning and sanitization also negatively impacts the marine and terrestrial ecosystems.

Noise and air pollution The production of noise and air pollution through the use of incinerators places significant pressure on the natural environment.
The incineration process causes dioxins, furans, and other toxic air pollutants to be produced as emissions.

Energy and water consumption within the health sector is also high as hospitals run a 24-hour operation.

160 Sir Lester Bird Medical Centre Photo by: Antigua Nice S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 7.5 WHAT ARE WE DOING ABOUT IT?
TOURISM The government of Antigua and Barbuda has responded to some of the tourism challenges through the implementation of policies, plans and initiatives to mitigate the negative effect of tourism operations on the environment and the local community.

One such programme is the Green Tourism Initiative and the Community Empowerment Programme, which focused on women-based enterprises and environmental training and business development.
The Community Empowerment Programme focused on female-owned businesses and gender considerations (male/female ratio in the tourism sector as well as management level) have been included as indicators for the Green Tourism Initiative.

The Sustainable Tourism Master Plan is in place though considered to be outdated (2007).

A Green Corridor was also established in 2017 and it stretches along the south-west coast from the village of Bolans to the village of John Hughes in Antigua.
It is a designated area of Antigua where the businesses that are directly and indirectly related to tourism have agreed to a set of principles based on respect for local culture, positive influence on the local community, environmental stewardship and economic viability.195 There is currently a need to diversify Antigua and Barbuda’s tourism product to increase marketability.
Examples of product diversification initiatives include agrotourism and cultural tourism which have received much focus from the Ministry of Tourism within recent years.

The Tourism Business Licensing and Registration Act was passed in early 2020, which made it mandatory for all hotels to register with the Ministry of Tourism.

The registration process is ongoing.


There have also been attempts to create linkages within the retail sectors and food security sectors as evidenced by one of the major supermarkets being supplied by backyard farmers.

The tourism sector receives support from various recycling partners to divert their waste products.

Antigua and Barbuda banned single-use plastic bags (2017) and polystyrene products (2018) as part of the ‘Clean Seas Campaign’, becoming the first country in the region to do so.
Audits of tourism accommodations are conducted by the Ministry of Health.
Several solutions to waste management and recycling have been developed on the island including the following: ► In 2019, the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) launched the three-year Plastic Waste- Free Islands (PWFI) initiative as part of its global Close the Plastic Tap Programme, supported by the Norwegian Agency for Development Cooperation (Norad) and The Didier and Martine Primat Foundation.196 ► The Adopt a Coastline initiative, a recent partnerships with local communities and tourism entities to combat the issue of solid waste.
The Development Control Authority is the governing body that regulates the approval of all tourism projects.

Coastal engineering structures have also been implemented at many resorts around the island and the National Office of Disaster Management works closely with the resorts on capacity building and ensuring that they have robust disaster management plans in place.

Water Quality testing is done at several resorts / beach locations by the Ministry of Health.
Several resorts on the island monitor their beach water quality on a monthly basis, however the results of this are not currently collated by the Ministry of Health.

161 S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 Chemicals imported and used on the island are largely regulated by the Pesticides and Toxic Chemicals Control Board (PTCCB).
All establishments including tourism accommodations are required to register chemicals under the Pesticide and Toxic Chemicals Registration, licensing and Permit Regulations 2013.

The process of registration of chemicals used by hotels and accommodations is ongoing.

There has recently been an initiative by the Department of Analytical Services in Antigua and Barbuda to ship sargassum for incubation to Origin by Ocean, a Finish Company that has partnered with the agency as part of a United Nations Project.
FOOD SECURITY As a result of the challenges faced with the health and nutrition of the Antiguan population, the government has embarked on the creation of policies and programmes to achieve sustainable food and nutrition security to effectively contribute to national socio-economic development.

The goal is also to eliminate all forms of malnutrition in order to have a well-nourished and healthy population that can fulfil its aspirations of good health and economic well-being.
The Antigua and Barbuda Food and Security Policy 2012 is one of the governing policies for the country’s food security.

This policy has been successful in promoting increased food availability, accessibility and nutritional goals for the Antigua and Barbuda population.
As a result of the high poultry import bill, the government, through the Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Barbuda Affairs (MoAFBA), has embarked on a poultry initiative broiler programme which encourages local entrepreneurs to produce local fresh and healthy poultry meats.
Through a training initiative, nutrition teachers, NGO staff at the national level, staff from the local prison and members of the MoAFBA were instructed in the preparation of bread, using two root crops – sweet potato and cassava – as alternatives that could reduce the high food import bill.
With regard to Climate Smart Agricultural Practices for farmers, the Gilbert’s Agricultural Rural Development Center and the Agricultural Extension Division have put training programmes in place to support local farmers in being resilient against the threats of climate change.

Although there is no current data collection for the number of trained farmers, more are expected to be included in these educational sessions.
In 2020, the Ministry of Agriculture launched the Information Communication Agri-Extension App that is designed to provide farmers and others within the sector with remote access to a wealth of information.197 Farmers are guided by the Pesticides and Toxic Chemicals (Registration, Licensing and Permit) 2013 Act which ensures that hazardous chemicals do not make their way into terrestrial and marine ecosystems.
The Pesticides and Toxic Chemicals Control Board (PTCCB) as well as the Agriculture Extension Division has been involved in training farmers in the proper use and disposal of chemicals used for farming.

Farmers typically operate small holdings and so obtain the majority of their chemicals locally through suppliers.

These suppliers ensure that chemicals are registered with the PTCCB and there is a generally high level of compliance in this regard.
Data is not currently kept on the number of farmers utilizing chemicals that are registered by the PTCCB.

There is a need within the country to promote circular economy projects which foster linkages between farmers and other private sector organizations.
One such programme was the Diversification of Production Workshop with the Inter-American Institute for Cooperation on Agriculture (IICA), the Caribbean Agricultural Research and Development Institute (CARDI) and MoAFBA, with support from the Epicurean Supermarket.

Another programme that supports food security is the Zero Challenge .

The Zero Hunger challenge aims for: 1.


100% access to adequate food all year round 162 S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 2.

Zero stunted children less than 2 years 3.

All food systems are sustainable 4.

100% increase in smallholder productivity and income 5.

Zero loss or waste of food.

As a result of the pandemic, there has been a new focus on food security.
Actions by the Ministry of Agriculture after the onset of the pandemic to increase food security initiatives include donations of seedlings to the local population.

HEALTH The health sector has developed a series of plans, policies and initiatives to support a healthy and safe environment for the population.
The following presents a list of policies and plans that the Ministry of Health has implemented: ► Quarantine Act, 2020 ► National Strategic Plan for Health 2015–2020 ► Public Health Act, 2020 ► Food Safety Act, 2017 ► National Policy and Action Plan for Prevention and Control of Non-Communicable Diseases (NCDs), 2016 ► Influenza Preparedness Plan, 2015 ► Draft Strategy for Universal Health Coverage in 2014 ► Zero Hunger Program, 2013 ► Food and Nutrition Security Policy, 2012 ► Litter Act, 2004 ► Public Order Act, 1972 ► Emergency Powers Act, 1967 Of major significance is the island’s Draft Strategy for Universal Health Coverage highlighting the several areas of focus for the improvement of health systems in Antigua and Barbuda including: ► Improving access to high quality, comprehensive health services centered on people and communities ► Enhancing governance and stewardship ► Increasing financing in an equitable and efficient manner, without out-of-pocket expenses ► Initiating intersectoral action on the social factors concerning health.
The National Strategic Plan for Health (2016–2020) is a crystallization of the measures that the Ministry of Health and the Environment in advancing its goal of universal health coverage to focus on health risk reduction by improving a number of services, systems and introducing enterprising initiatives.
These include service delivery at the primary and secondary levels, epidemiological surveillance, health planning and health information, pharmaceutical and medical supplies management, health financing, infrastructural development, and expanding strategic partnerships.

The Medical Benefits Scheme which can be accessed by the local population was designed to provide financial assistance and pharmaceutical supplies to qualified nationals of the twin island nation of Antigua and Barbuda.
The 163 beneficiaries are also entitled to refunds for services rendered via laboratory tests, X rays and surgery or similar hospitalization services.

In order to reduce the impacts of hospitals and health care facilities on the environment as well as improving resilience amongst the sector, the PAHO Smart Hospitals Program was introduced.

The government is implementing cost-effective prevention activities focusing on obesity, exercise, and reduction in tobacco and alcohol use.
Community nutrition officers work directly with clinics on the island to ensure that proper nutrition is available in the community.

The department of nutrition currently has a number of ongoing programmes designed to measure nutrition goals, mainly in children.

One such programme monitored stunting, malnutrition and wasting from 2011 to 2018.

Community clinics also conduct regular screening.

These programmes have provided the ministry with information to inform future programmes.
Employee Wellness Programmes are also conducted with government agencies, private organizations, statutory bodies and hotels.

Several programmes have been introduced to primary school age children.

In 2018, there was a Salt Project conducted in primary schools to determine the levels of salt in their diets.

Parents were also trained in the use of natural seasonings in food preparation.

The Jump Start for Life Programme involved anemia screening for the under 5 age group in 2019.
In 2019, there was also a Baby Friendly Hospital Initiative to promote breastfeeding in mothers.

Food Safety Training is also conducted throughout the island on an annual basis.

Figure 7-12 below shows the number of persons trained in Food Safety from 2010 to 2015 with the highest number, 2,415 of persons, being trained in 2015.
S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 Figure 7-12: Persons trained in Food Safety, 2011 Regarding the monitoring of the population’s health during the pandemic lockdown period, the Ministry of Health has collaborated with the University of Technology, Jamaica (UTech, Ja) to determine eating habits during lockdown.

Both recreational and potable water tests are conducted in communities on a regular basis to ensure that the WHO water quality standards are met.
Implementation of the integrated management strategy for control and prevention of vector-borne diseases is ongoing and has been introduced as a response to illnesses arising from climate change 164 events.

Homes are inspected for mosquito breeding habitats.

The Ministry of Health conducts assessments of vector- borne habitats within each of its communities to ensure that breeding habitats are eliminated.
With regards to waste, COVID-19 biomedical waste on the island is currently collected by a private contractor through the National Solid Waste Management Authority and is sent to the incinerator at the Sir Lester Bird Medical Centre for processing.

This is a recent partnership that has been negotiated between the hospital and the National Solid Waste Management Authority.

Private contractors collect biomedical waste.


There are two incinerators currently at the landfill to be installed – one of the incinerators is for agricultural waste such as condemned items at the sea port and airport; and the other to dispose of biomedical waste.

There is currently a proposal in place for a hazardous waste storage facility at Cook’s Landfill.

This design has been submitted and is currently awaiting approval.
S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 165 S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 ENERGY Solar Panels atop Golden Grove Clinic Photo by: United Nations 166 S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B generated in Antigua comes mainly from A R three main power plants which use a total B U of fourteen generators running on Heavy D A Fuel Oil.
ENERGY | 2 0 2 1 8 ENERGY 8.1 WHY IS IT IMPORTANT?

Energy is crucial for driving the economy of a country, as it supports industry and trade, but it is also needed for just about everything in our homes and daily lives.

The Caribbean region faces challenges due to its heavy reliance on fossil fuels and the fluctuations in global oil prices.
This dependence on imported fossil fuels contributes to the region’s high cost of doing business, increases its vulnerability to external sector shocks, and constrains economic growth and competitiveness across most Caribbean economies.198 Antigua and Barbuda relies very heavily on fossil fuels to generate electricity with a small percentage share coming from renewables.
The power generation for the current power system in Antigua comes mainly from three main power plants which use a total of fourteen generators running on Heavy Fuel Oil (HFO).200 Prior to Hurricane Irma in 2017, Barbuda’s power system consisted of solely diesel generation with a capacity of 2.15 MW (1.35 MW running and 0.8 MW back up).

Instantaneous peak demand on Barbuda prior to the hurricane was around 0.5 MW, with an average daytime load of around 0.38 MW and an annual demand of 3.3 GWh.
The hurricane destroyed the entire power system of Barbuda, including overhead lines, diesel generators and the majority of the power poles of the island.

Immediately following the storm, APUA managed to restore one 600kW generator as well as bring in a 535kW rental generator203.

8.2 DRIVERS AND PRESSURES Energy production and consumption are driven by the following main economic sectors: ► Energy Sector o Electricity Generation o Desalination o Back-up power generators ► Transportation Sector.
Increased energy demand due to climate change 167 With an increase in temperatures as a result of climate change, there has been an increased demand for cooling increase of systems.
There has been an estimated households with air conditioning systems in their dwelling units from 7% in 2011 to 18% in 2020. xxii Increasing demands of a growing population Antigua and Barbuda is a developing country with an estimated population of 99,337 people (2021 projection)199 and the population is projected to grow to 106,365 by 2026.

With a growth in population comes an increasing demand for energy.
While Antigua and Barbuda is amongst the somewhat lower densely populated countries in the region, its fuel import bill is higher than the average Eastern Caribbean country (Figure 8-6).

The 2019 annual load profile was estimated to be 375 GWh/year.200 The average household in Antigua and Barbuda consumes just over 3,000 kWh/year or 8.25 kWh/day.200 Figure 8-2 shows that the commercial sector (mainly hotels) consumes the most electricity, followed by the residential sector.
Figure 8-1: Population Density Caribbean Countries (Source: Population and Housing Census 2011) S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 Figure 8-2: Electricity Consumption by Sector (2010).

Source: IRENA (2016) Electricity generated from the main power plants shows a general increase in electricity production annually (Figure 8-3).

Installed renewable energy systems also contribute to the energy generated on the island.
xxii Estimated based on DOE survey of 1,110 persons in Antigua and Barbuda and compared to 2011 National Census.

168 ) h W M ( d e t a r e n e G y t i c i r t c e E l 300,000 250,000 200,000 150,000 100,000 50,000 0 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 Year Antigua Power Company (APC Plant) Antigua Power Company (Black Pine) Barbuda power plant Wadadli Power Plant Figure 8-3: Electricity Generation figures from the main Power Plants (2012–2019).

Data missing for 2015–2016 (Source: DOE).


Increasing populations also come with an increasing demand for water supply and at present Antigua and Barbuda’s water sector is heavily dependent on desalination.

As mentioned previously, on average 60% of water supply comes from desalination.
It is estimated that desalination facilities account for approximately 10% of total electricity consumption in Antigua.201 Desalination is expected to become increasingly important to the country’s water sector in light of climate change.

During extended periods of drought, desalination can account for up to 90% of the public water supply.
Economic Growth Prior to the coronavirus pandemic, Antigua and Barbuda had a growing economy with an estimated Gross Domestic Product (GDP) in market prices of $1.72 billion in 2019, with forecast growth of 6.75 percent for 2020.

The country had seen a resultant growing demand for energy in the construction, tourism, yachting and other industriessco, as well as an increase in demand for fuel for power generation and cooking gas.
2019 was a record year in terms of fuel sales for the West Indies Oil Company (WIOC) (Figure 8-4).
However, due to the pandemic, GDP growth projections have been revised downwards significantly, with expected declines in revenues and increased spending.xxiii S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 xxiii According to Eastern Caribbean Central Bank (ECCB), as of December 31, 2019 - https://www.state.gov/reports/2020-investment-climate- statements/antigua-and-barbuda/ 169 S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 l i O f o s l e r r a B 84,000 82,000 80,000 78,000 76,000 74,000 72,000 70,000 68,000 66,000 64,000 62,000 2016 2017 2018 2019 Year Figure 8-4: Quantity of Sales in Barrels of Oil (bbls) for WIOC (Source: DOE) Transportation sector demand Antigua and Barbuda’s transportation sector is dominated by fossil fuels.
The data provided from the Ministry of Transport shows that at present, the country has 54,891 road transport vehicles: more than 97% of these vehicles are fuelled with gasoline while the remaining amount run on diesel.

It is estimated that there are approximately 20- 30 electric vehicles (EVs)on the island, however due to how import information on vehicles is collected by Customs, the number of EVs cannot be verified nor can it be confirmed if these are included in the numbers below.
Table 8-1: Current Fleet of Vehicles for 2020 Vehicle Type Total Vehicles ATVs Buggies Buses Cars Carts Hearses Jeeps Limos Motorcycles Pickup Trucks Scooters SUV Trucks Vans 170 124 85 1,094 31,826 19 8 162 6 694 772 171 17,390 464 1,441 S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 Wagons Total Vehicles 635 54,891 Marine and air transportation also contribute significantly to fuel consumption, with over 332 registered commercial fishing boats and 628 other small crafts (yachts, etc.).
8.3 HOW IS IT CHANGING?

This section has been divided into non-renewable and renewable energy sources which generally relate to how the energy that is produced is sourced.

NON- RENEWABLE ENERGY 8.3.1.1 FOSSIL FUEL IMPORTS The three power plants for Antigua and Barbuda are the APC, Blackpine and Wadadli power plants, with the latter decommissioned on September 15, 2020.

These depend on heavy fuel oil which is purchased from West Indies Oil Company (WIOC).
Table 8-2: Power Generation Capacity in Antigua Generators 3 1 2 2 6 Fuel Heavy Fuel Oil Heavy Fuel Oil Heavy Fuel Oil Heavy Fuel Oil Heavy Fuel Oil Capacity (MW) 14.4 17.1 6.6 8.6 6 .0 Total Capacity (MW) 60.3 30.4 36 .0 126.7 Power Plant APC Blackpine Wadadli* Grand Total *Decommissioned West Indies Oil Company (WIOC) is the sole importer of fuel products, and there has been a general increase in fuel oil imports for the period 2016–2019 (Figure 8-5).
WIOC is considered a regional hub with storage capacity of approximately 1.7 million barrels, which may explain why Antigua’s fuel import bill is higher than the regional average (Figure 8-6).

Of this, APUA (one of WIOC’s largest clients) purchases 100% of the Heavy Fuel Oil (HFO) imported.

Over the period 2016-2019, there was a steady increase in the importation of HFO (See Table 8-3).
Other purchasers of WIOC’s fuel products include other Eastern Caribbean governments, gas retailers such as RUBIS, and the aviation sector.

171 S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 Figure 8-5: WIOC Product Purchases in Barrels (bbls) 2016–2019.

Source: DOE 172 S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 % Figure 8-6: Fuel Imports as a Share of GDP.
(Source: Inter-American Bank, 2015) Table 8-3: 2016–2019 Sales to APUA (in barrels) Sales to APUA (bbls) 2016 Unleaded Gasoline 1123.98 2017 986.7 2018 2019 909.48 983.84 Regular Diesel 31,051.02 9,661.08 16,001.7 11,838.97 Ultra-Low Sulphur Diesel 28.6 Kerosene Jet Fuel - - - - - - - - - - - Heavy Fuel Oil 485,049.15 498,006.9 497,568.7 528,063.1 LPG - - - - The COVID-19 pandemic has resulted in a significant decline in fuel imports, mainly due to the decline in the tourism industry which resulted in loss of jobs, and a decline in the purchase of other fuel products such as gasoline and diesel.
Fuel imports are, however, expected to return to pre-COVID levels for 2021–2022.

As previously mentioned, as a signatory to the Paris Agreement, the Government of Antigua and Barbuda (GOAB) set draft targets of 86% renewable energy generation in the electricity sector and 100% renewable energy generation in transportation sector by 2045, so it is anticipated that fuel imports may eventually see a decline over time.
Despite the largest percentage of fuel imported being HFO (Figure 8-5), there is no expected short-term 173 decarbonization of the aviation industry, and WIOC still supplies other countries with fuel, so total fuel imports into Antigua and Barbuda may show a slower decline in the short term.

8.3.1.2 IMPORTATION OF VEHICLES A large percentage of the fuel imported (>30%) is used for the transportation sector (Figure 8-5).
More than 97% of the vehicles in Antigua and Barbuda are fuelled with gasoline, while the remaining run on diesel.

Following historical trends, the total number of vehicles imported is expected to increase.

6000 5000 4000 3000 2000 1000 0 d e t r o p m i f o r e b m u N s e l c i h e v 2017 2018 Year 2019 USED NEW Figure 8-7: Imported New and Used Cars (2017–2019).
(Source: Customs Department) With the Government desirous of achieving 100% renewable energy generation in the transportation sector by 2045, this would require replacing all the current fleet of internal combustion vehicles with electric vehicles (EVs) by approximately 1000 EVs every year, which, in turn, is expected to increase electricity demand.
An important consideration is that for EVs to support an increased share of renewables in the national energy balance, it is crucial for them to be charged by electricity generated from renewable sources200 and for there to be attractive Government concessions on the importation of low-emission/zero- emission /electric vehicles.
S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 8.3.1.3 PRICE OF ELECTRICITY Antigua and Barbuda is noted as having one of the highest rates of electricity in the Caribbean region (Figure 8-8).

Electricity prices in Antigua and Barbuda are also considered to be volatile because these are tied to the world market prices of petroleum.

Electricity prices are typically calculated based on an energy charge and a variable fuel charge which is subject to change.
Most Caribbean utilities are allowed to pass on fuel cost volatility to their customers through a flexible tariff structure that fuel recovery mechanism, surcharge.

This implemented in response to oil price volatility, explains incorporates a fuel cost Figure 8-8: Domestic Electricity Rates showing Antigua and Barbuda amongst the highest Prices for Electricity (World Bank, 2012) 174 the region’s volatile electricity prices, since fuel costs are the highest share of utility companies’ service cost.
Currently, the average household in Antigua and Barbuda pays 7 – 10% of their monthly earnings on electricity.202 RENEWABLE ENERGY 8.3.2.1 PERCENTAGE OF RENEWABLES IN THE ENERGY MIX Antigua and Barbuda’s power system is highly dominated by fossil fuels with merely 3.5% of the electricity share coming from renewables.
The combined current renewable energy capacity is approximately 9 MW which consists of a 3 MW PV system installed at the airport, the 4 MW Bethesda solar PV array and 2 MW of distributed solar PV (which includes residential rooftop systems).

The percentage of renewables in the energy mix is expected to increase with more installations being planned in order to meet revised NDC targets.

For example, a 1.7 MW solar installation is under construction at the Sir Vivian Richards Cricket Stadium.
8.3.2.2 LOW EMISSION / ZERO EMISSION /ELECTRIC VEHICLES There are approximately 20–30 electric vehicles in the island at present.

Though annual importation figures on low emission / zero emission /electric vehicles are not collected, the number of electric vehicles is expected to increase as a result of policy directives such as revised NDC targets for the transport sector.
S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 Electric buses recently donated to the National School Bus System Photo by: Antigua Observer 8.3.2.3 PERCENTAGE OF HOMES WITH RENEWABLE ENERGY SYSTEMS The number of distributed solar installations, which includes residential rooftop installations, has risen steadily since 2013 (Figure 8-9) and is expected to continue to increase.
175 Figure 8-9: New distributed-scale PV installed Capacity in Antigua and Barbuda (2010–2015).
(Source: IRENA, 2016) S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 176 8.4 IMPACTS Changes in the demand, consumption, and production of energy have resulted in the following: Socio economic impacts of the high cost of electricity Recent lockdowns because of the COVID-19 virus, which forced the closure of businesses and schools, have further increased the percentage of household income spent on electricity in 2020.
Increased electricity costs add to the increase in the cost of living which can have negative socio-economic impacts.

Increased economic vulnerability Fluctuating oil prices impact the cost of doing business, investment planning and can have negative implications for competitiveness.

increase uncertainty for Increased greenhouse gas emissions This results from an increase in the usage of fossil fuels.
Increased fossil fuel usage results in greater greenhouse gas emissions which result in extreme warming of the earth resulting in climate change.

Climate increased impacts temperatures, sea level rise, and increased rainfall variability and intensity which are all currently impacting Antigua and Barbuda.
These impacts are further elaborated in Section 2. include change Energy reliability It has been stated that the large number of standby generators in Antigua and Barbuda has been caused by an unreliable electric grid, and the country’s vulnerability to natural hazards amongst other things.

In 2011, approximately 10% of households were reported to have at least one standby generator installed.
Additionally, most hotels invest in standby generators to reduce the risk of revenue losses or operational disruptions in the event of power outages.

For example, the diesel generators at Elite Island Resorts have a capacity of 7.46 MW which larger than both the arrays at V.C.

Bird is International Airport (3 MW) and Bethesda (4 MW) combined.

177 Solar Energy Plant at the V.C.


Bird International Airport, Antigua Photo by: Mecco.net S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 8.5 WHAT ARE WE DOING ABOUT IT?
In recognizing the need to mitigate the impact of oil price changes on the economy, which is beyond their control, Antigua and Barbuda has intensified its efforts towards obtaining energy security through the following measures: Diversification of the energy mix – Antigua and Barbuda is seeking to establish a local energy industry.
This will involve the shift from importing fossil fuels to placing focus on local generation of energy using an abundance of wind and solar to replace 86% of fossil imports (i.e.

to renewable energy generation and storage for the electricity, transportation, and back-up energy sectors) This is being achieved through increased investments in renewable energy technologies.
More installations are planned, for example a 1.7 MW solar installation is under construction at the Sir Vivian Richards Cricket Stadium.

By December 2022, the GOAB intends to commission a 40 MW Liquefied natural gas (LNG) plant.

Though LNG is still a fossil fuel, it is reportedly 60–80% cleaner than the HFO currently being used and will diversify the energy mix.
There is a planned hybrid power plant which will include the construction of a new diesel baseload power station with integrated control and supply of 719kW of solar PV, utilizing 862 kWh of Li-Ion battery energy storage.

Following commissioning, Barbuda’s annual energy supply to come from renewables will be over 50%.203 The Cabinet of Antigua and Barbuda has approved the Sustainable Island Resource Framework Fund (SIRF Fund) to be an Independent Power Producer for up to 25 MW.
These funds have been allocated for a grid-interactive solar PV project for selected schools and clinics.

The Antigua and Barbuda Sustainable Low- Emissions Island Mobility Project which was launched in 2021 is an electric mobility project focusing on vehicles, in which the country will accelerate its transformation to a low-carbon and climate-resilient transport and energy system.
Waiving duty and environmental levies – This is applicable to the importation of electric cars and other items such as solar panels, and solar water heaters.
However, they are still subject to the following taxes: ► Antigua and Barbuda Sales Tax (ABST): 15% on 145% of the value of the vehicle ► Revenue Recovery Charges: 10% fixed Policy and legislative change – These include, but are not limited to: ► The National Energy Policy, 2011 – which set a minimum target of 5% for the penetration of renewables in the electricity supply mix by 2015, rising to 15% by 2030.

This is being revised and it is likely that the targets will change.
The Ministry of Energy has commissioned a ‘Baseline Report & Draft Framework for Antigua and Barbuda’s Revised National Energy Policy’ ► Signatory to Paris Agreement which means NDC targets have to be submitted which commit the country to reducing emissions.
The NDC targets are currently being revised, and the proposed targets for the energy sector include: o 86% RE generation in electricity sector by 2045 o 100% RE generation in transportation sector by 2045 ► Preparation of a National Energy Action Plan 178 ► Drafting a Transport Policy ► 2015 Renewable Energy Act – which introduces concepts such as ‘net-billing’ which can offset electricity costs.
► Environmental Protection and Management Act (EPMA), 2019 ► A Renewable Energy Roadmap and a GHG Reduction Report were prepared under the NDC CAEP Initiative S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 179 S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 ENVIRONMENTAL GOVERNANCE Nelson’s Dockyard National Park, Antigua Photo by: Routes Global 180 9 ENVIRONMENTAL GOVERNANCE 9.1 ENVIRONMENTAL PROGRAMMES, PLANS AND PROJECTS UNDER IMPLEMENTATION The DOE’s overall mission is to provide technical advice on the environment and to design and implement projects on behalf of the Government and the people of Antigua and Barbuda.
These interventions are designed to protect and enhance the environment, as well as seek common solutions to national, regional and global environmental challenges.
It accomplishes its mission through: ► An integrated environmental planning and management system that prioritizes public participation and interagency collaboration; ► Efficient implementation of programmes, projects and technical services; ► Providing accurate council on environmental management as well as effective and consistent enforcement of environmental laws and regulations; and ► Disseminating information and providing the public with easily accessible data on the environment.
To achieve this mission, the Department of Environment (DOE) manages projects within four main Programmes which are listed and described in greater detail in section 9.1.1.

Sections 9.1.2 and 9.1.3 include a list of the environmental projects and plans under implementation and their contribution to the management of the natural environment.

Some of these would likely have been considered in the responses for each of the thematic areas previously presented.
ENVIRONMENTAL PROGRAMMES The Department of Environment has been divided into several programmatic areas in order to implement the Environmental Protection and Management Act, 2019.

It manages projects within four main Programmes, aligned with national legislation and international environmental agreements.

This is monitored through its Project Management Unit (PMU) which is the project implementation arm of the DOE.

The four main Programmes are: a.


Climate Change Programme (Adaptation, Mitigation, and Capacity Building) b. Biodiversity Programme c. Pollution Programme d. Monitoring, Evaluation and Data Management Programme.
S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A ENVIRONMENTAL GOVERNANCE | Included in this section is a list of all 2 environmental programmes, plans and 0 2 projects, a list of reports and publications 1 prepared by the Department of Environment (DOE) during the past two years, the requests for environmental information from the DOE and the number that have been granted in part and in full and a list of all the actions taken to implement legal obligations under national laws and international agreements.
181 ENVIRONMENTAL PROJECTS The DOE has an active portfolio of more than 14 projects, with project sizes ranging from US$50,000 to US$15 million, with an additional 16 projects under development.

Partners of the DOE include the UN Environment, the UNDP, the IUCN, the Caribbean Development Bank, the Government of Italy, the Global Environment Facility, the Green Climate Fund, and the Adaptation Fund, among others.
Table 9 1 below presents a list of projects that have been recently completed and are currently underway and are grouped according to the four programmatic areas.
Renewable Energy for Schools and Clinics Photo by: CDB Sugar Ridge Hotel beach clean-up Photo by: Green Globe S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 Sea Turtle Monitoring Programme Photo by: 2020 Annual Programme Report 182 Table 9-1: List of the Projects being implemented under the different Programmatic Areas National/ Regional National Regional Funding entity Implementing Entity Executing Entity Grant Funding (USD) Co-Financing (USD) Start date Expected Completion Date Global Environment Facility Global Environment Facility UNEP UNEP Department of Environment Department of Environment $2,729,153 $5,500,000 2019 2023 $253,000 $1,185,000 2018 2022 Regional National Global Environment Facility Global Environment Facility UNEP CCN $1,866,700 (Regional) $2,185,000 (Regional) 2019 2022 UNEP Department of Environment $2,639,726 $7,980,000 2015 20 National Abu Dhabi Fund for Development (ADFD) IRENA Department of Environment $15,000,000 $2,200,000 2016 2021 National ADFD IRENA DOE $15,000,000 $15,000,000 Tentatively 2021 S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 Programme Project Title Biodiversity Programme Biodiversity Programme Biodiversity Programme Biodiversity Programme Climate Change Programme Climate Change Programme Antigua and Barbuda – Path to 2020 Preventing COSTS of Invasive Alien Species (IAS) in Barbados and the OECS Countries Advancing Conservation in the Countries of the OECS Sustainable Pathways Protected
 Areas and Renewable Energy UNEP (SPPARE) Transformation of the Water and Government Sectors using Renewable Energy (IRENA ADFD Phase I) Transformation of the Water and Government Sectors using Renewable Energy (IRENA ADFD) Phase II 183 Programme Project Title National/ Regional Funding entity Implementing Entity Executing Entity Grant Funding (USD) Co-Financing (USD) Start date Expected Completion Date National Adaptation Fund Department of Environment Department of Environment $10,000,000 n/a June 2017
 2021 National Adaptation Fund Department of Environment Department of Environment $250,000.00 0 2021 2023 National Green Climate Fund Regional Green Climate Fund National Green Climate Fund Department of Environment Department of Environment Department of Environment Department of Environment Department of Environment Project Implementation Unit in the Ministry of Works $3,000,000 $1,200,000 April 2017 2021 $20,000,000 $18,500,000 2018 2023 $14,270,000 $32,535,000 Tentatively 2022 S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 Climate Change Programme Climate Change Programme Climate Change Programme Climate Change Programme Climate Change Programme An integrated approach to physical adaptation and community resilience in Antigua and Barbuda’s northwest McKinnon’s watershed Innovative technologies for improved water availability to increase food security in Antigua and Barbuda GCF Readiness – National Adaptation Plan (NAP) GCF Enhanced Direct Access (EDA) A Blueprint for Adapting Road Infrastructure to Projected Climate Extremes in Antigua and Barbuda 184 National/ Regional National Funding entity Implementing Entity Executing Entity Grant Funding (USD) Co-Financing (USD) Start date Expected Completion Date Green Climate Fund DOE Ministry of Finance 33.3M USD 13M USD 2021 2024 National Global Environment Facility UNEP Department of Environment Regional Global Environment Facility Caribbean Development Bank Department of
 Environment $3,245,000 $9,719,315 2021 2025 $1,020,000 $1,300,000 2017 2021 National Special Climate Change Fund UNEP Department of Environment $5,000,000 $6,300,000 2015 2021 Regional National Global Environment Facility Global Environment Facility UNEP UNEP Technical University of Denmark – UDP (UNEP DTU Partnership), National Agencies Department of Environment $132,000 2019 2021 $500,000 $54,160 2020 2023 S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 Programme Project
 Title GCF Project Building Resilience to Hurricanes and Droughts in the Building and Water Sectors of Antigua and Barbuda GEF7 Antigua and Barbuda Sustainable Low- emission Island Mobility Project Sustainable Energy Facility / Caribbean Development Bank (SEF/CDB) Building climate- resilience through innovative financing mechanisms for climate change adaptation (SCCF) Technology Needs Assessments – Phase III (TNA Phase III) Fourth National Communication to the UNFCCC Climate Change Programme Climate Change Programme Climate Change Programme Climate Change Programme Climate Change Programme Monitoring, Evaluation and Data Management Programme 185 National/ Regional National Funding entity Implementing Entity Executing Entity Grant Funding (USD) Co-Financing (USD) Start date Expected Completion Date Global Environment Facility UNDP Department of Environment $880,000 $900,000 2018 2022 Regional Global Environment Facility FAO Partnership Initiative on Sustainable Land Management (PISLM) Tentatively 2021 National Global Environment Facility UNEP Department of Environment $1,000,000 $200,000 2020 2022 National United Nations Office for Project Services ICAT Secretariat Department of Environment $167,769.00 $19,600.00 2020 2021 S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 Programme Project Title Monitoring, Evaluation and Data Management Programme Monitoring, Evaluation and Data Management Programme Monitoring, Evaluation and
 Data Management Programme Monitoring and assessment of MEA implementation and environmental trends in Antigua and Barbuda (CCCD) SOILCARE – Caribbean Soil Management for Restored Watersheds and Sustainable Food Systems Project Capacity Building for Access and Transparency on Climate Actions through an Environment Registry in Antigua & Barbuda (CBIT) Initiative for Climate Action Transparency (ICAT) Project: Building National Mitigation Scenario Modelling
 Capabilities (ICAT) 186 Programme Project Title Monitoring, Evaluation and Data Management Programme Pollution Programme Antigua and Barbuda’s First Biennial Transparency Report (BTR) under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (BTR) Integrated Water, Land and Ecosystem Management (IWEco) National/ Regional National Funding entity Implementing Entity Executing Entity Grant Funding (USD) Co-Financing (USD) Start date Expected Completion Date Global Environment Facility UNEP Department of Environment $529,980 Tentatively 2022 Regional Global Environment Facility UNEP Department of Environment $1,285,685 $1,200,000 2017 2022 S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 187 ss ENVIRONMENTAL PLANS/ POLICIES/ STRATEGIES The following is a list of recently completed/ commenced environmental plans/ policies and strategies: ✓ The Saint Mary’s Parish & the McKinnon’s Local Area Plan commenced in 2020.
✓ The review of the OECS 2016 Building code to enable the adoption of the 2021 National Building Code of Antigua and Barbuda.

The new building code for Antigua and Barbuda will feature climate change, health and wellness and sustainability considerations.

✓ The development of a drainage code for Antigua and Barbuda.

Commenced in February 2021 with a timeline of nine months.
S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 188 S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 ss 9.2 LIST OF REPORTS/ PUBLICATIONS As indicated in Section 9.1, the DOE accomplishes its mission in several ways including the implementation of programmes, projects and technical services.
The Project Management Unit (PMU) is the project implementation arm of the DOE and they are responsible for managing a range of projects from a variety of donors.

Specifically, over the past two years, the DOE has been involved in the execution of several projects which have been listed below in Table 9-2.

It is important to note that while the sectors and type of reports have been different, the focus of all have been on building resilience to climate change.
These projects all align with the GOAB’s Medium-Term Development Strategy 2016–2020 as well as the INDCs.
Table 9-2: List of Reports and Publications prepared by the DOE over the Period 2016–2020 Name of Document Name of Author Date Published December 2020 March 29, 2020 March 2020 January 2018 Government of Antigua and Barbuda, Final Country Report of the Land Degradation Neutrality Target Setting Programme (LDN TSP) The Project Management Unit (PMU) of the Department of Environment, Ministry of Health, Wellness and the Environment Department of Environment Environmental Social Impact Assessment and Management Plan – Resilience to Hurricanes in the Building Sector in Antigua and Barbuda The Project Management Unit (PMU) of the Department of Environment, Ministry of Health, Wellness and the Environment The Project Management Unit (PMU) of the Department of Environment, Ministry of Health, Wellness and the Environment Antigua and Barbuda First Biennial Update Report (BUR) submitted to the UNFCCC Solar PV facility screening study for public and educational facilities on Antigua and Barbuda Final Technical Analysis and Design Report – Development of Engineered Drainage Solutions – McKinnon’s Pond Sub- Watershed Antigua Environmental, Social and Gender Impact Assessment and Management Plan – Deploying Renewable Energy for Schools and Clinics via the Sustainable Financing Mechanism for Environmental Management – SIRF Fund Monitoring, Evaluation & Data Management Unit (DMU) of the Department of Environment, Ministry of Health, Wellness and the Environment United Nations Electricity Supply Partnership Alpha Engineering
 and Design April 23, 2018 June 12, 2018 Project Management Unit (PMU) of the Department of Environment, Ministry of Health, Wellness and the Environment Electric Mobility Transition Assessment for Antigua and Barbuda Logios November 2018 Gender Analysis and Gender Action Plan (GAP) For the project titled: A Blueprint for Adapting Road Infrastructure to Projected Climate Extremes in Antigua and Barbuda Prepared by the Project Management Unit (PMU) of the Department of November 2018 189 Name of Document Environmental and Social Management Plan (ESMP) and Gender and Social Inclusion Action Plan (GAP) for the Enhancing Direct Access pilot project in the Eastern Caribbean Feasibility Study Road Infrastructure Improvement Project Environmental and Social Impact Assessment for Urban and Sub-Urban 8 Road Corridors Island of Antigua and Barbuda Name of Author Environment Ministry of Health and the Environment Project Management Unit of the Department of Environment ss Date Published July 2017 October 2016 9.3 PROGRESS TOWARDS ACHIEVING DETERMINED ENVIRONMENTAL GOALS The following section presents a brief overview of the country’s progress towards achieving its environmental goals.
It specifically includes the progress made towards achieving the following: ► Sustainable Development Goals 13 and 15 ► AICHI Biodiversity Targets ► The Nationally Determined Contributions ► Land Degradation Neutrality Targets.

It also presents other areas of progress the country made in 2020 as it relates to its national environmental goals.

Appendix 1 also includes the list of treaties ratified by Antigua and Barbuda.
S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 190 SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT GOALS (SDGS) 13 AND 15 Table 9-3: Progress towards Meeting Sustainable Development Goals 13 and 15 Goals Target Indicator Initiatives Undertaken from 2015 (Objectives, Main Activities, Beneficiaries) Ongoing Activities in support of the Indicator and Targets Achievements (Outputs) Take 13 - action urgent to combat climate change and its impacts 13.2 – Integrate change climate measures into national policies, strategies and planning 13.2.1 – Number of countries that have communicated the operationalization of an integrated policy/strategy/plan which increases their adaptive capacity to the adverse impacts of climate change, and foster climate low resilience and greenhouse gas emissions development in a manner that does not threaten food production (including a national adaptation plan, nationally determined contribution, national communication, biennial report or other) update The DOE has prepared and submitted the following reports to the UNFCCC: 1.
Third National Communication (TNC, 2015) 2.

Biennial Update Report (BUR, 3.

2020) Intended National Determined Contributions (INDCs) (2015) The main objective for the TNC and BUR is to report to the UNFCCC on the country’s effort to mitigate and adapt to climate change.

The objective of the INDC is to communicate the national targets towards achieving the objective of the Convention to gases stabilize concentrations.
greenhouse The DOE coordinated this process with input from government, non-government and private sector agencies.

National, international consultants regional and participated in these processes.

The main activity was to compile the relevant information to report.

The DOE has also prepared the following reports: The DOE is currently preparing the Fourth National Communication and preparing updated/second National Determined Contributions.
the The outputs include: TNC, BUR, INDCs, RE Roadmap and the GHG Reduction Report.

These public are documents available to everyone.

Initiative implementing a The DOE is also Capacity Building for Transparency (CBIT) project that will be operationalizing a Measurement, Reporting and Verification (MRV) system.

Information and data on this indicator will be tracked in the MRV system.
The DOE is also supporting the DCA in the updating of the national building code ensuring that climate change resilience and other adaptations are integrated the construction process.

into The DOE has also ensured that climate change issues are being integrated into the draft policy on exploration and development of the Blue Economy.
S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 191 Goals Target Indicator 192 Initiatives Undertaken from 2015 (Objectives, Main Activities, Beneficiaries) Roadmap Energy 1.

Renewable (2021) the The main objective was to undertake a study to outline a roadmap for transitioning to 100% renewable energy in both the power and transportation sectors, to inform the revision of the NDCs.
The main government collaborators were agencies responsible for energy production and management of transportation, i.e., APUA, WIOC, Min of Energy, Ministry of Transport and also the private sector agencies responsible for power generation and transportation.

The main activity was to consult with relevant agencies to inform the roadmap.

2.
2.

Greenhouse Gas Reduction Report (2021) collaborators were responsible The main objective was to undertake a technical analysis of RE needs under different pathways to reach mitigation targets for possible inclusion into the NDCs.

the The main for government agencies energy production, i.e., APUA, WIOC, Min of Energy, and also the private sector agencies responsible for power generation.

The main activity was to consult with relevant agencies to inform the GHG reduction report.
The passage of the Environmental Protection and Management Act in 2015, Ongoing Activities in support of the Indicator and Targets Achievements (Outputs) The DOE is also developing a Just Transition the Framework electricity and transport sectors.

for The DOE is also assessing the idea for insurance establishing a national scheme for farmers, fishers and residential business owners.
S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 Goals Target Indicator Ongoing Activities in support of the Indicator and Targets Achievements (Outputs) Initiatives Undertaken from 2015 (Objectives, Main Activities, Beneficiaries) with a full update in 2019 established a clear mandate for the development and implementation of climate change policy.
identified the DOE as the The EPMA principal entity on climate change issues and established a financial mechanism to support toward combatting climate change and wider environmental stability.

activities future Fund and passed The Department has also established the Sustainable Island Resource Framework (SIRF) SIRF Regulations, via the EPMA, to provide financial resources to assist the vulnerable communities and civil society organizations to build their resilience to climate change.
the *13.3 - Improve education, awareness-raising and human and institutional capacity climate mitigation, adaptation, impact reduction and early warning on change *13.3.2 - Number of countries that have the communicated strengthening of institutional, systemic and individual capacity- building to implement adaptation, and mitigation technology transfer, Research being conducted by the DOE was used to inform the revision of the GCF Country Programme.
The DOE has prepared and submitted the following reports to the UNFCCC: 1.

Third National Communication (TNC, 2015) 2.

Biennial Update Report (BUR, 2020) The main objective for the TNC and BUR is to report to the UNFCCC on the country’s effort to mitigate and adapt to climate change.

The DOE is currently preparing the Fourth National Communication and finalizing the Technology Needs Assessment report.

include: The outputs the TNC, BUR and Technical Analysis of the BUR.
Initiative implementing a is also The DOE Capacity Building for Transparency (CBIT) project that will be operationalizing a Measurement, Reporting and Verification (MRV) system.

Information and data on this public are These documents available to everyone.
193 S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 Goals Target Indicator development and actions Initiatives Undertaken from 2015 (Objectives, Main Activities, Beneficiaries) The DOE coordinated this process with input from government, non-government and private sector agencies.

National, international consultants regional and participated in these processes.

The main activity was to compile the relevant information to report.
The DOE has participated in a technical review of the BUR with the UNFCCC (Technical Analysis of the First BUR) and in that process, the capacity building needs were updated.

The main objective was to review the BUR submission and the DOE led this process.

Ongoing Activities in support of the Indicator and Targets indicator will be tracked in the MRV system.

Achievements (Outputs) The DOE is currently executing a Technical Needs Assessment focused on the building, transport and water sectors.
This project is expected to innovations which identify those would significantly improve climate change adaptation and mitigation.

The DOE is also in the process of finalizing a Teacher Resource Guide on Climate Change.

This will be secondary disseminated in schools to communicating on climate change.
This should be released by June 2021. in assist information teachers the *13.b - Promote mechanisms for raising capacity for effective climate change- related planning and management in least developed countries and small island developing States, including focusing on *13.b.1 - Number of least developed countries and small island developing States that are receiving specialized support, and amount of support, including finance, technology and capacity-building, for mechanisms for raising capacities for effective climate Needs-Based Climate Finance Project was implemented to explore ways and means to assist developing country Parties in assessing their needs and priorities, in a country-driven manner, including technological and capacity-building needs, and in translating their climate finance needs into action.
The Output was “An Assessment and Overview of climate finance flows was prepared with data for 2014 – 2017”.

An Assessment and Overview of climate finance flows was prepared with data for 2014 – 2017.

The DOE is also implementing a Capacity Building Initiative for Transparency (CBIT) project that will be operationalizing a Measurement, Reporting and Verification (MRV) system.

Information and data on this indicator will be tracked in the MRV system.
The outputs include: The Assessment and Overview of Climate Finance Flows; This is a public document available to everyone.
194 S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 Goals Target Indicator Initiatives Undertaken from 2015 (Objectives, Main Activities, Beneficiaries) Ongoing Activities in support of the Indicator and Targets Achievements (Outputs) change-related planning and management, including focusing on women, youth and local and marginalized communities.
15.1.1 - Forest area as a proportion of total land area women, youth and local and marginalized communities 15 - Protect, restore and promote sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably manage forests, combat desertification, and halt and reverse land degradation and halt biodiversity loss 15.1 - By 2020, ensure the conservation, restoration and sustainable use of terrestrial and inland freshwater ecosystems and their services, in particular forests, wetlands, mountains and drylands, in line with obligations under international agreements S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 The DOE collects this information and is available in a geographic information system (GIS) database, i.e., Environmental Information Management and Advisory System (EIMAS).
DMU is pursuing access to remote sensing 2019/2020 satellite imagery to update the baseline with high resolution localized data.

A main output is the National Inventory Report prepared for 2015.

The DMU is also preparing a GHG inventory for the year 2019.

The Monitoring, Evaluation and Data Management Unit (DMU), on behalf of the DOE manages the environmental data and information.
The overall mission of the DMU is to collect, store, validate, analyze and manage data in order to ensure its timeliness, reliability and accessibility for its users.

These users include the government, NGOs, general public, private sector and research and academic institutions.

The Unit promotes an open exchange of data.

This data is also collected during the preparation of national GHG inventories.

The most recent one was prepared for the Biennial Update Report.
15.1.2 – Proportion of important sites The DOE compiled this information in the National Biodiversity and Strategic Action DMU maintains the EIMAS updated.
EIMAS database 195 Goals Target Indicator for terrestrial and freshwater biodiversity that are covered by protected areas, by ecosystem type 15.2.1 – Progress towards sustainable forest management Initiatives Undertaken from 2015 (Objectives, Main Activities, Beneficiaries) Plan (NBSAP), 2014 – 2020 and in National Reports (6NR) to the United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity (UNCBD).
The DMU collects this information and is available in a geographic information system (GIS) database, i.e., Environmental Information Management and Advisory System (EIMAS).

Data is available on the extent of protected areas as well as the key biodiversity areas.

The DOE is presently implementing a project with project sites in the forested areas of Antigua and Barbuda, i.e., Path to 2020.

This project will be designating protected areas in the forested area.
Ongoing Activities in support of the Indicator and Targets Achievements (Outputs) The Path to 2020 project is still ongoing.

Ongoing.

S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 15.3.1 - Proportion of land that is degraded over total land area Antigua and Barbuda has completed the Land Degradation Neutrality – Target Setting Programme (LDN TSP) by establishing national LDN targets.
This has been completed and the data submitted to the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD).

Final Country Report and the LDN Targets The Final Country Report has this information.
15.2 - By 2020, promote the implementation of sustainable management of all types of forests, halt deforestation, restore degraded forests and substantially increase afforestation and reforestation 15.3 - 2030, combat desertification, restore degraded land and soil, including land affected by desertification, 196 Goals Target Indicator Initiatives Undertaken from 2015 (Objectives, Main Activities, Beneficiaries) Ongoing Activities in support of the Indicator and Targets Achievements (Outputs) 15.5.1 - Red List Index The DOE accesses data from the IUCN Red List Index.
The DOE will explore possibilities of submitting data to update the Red List Index N/A The DOE has passed the Environmental Protection and Management Act (EPMA).

Part IX – Access to genetic resources and the sharing of benefits addresses this indicator.

The DOE manages requests from overseas non-nationals and international entities for access to local genetic material.

Passage of the EPMA, 2019.
15.6.1 - Number of countries that have adopted legislative, administrative and policy frameworks to ensure fair and equitable sharing of benefits S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 drought and floods, and strive to achieve a land degradation- neutral world 15.5 - Take urgent and significant action to reduce the degradation of natural habitats, halt the loss of biodiversity and, by 2020, protect and prevent the extinction of threatened species 15.6 - Promote fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising from the utilization of genetic resources and promote appropriate access to such resources, as internationally agreed 15.8 - By 2020, introduce 15.8.1 - Proportion of countries The DOE is participating in the Regional Project: Preventing COSTS of Invasive Alien The National Committee has been 197 Goals Target Indicator Ongoing Activities in support of the Indicator and Targets Achievements (Outputs) adopting relevant national legislation and adequately resourcing the prevention or control of invasive alien species Initiatives Undertaken from 2015 (Objectives, Main Activities, Beneficiaries) Species (IAS) in Barbados and the OECS Countries.
Some of the main deliverables of this project are: establishment of a National IAS Committee to holistically manage IAS; the Development of the IAS Critical Situational Analysis (CSA); development of the National Invasive Alien Species Strategy and Action Plan (NISSAP); development of Regulations; Public Awareness Campaign; etc.

set up on an ad hoc basis, the draft CSA and NISSAP have been completed, the regulations are in the drafting stage, the Public Awareness Campaign is being developed.
The NBSAP and National Reports to the UNCBD.

S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 *15.9.1 - Progress towards national targets established in accordance with Aichi Biodiversity Target 2 of the Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 2011– 2020 The DOE has prepared the National Biodiversity and Strategic Action Plan (NBSAP), 2014 – 2020 and in National Reports (6NR) to the United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity.

National Aichi targets have been set.


The DOE is awaiting guidance from the UNCBD regarding the updating of the NBSAP.

Additionally, the Post 2020 global biodiversity framework (GBF) is being developed as we speak.
This framework should be accepted during COP 15 in October 2021 15.a.1 - Official development assistance and public expenditure on conservation and sustainable use of The DOE maintains a portfolio of projects targeting four areas: climate change, biodiversity, pollution and monitoring, evaluation and data management.

There is a master list of these projects providing information on individual projects to include objectives, timelines, deliverables, budget, etc.

This is being tracked by the DOE.


Via the SIRF Fund, the GEF Path to 2020 project will be offering grants and loans to CBOs, NGOs, entrepreneurs, farmers etc.

with projects geared toward conservation Master list of projects with information on funding amount for the four programme areas.
measures to prevent the introduction and significantly reduce the impact of invasive alien species on land and water ecosystems and control or eradicate the priority species 15.9 - By 2020, integrate ecosystem and biodiversity values into national and local planning, development processes, poverty reduction strategies and accounts 15.a - Mobilize and significantly increase financial resources from all sources to conserve and sustainably use 198 Goals Target Indicator biodiversity and ecosystems biodiversity and ecosystems Initiatives Undertaken from 2015 (Objectives, Main Activities, Beneficiaries) Ongoing Activities in support of the Indicator and Targets Achievements (Outputs) and/or sustainable use of biodiversity within the Shekerley Mountain Managed Area.
The Department has also established the Sustainable Island Resource Framework (SIRF) Fund, via the EPMA, to provide financial resources to conserve and sustainably use biodiversity and ecosystems.
S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 199 S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 LAND DEGRADATION NEUTRALITY As part of its contribution to SDG 15, Target 15.3 Antigua and Barbuda embarked on the initiative of setting Land Degradation Neutrality (LDN) targets in March 2018.
This initiative is spearheaded by the UNCCD; a Multi-lateral Environmental Agreement (MEA) established in 1994 after the recognition of global, environmental and developmental concerns due to the effects of desertification, land degradation and drought (DLDD).

Antigua & Barbuda Voluntary National Targets 1.

LDN is achieved by 2030 as compared to 2015 to include the existing 9% degraded lands within our land mass becoming neutral or improved.

2.
2.

The LDN TSP is aligned to the global SDG15 to achieve by 2030.

Antigua & Barbuda Voluntary LDN Sub-targets 1.

Reporting on the land use/land cover indicator reflects a 5% change towards the improvement of the land by 2030 compared to the 2015 baseline (net increase), and achieved through strengthened development control and other appropriate measures.

2.
2.

LDN is achieved in Saint Mary’s (priority), and Saint John’s Parish by 2030, compared to the 2015 baseline through sustainable land management practices (Indicators: Stable Productivity and stable Soil Organic Carbon).

The DOE is the custodian of an environmental GIS database known as the Environmental Information Management and Advisory System (EIMAS).
The EIMAS, created in 2010, is directly managed by the Monitoring Evaluation and Data Management Unit (DMU) and the data used to inform the LDN baseline has been included in this database.

AICHI BIODIVERSITY TARGETS The following is based on the Sixth National Report for the Convention on Biological Diversity.
Table 9-4: Progress on Meeting the Aichi Biodiversity Targets Target Target 1: By 2020, at the latest, people are aware of the values of biodiversity and the steps they can take to conserve and use it sustainably Progress Status 2018 – On track to achieve target Target 2: By 2020, biodiversity values have been integrated in national physical development plans and local area plans and the millennium development initiatives for Antigua and Barbuda Target 3: By 2020, incentives, including subsidies, harmful to biodiversity are eliminated, phased out or reformed in order to minimize or avoid negative impacts, and positive incentives for the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity are developed and applied, consistent and in harmony with the Convention and other relevant international obligations taking into account national socio- economic conditions.
Date of last assessment- September 3, 2018.

2018 – On track to achieve target Date of last assessment- September 3, 2018.
2018 – Progress towards target, but at an insufficient rate Date of last assessment – 28 Dec 2018 Target 4: By 2020, at the latest, all stakeholders, (public, private, and civil), have taken steps to implement plans for sustainable 2018 – On track to achieve target 200 S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 Target production and consumption of natural resources keeping impacts within safe ecological limits as far as possible.
Progress Status Target 5: By 2020, an effective monitoring protocol for critical habitats, mainly forests, mangroves and coral reefs, has been implemented to assist in reducing degradation and fragmentation and measures developed and undertaken to reduce the rate of loss by 10%.

Target 6: By 2020, Policies and sustainable use plans are put in place for the sustainable management of Fisheries resources.
Target 7: By 2020, the capacity of governmental natural resources management institutions as well as non-governmental organizations, to support the objectives and achieve the overall aim of the NBSAP is strengthened, Target 8: By 2020, 20% of pollution, including from excess nutrients within specific demonstration areas, has been brought to levels that are not detrimental to ecosystem function and biodiversity.
Target 9: By 2020, invasive alien species and pathways are identified and prioritized, priority species are controlled, measures are in place to manage pathways to help prevent their (re)introduction and (re)establishment as far as possible.

Target 10: By 2015, the multiple anthropogenic pressures on coral reefs, and other vulnerable ecosystems.
such as the NEMMA, Cades Bay and Codrington Marine Reserves impacted by climate change or ocean acidification, are minimized, so as to maintain their integrity and functioning.

Target 11: A national system, including protected areas, for the management and conservation of biodiversity, is developed and established by 2020.

This will include terrestrial areas, wetlands, areas important to migratory species, and marine environments.
Target 12: By 2020, implement protection measures for threatened species, including the racer snake, marine turtles, Redonda Dwarf Gecko, Redonda Ground Lizard, threatened plants, and threatened birds.

Target 13: By 2020, maintain genetic diversity of local plants by storing germ stocks for repopulation should current stocks become contaminated.

Maintain stocks of deer in Barbuda to ensure no mixing of breeds.

Date of last assessment – September 3, 2018.


2018 – On track to achieve target Date of last assessment –September 3, 2018.

2018 – On track to achieve target Date of last assessment – September 3, 2018.

2018 – On track to achieve target Date of last assessment – September 3, 2018.

2018 – On track to achieve target Date of last assessment – September 3, 2018.

2018 – On track to achieve target Date of last assessment – September 3, 2018.
201 S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 Target Target 14: By 2020, at least 2 major watershed and mangrove wetland areas are effectively protected.
Progress Status 2018 – On track to achieve target Target 15: By 2020, restoration of biodiversity hotspots in Antigua and Barbuda thereby contributing to climate change mitigation and adaptation and to combating desertification Target 16: By 2015, national legislation consistent with the Nagoya Protocol on Access to Genetic Resources and the Fair and Equitable Sharing of Benefits Arising from their Utilization is in force and operational.
Target 17: By 2020, Antigua and Barbuda has developed, adopted as a policy instrument, and has commenced implementing an effective, participatory and updated NBSAP (this current document).
Target 18: The Formal integration of local communities into the co- management process of Biodiversity in country by 2020 Target 19: By 2020, implementation of a knowledge management system for biodiversity within Antigua and Barbuda Target 20: The capacity of governmental natural resources management institutions as well as non-governmental organizations, to support the objectives and achieve the overall aim of the NBSAP is strengthened by 2020 Date of last assessment –September 3, 2018.
2018 – On track to achieve target Date of last assessment – September 3, 2018.

2018 – On track to achieve target Date of last assessment – September 3, 2018.

2018 – On track to achieve target Date of last assessment – September 3, 2018.

2018 – On track to achieve target Date of last assessment – September 3, 2018.

2018 – On track to achieve target Date of last assessment – September 3, 2018.

2018 – On track to achieve target Date of last assessment – December 29, 2018.
NATIONALLY DETERMINED CONTRIBUTIONS The first Intended Nationally Determined Contributions (INDC) in 2015 are listed below: ► Unconditional targets o Enhancing the enabling legal, policy, and institutional environment, for a low-carbon emission development pathway to achieve poverty reduction and sustainable development; and o By 2020, updating the building code to meet projected impacts of climate change.
► Conditional mitigation targets o By 2020, establishing efficiency standards for the importation of all vehicles and appliances; o By 2020, finalizing the technical studies with the intention to construct and operationalize a waste- to-energy (WTE) plant by 2025; 202 S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 o By 2030, achieving an energy matrix with 50 megawatts (MW) of electricity from renewable sources, both on and off grid and in the public and private sectors; and o By 2030, protecting all remaining wetlands and watershed areas with carbon sequestration potential as carbon sinks.
► Conditional adaptation targets o By 2025, increasing seawater desalination capacity by 50% above 2015 levels; o By 2030, improving and preparing all buildings for extreme climate events, including drought, flooding, and hurricanes; o By 2030, meeting 100% of electricity demand in the water sector and other essential services (including health, food storage, and emergency services) through off-grid renewable sources; o By 2030, protecting all waterways to reduce the risks of flooding and health impacts; o By 2030, making available an affordable insurance scheme for farmers, fishers, and home and business owners to cope with losses resulting from climate variability.
A renewable energy roadmap for Antigua and Barbuda was developed by IRENA which indicates how some of these targets would be achieved.

There is no implementation plan as yet, but a Draft NDC Implementation Plan is being developed for 2021 under the NDC-CAEP Initiative.

This will allow for better reporting on the targets.
The newly published NDCs (2021) have proposed several targets for mitigation including: ► 86% renewable energy generation from local resources in the electricity sector by 2030 ► 100% all new vehicle sales to be electric vehicles by 2030 ► Explore potential for emissions reductions in the waste sector by 2025 o Explore potential for emissions reductions in the Agriculture, Forestry and Other Land Use (AFOLU) sector For adaptation, several targets have been proposed, including the following: ► Building Code updated and passed into law in line with a climate resilient development pathway including, inter alia, a requirement that all new homes built after 2025 have back-up renewable energy generation and storage systems ► 100% of the water supply infrastructure powered by their own gridinteractive renewable energy sources o 100% education, health, food security, and emergency shelter facilities powered by their own grid- interactive renewable energy sources.
► 100% of community and sports infrastructure and assets are climate resilient (to withstand at a minimum Category 4 tropical cyclones) and have adequate water harvesting and storage system.

► 30,000 homes or 50% of pre-2020 homes to have back-up renewable energy systems for at least 4–6 hours of energy.

► All waterways are protected to reduce the risks of flooding and health impacts.
OTHER AREAS OF PROGRESS IN 2020 The following was taken from the Budget Speech 2021 Contribution: ► Access to innovative financing mechanisms towards Increased adaptive capacity of built infrastructure and communities to withstand extreme weather and climate variability o 88 applications (68 first responders under the SCCF Project and 20 households from the McKinnon’s subwatershed under the AF Project) have been approved by the SIRF Fund Board for the SIRF Fund Revolving Loan & Contracts signed towards disbursement.
203 S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 o As of December 2020, 64% of stage 1 disbursement was paid out to 33 first responders to the tune of $907, 266, while 2% of the Adaptation total allocation was paid out.

o All disbursement for the First Responders is slated to be paid out by March 2021 and will account for 73 % or 3, 059,091.00 of the total funds set aside and approved under the SCCF project.
► Improved ownership of adaptation & climate risk reduction o Under the AF project, a Call for Proposals was issued to churches and community buildings to apply for grants up to a maximum of US $300,000 per facility to be upgraded as shelters.

2019 saw 5 applications approved for small grants of 10,000 USD for the development of full proposals.
o Applications submitted by 3 facilities have been developed into full Proposals and these have been assessed by the grant committee to receive full grant in January 2021. o The SCCF Project provided small grant to NCO in the Cades Bay watershed – the Urlings Cricket Club to develop their club house facility as a shelter and for water harvesting.

First disbursement was given in December to cover the roof installation in keeping with building code specifications.
This facility is expected to be completed in Q1 of 2020.

► CDB/SEF achievement 2020 o A 550 Solar Module and racking system to support 10 facilities to a total of 160KW of renewable energy, with battery systems, are already on island.

Installation of Solar modules & racking commenced in December 2020 with Parham and Bendals Clinic respectively.
Will begin in weeks using Public Works and private sector technicians; o Two Clinics ► Under the CCCD project o The DOE is developing a National Environmental Data and Information System (NEIS) and a Natural Resources Inventory (NRI), which are online platforms that serve as a repository for environmental data and information that could be used to report to the Rio Conventions as well as providing access to the public.
o Contracting a consultant to develop a State of the Environment Report, the first for Antigua and Barbuda; the most recent environmental profile that was prepared for the country was in 1990. o Developing guidelines for the Geographic Information System (GIS) Unit tasked with managing the EIMAS, o i.e., the national environmental GIS database and the NRI.
Launching a Conservation Series, a four-episode series that focuses on biodiversity, climate change, land degradation & drought and data management; preparing teacher resource guides on (i) Mangrove Trees (ii) Climate Change and (iii) Biodiversity and publishing numerous articles in local newspaper.
► Goals for 2021 The following will be undertaken during 2021: o 31 Tesla Power Walls to give 155 kw continuous backup are slated to be on island first week of February 2021 as well as BoS; o RFP2 remaining sites will start installation of racking and panels last week of January 2021 with full project completion by end of Q2 2021; o 6 Sectoral Adaptation Plans to be developed; o 3 local area plans are to be completed; o Strategic Impact Assessment (SIA) framework developed; 204 o Developing Antigua and Barbuda's Environment Registry platform which will be available to stakeholders and the public.
The registry will host the national MRV (monitoring, reporting and verification) system, track climate change impacts, monitor NDC implementation and other activities outlined in the EPMA 2019; Finalizing the MRV Framework (which will be used to track our GHG emissions, mitigation and adaptation actions and support received) and Draft NDC Implementation plan developed under the NDC-CAEP Initiative; o o Developing a QA/QC plan and data collection/sharing guidelines which will make our reporting requirements easier as well develop a data sharing culture among agencies.
The NEIS and NRI will be launched and training provided on their use; o Publish the State of the Environment Report; o Enroll 3 DMU members in sector-specific training programme focused on building capacity to report on GHG Inventories; o Receive support from the Technical University of Denmark in various project activities to meet international standards as it relates to developing QA/QC plans and guidelines for data collection; o Completing the series of teacher resource guides with one focusing on mangrove trees, another on climate change, a third on biodiversity, and the fourth on Marine Ecosystem; publishing more articles on the work of the project in local newspaper.
S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 205 9.4 IMPLEMENTATION OF LOCAL AND INTERNATIONAL AGREEMENTS The Table below presents a list of all the actions taken over the last 2 years by Antigua and Barbuda to implement legal obligations under national laws and international agreements.
Table 9-5: Actions taken to implement relevant international Agreements and local Legislation Lead Agency and Key/Supporting Agencies DOE National Law or International Agreement CITES Nature of Obligation Action Taken Antigua and Barbuda submitted the EPMA, 2019 which implements the Convention.
Reports generated annually The Convention states that the national law must provide the Parties with the authority to: ii) iii) iv) v) trade designate at least one Management Authority and one Scientific Authority; in prohibit in specimens the violation Convention; penalize such trade; and confiscate specimens illegally traded or possessed.
of S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 Escazu Agreement on Access to Information, Public Participation and Justice in Environment-al Matters treaty aims This to combat inequality and discrimination and to guarantee the rights of every person to a healthy environment and to sustainable development.

In so doing, it devotes particular attention to persons and groups in vulnerable situations, and places equality at the core of sustainable development.
The passing of the EPMA, 2019 DOE The Antigua and Barbuda Climate Change Country Programme 2020, RPSP- Outcome 1.3- Development of a Consultation Strategy for the proposed project pipeline in line with Escazu Agreement on Access to Information, Public Participation and Justice in Environmental Matters EPMA, 2019 Part V: Pollution Control, Sections 24–39 Part XII: Sustainable Island Resource Framework (SIRF) Fund, Sections 91–101 Hiring of a Pollution & Standards Officer; Building out the sections of the Act focused on Pollution Passage of the SIRF Fund Regulations DOE DOE 206 S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 National Law or International Agreement Nature of Obligation Action Taken Part VI: Environmental Impact Assessment Process (Section 40– 46) Compilation of all DCA Applications for the period 2016–2020 which reports on the actions taken for each application Lead Agency and Key/Supporting Agencies DOE SIRF Fund Regulations Revolving Fund UNFCCC UNFCCC UNFCCC Paris Agreement Paris Agreement National Reporting UNCBD National Reporting UNCCD National Reporting CITES Reporting EIAs are also published on the DOE website.
Initiation of issuance of loans and grants for resilience building DOE Grants are disbursed to public and non-governmental agencies Micro loans are disbursed to vulnerable households, communities, and businesses to adapt to climate change impacts Updating/Revising NDC Targets DOE DOE DOE DOE DOE Establishing MRV Systems Preparation and submission of BUR & Fourth National Communication (in progress) Preparation and submission of the 6th National Report; Continued implementation of the NBSAP Preparation and submission of the 2019 National Report; Setting of the Land Degradation Neutrality (LDN) Targets Submission of Annual Reports 2017, 2018 and 2019 DOE 207 S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 9.5 STAKEHOLDER COLLABORATION The DOE has the responsibility to involve stakeholders in the environmental management process specifically the functioning of the Technical Advisory Committee (TAC).
The committee acts as an advisory body to all projects providing high-level technical guidance, policy input and support.

The TAC has a role in facilitating communication, technical cooperation and coordination among stakeholder agencies and other project partners.

The TAC also reviews technical documents and provides advice and information to consultants working to complete project activities.
In turn, the members of the TAC are responsible for reporting on the projects being implemented by the ED to the agencies they represent.

The TAC played an important role in the development of this SoE Report.

The Consultants were required to share drafts, updates and seek feedback throughout different stages of the project.

They provided technical feedback of the different project deliverables.
Additionally, the GOAB and the DOE from time to time create specific agreements to allow for greater collaboration between public, private and social sectors.

This is to ensure that projects are executed optimally and the silo approach to projects does not exist.

Table 9-6 below presents a list of the most recent collaborations from the period 2019 to 2021.

It also includes certain access and sharing requirements under local legislation.
Table 9-6: List of Collaborations of Relevance to the Environment over the Period 2019 to 2021 Agreement Name Description/Summary Signing Date Type of Agreement EIMAS EIMAS – Data Usage Terms and Conditions Agreement with CRIOBE (Centre de Recherches Insulaires et Observatoire de l'Environnement) on behalf of the Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network (GCRMN) Data and Information Agreement with Maya Blue Consortium Data and Information Agreement with Allen Coral Atlas, National Geographic Field Engagement Team MOUs MOUs under the CCCD Project Between the DOE and the CDD Between the DOE and the EAG Between the DOE and NODs Between the DOE and NPA Between the DOE and DAS 208 The DOE provided data from the national Atlantic Gulf Rapid Reed Assessment (AGRRA) surveys.
Carried out under the Section 57 (6).

15/Nov/2019 The DOE provided data to enable the Preparation of a Comprehensive Master Development Plan for Barbuda 24/Feb/2021 geomorphic The DOE provided data to inform the image- based analysis for the benthic and being implemented by the University of Queensland under the Allen Coral Atlas global mapping project.
layers For the “Monitoring and Assessment of Multilateral Environmental Implementation Agreements (MEAs) and Environmental Trends in Antigua and Barbuda” Project.

Under this MOU, DOE will provide technical support as it and relates management.
The data generated in collection to data 31/Mar/2021 2020 25 May 2020 12 March 2020 16 June 2020 13 February 2020 S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 Type of Agreement Agreement Name Description/Summary Signing Date support of the NEIS will be shared with the DOE.
Local Between the DOE and DAS Between the DOE and Antigua and Barbuda Science Innovation Park Between the DOE and Department of Public Works Regional Between the GOAB and CCCCC 28 May 2020 June 2020 30 March 2020 September 2020 to the “Integrated approach For physical adaptation and community resilience in Antigua and Barbuda’s northwest McKinnon’s watershed” out Project.

responsibilities for each party including provision of data and resources.
The MOU sets the out For the shared contribution to the implementation of projects undertaken by the department of environment.

It sets and responsibilities between both parties in joint matters collaboration in the furtherance of the implementation of projects undertaken by the DOE.
relationship concerning their strategy and For the development of a sector adaptation capacity building in the following areas: 1) roads and drains, 2) buildings, 3) government procurement, 4) back un-energy systems using renewable energy, 5) transition of in preparation for the impact of climate change on the construction sector.

It and sets out in responsibilities of both parties matters joint concerning in the furtherance of collaboration projects.
the workforce relationships their the For the implementation of the Intra- ACP GCCA+ Programme: Enhancing climate resilience in the CARIFORUM countries.

the programme are linked to the strategic elements and goal of the Regional Framework for Achieving Development Resilient to Climate Change.

actions The in Between the GOAB and The Greenhouse Gas Management Institute 6 April 2019 For the establishing of a Caribbean Cooperative Measurement Reporting and Verification Hub (“MRV Hub”).
It establishes the country focal point, the ownership of data and other specific terms.
209 Type of Agreement Agreement Name Description/Summary Signing Date Between the GOAB and CCCCC the Acquisition, Processing, For Interpretation, and Dissemination of Airborne LiDAR Bathymetric and Topographic Data in the Coastal Areas of Antigua and Barbuda 13 November 2020 Multi-agency Between EAG, Fisheries Division, DOE, Forestry Unit, Ministry of Tourism and Investment, National Parks Authority, Fauna and Flora International March 2021 For the cooperation in the implementation of The Offshore Islands Conservation Programme It sets out how each party is to contribute to the implementation of the programme.
Requirements for collaboration and sharing under relevant environment legislation EPMA, 2019 Access to Benefit Sharing Agreements Environmental Management and Monitoring Part IX, Section 79 sets out principles/ guidance for the access and benefit sharing of genetic resources.

Part VII Section 47 of the EPMA, 2019 indicates that the DOE shall promote the adoption and implementation of environmental standards and lend any assistance towards this.
They shall also collaborate with other ministries, departments of government and statutory authorities to develop a programme so that this is realized across all ministries, departments of government and statutory authorities.

Section 48 indicates the EMPS should be prepared commercial or for industrial facilities.

In 2018, EMS plans were developed in accordance with the ISO 14001:2015 Standard for two facilities selected by the Antigua and Barbuda Government; these are: 1.
Mount St. John’s Medical Center and 2.

The National Parks Authority at Nelson’s Dockyard Submitted April 9, 2018 S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 Part VI sets out relationships and to as responsibilities execution and review of SEIAs and EIAs.

It also sets out the use of the Environment Registry.
relates it Environmental Impact Assessments (EPMA, 2019) 210 S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 9.6 ENVIRONMENTAL REQUESTS Part II, Section 4 of the Environmental Protection and Management Act, 2019 indicated the functions of the DOE.
Included in this is the DOE’s responsibility for environmental awareness, encouraging and facilitating public participation in the development, implementation and oversight of environmental laws and policies, gathering, analysis, publishing and dissemination environmental data and information, among other things.

As such, it is expected that the DOE would be responding to requests for environmental information from time to time.
The Table below presents a list of all the requests for environmental information received by the DOE for the period 2019 to 2020, including how many have been granted in part and in full under Section 14 of the Freedom of Information Act, 2004.

In addition to requests for documents and information, maps are often requested.

However, this tracking only began in 2020.

This is also presented below.

Table 9-7: List of all Requests for environmental Information from the DOE over the Period 2016–2020.
Nature of Request Country Questionnaire for ‘The Assessment of the Production and Dissemination of Agricultural Statistics’ requested by the Food and Agriculture Organization through the Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Barbuda Affairs Questionnaire to inform the development of a project proposal for A&B for Marine Biodiversity and Conservation by the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) Reporting Template for the Cartagena Convention, on behalf of the Secretariat to the Cartagena Convention Request for environmental data from the Biodiversity, Land Use and Ecosystems ENV, Climate Change, Biodiversity and Water Division of the OECD Updating a database on ongoing initiatives aimed to support SIDS in their energy transformation for each of the priority areas from IRENA in an effort to track the progress of the SIDS LHI Initiative Requesting information on measures taken in Antigua and Barbuda to curb environmental degradation from the Trinity Secondary School Requesting information to support Regional Nutrient Strategy Development and Questionnaire from the Institute of Marine Affairs Requesting information to inform a regional biodiversity conservation and forest Date Received Status (fulfilled or granted in part) Response Date 21/02/2019 Fulfilled 27/02/2019 8/01/2019 Fulfilled 27/02/2019 15/03/2019 Fulfilled 16/04/2019 16/05/2019 Fulfilled 18/06/2021 21/11/2019 Fulfilled 27/11/2019 6/02/2020 Fulfilled 06/02/2020 7/05/2020 Fulfilled 3/06/2020 6/06/2020 Fulfilled 11/06/2020 211 Nature
 of Request Date Received Status (fulfilled or granted in part) Response Date management analysis conducted by Environmental incentives on behalf of the USAID Requesting information for a Sea Level Projection S tudy Caribbean from the Department of Planning and Natural Resources, Division of Coastal Zone Management, Government of the US Virgin Islands The Maritime Economy Plan Maps: See Table 9-9 for the numbers of maps requested in 2020 and fulfilled.
The tracking started in 2020 23/11/2020 Fulfilled 7/12/2020 Received 9/11.2020 fulfilled 24/1/2021 S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 212 Table 9-8: List of Map Requests made and fulfilled for the Period January 2020 to April 2021 Map Title Description Purpose Soils of Antigua (1966) Soil map of Antigua, coloured by broad grouping.
Antigua's Protected and Ecologically Sensitive Areas Light grey canvas base map of Antigua, overlain with MPAs, mangroves, KBAs, National Parks, and Proposed NPs DCA Application G11-2019, 1 & 2 Satellite basemap with environmental features proximal to AOI Population Density by Enumeration District Population density by enumeration district visualized on a gradient Royal Caribbean Beach Park - Fort James Satellite basemap with environmental features proximal to AOI For DCA to consult when considering development applications.
To support NEBMU's site investigation.

To show population density in enumeration districts surrounding the SMMA.

To support NEBMU's investigation of development proposal.

Date Request Received 17-Jan-20 Date Request Fulfilled 17-Jan-20 16-Jan-20 17-Jan-20 16-Jan-20 17-Jan-20 21-Jan-20 21-Jan-20 21-Jan-20 24-Jan-20 Path to 2020 Protected Areas Map Satellite basemap with NPs, Proposed NPs, MPAs, KBAs in and around the SMMA Visualization for the Path to 2020 Project.
28-Jan-20 28-Jan-20 Cades bay Mangrove Population UAS Imagery of Cades Bay Elevation in Saint Mary’s Parish Antigua landmass with 10m contours, communities, schools, clinics in Saint Mary To show results of UAS survey; investigation into mangrove die- back.

To support development of social programmes in Saint Mary.
24-Jan-20 30-Jan-20 30-Jan-20 31-Jan-20 S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 213 Map Title Description Purpose Building Concentration in Saint Mary Antigua landmass with communities, roads, building footprints in Saint Mary Schools and Clinics in Saint Mary Antigua landmass with roads and labeled communities, schools, and clinics in Saint Mary Emergency Shelters and Sites of Interest in Saint Mary Antigua landmass with roads and labeled communities, emergency shelters, and cultural heritage sites in Saint Mary YIDA Mangrove Investigation, January 2020 UAS imagery of YIDA at Crabbs Peninsula DCA Plan Application # 616-19 Satellite imagery, identification of parcels at Jolly Harbour To support development of social programmes in Saint Mary To support development of social programs in Saint Mary To support development of social programmes in Saint Mary.
To show results of UAS survey; investigation into mangrove die- back.

To support NEBMU's site investigation.

Date Request Received 30-Jan-20 Date Request Fulfilled 31-Jan-20 30-Jan-20 31-Jan-20 30-Jan-20 31-Jan-20 23-Jan-20 1-Feb-20 4-Feb-20 4-Feb-20 Subwatersheds of St. John's Satellite imagery with Cedar Grove and McKinnons subwatersheds (as identified by Alpha Engineering) To situate Alpha's project geographically.
3-Feb-20 5-Feb-20 Codrington Lagoon National Park Satellite imagery with Codrington Lagoon National Park and Barbuda Road Network To show the boundaries of CLNP.

11-Feb-20 11-Feb-20 Barbuda Protected Areas Light grey canvas basemap of Barbuda, overlain with Codrington Lagoon National Park, Marine Sanctuaries, roads, and 3nm boundary.

To show the protected areas in Barbuda 11-Feb-20 11-Feb-20 Barbuda, Land Survey no.

19B Soil map of Barbuda, coloured by broad grouping.
17-Feb-20 S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 214 Map Title Description Purpose Land Boundaries in Greencastle Hill National Park Satellite imagery with 10 metre contours, and parcel boundaries over Greencastle Hill.

Wallings Nature Reserve Boundary Comparison Satellite imagery with SMMA, Cades Bay Marine Reserve, roads, and Wallings Boundary as described by the community and as historically represented.
Sea Floor Coverage in Antigua's MPA's TNC Habitat Data clipped to align with Marine Protected Areas A118 - 2020 Housing Development - Johnson's Point Satellite imagery with roads, mangroves and protected areas proximal to the AOI.

To show the boundaries of parcels associated with Greencastle Hill National Park compared to the accepted park boundary.

To show the historically accepted boundaries as compared to the boundary as described by the community.
To show the variation in marine communities in MPAs and assist in calculating populations.

To support NEBMU's site investigation.

Date Request Received 14-Feb-20 Date Request Fulfilled 17-Feb-20 27-Feb-20 27-Feb-20 2-Mar-20 3-Mar-20 9-Mar-20 10-Mar-20 A118 - 2020 Housing Development - Topography A118 - 2020 Housing Development - Land Use Satellite imagery with 30 m contours, roads, mangroves and protected areas proximal to the AOI.
Satellite imagery with the SIRMZP land use categories overlain in the AOI.

To support NEBMU's site investigation.

To support NEBMU's site investigation.

9-Mar-20 10-Mar-20 9-Mar-20 10-Mar-20 A118 - 2020 Housing Development - Physical Features Satellite imagery with 30 m contours, mangroves, and marine communities overlain.

To support NEBMU's site investigation.


9-Mar-20 10-Mar-20 S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 215 Map Title Description Baseline Gender Assessment - Urban Flood Risk Select communities with binary indication of urban flooding risk Baseline Gender Assessment - Storm Surge and Sea Level Rise Select communities with binary indication of storm surge and sea level rise risk.
Baseline Gender Assessment - Wind Select communities with binary indication of wind risk.

Application #G03-2020 Boundary Map Satellite imagery with roads and AOI.

Block and Parcel IDs in Crabbs Peninsula, North Block and Parcel IDs in Crabbs Peninsula, South Location Map of ABSEZ Site Visit Satellite imagery with labelled parcels Satellite imagery with labelled parcels Land Extent of Antigua and Barbuda Special Economic Zone Satellite imagery with YIDA parcels and site visit locations.
Purpose To support development of Baseline Gender Assessment Methodology.

To support development of Baseline Gender Assessment Methodology.

To support development of Baseline Gender Assessment Methodology.

To support NEBMU's site investigation.

To identify Parcels in Crabbs Peninsula.

To identify Parcels in Crabbs Peninsula.

To show the geographic location of observations made at the ABSEZ site visit.

To situate the site visit against the terrestrial extent of the ABSEZ.
Date Request Received 25-Feb-20 10-Mar-20 Date Request Fulfilled 25-Feb-20 10-Mar-20 25-Feb-20 10-Mar-20 27-Mar-20 01-Apr-20 13-Apr-20 16-Apr-20 13-Apr-20 16-Apr-20 15-Apr-20 16-Apr-20 15-Apr-20 16-Apr-20 S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 216 Map Title Description Purpose Shekerley Mountain Management Area Shekerley Mountain Management Area Shekerley Mountain Management Area Soil Map of SMMA with contours and agriculture stations.
Land ownership in the SMMA as identified by Survey's Parcel Layer.

Land Use in the SMMA as identified by Survey's Parcel Layer.

To support the SMMA project consultant.

To support the SMMA project consultant.

To support the SMMA project consultant.

Date Request Received 9-Apr-20 Date Request Fulfilled 19-Apr-20 9-Apr-20 19-Apr-20 9-Apr-20 19-Apr-20 Shekerley Mountain Management Area Environmental features in the SMMA including hiking trails, isohyets, KBAs and terrain.
To support the SMMA project consultant.

9-Apr-20 19-Apr-20 Shekerley Mountain Management Area Land cover in the SMMA as identified by SIRMZP.

To support the SMMA project consultant.

20-Apr-20 20-Apr-20 Shekerley Mountain Management Area Location map showing communities and proposed protected areas adjacent to SMMA To support the SMMA project consultant.

20-Apr-20 20-Apr-20 Shekerley Mountain Management Area Land use and location reference map of SMMA adapted from Parcel layer.
To support the SMMA project consultant.

20-Apr-20 20-Apr-20 Shekerley Mountain Management Area Land ownership and location reference of SMMA adapted from Parcel layer.

To support the SMMA project consultant.

20-Apr-20 20-Apr-20 217 S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 Map Title Description Purpose Shekerley Mountain Management Area Land cover and location reference of SMMA, identified by SIRMZP.

To support the SMMA project consultant.


Date Request Received 20-Apr-20 Date Request Fulfilled 20-Apr-20 Shekerley Mountain Management Area Land cover of SW Antigua, including Christian Valley, Shekerley Mountains and John Hughes To support the SMMA project consultant.

21-Apr-20 21-Apr-20 Watersheds of Antigua Watershed resource map (in colour) with communities and main roads.

For inclusion in GCF Report.

27-Apr-20 28-Apr-20 Watersheds of Antigua Watershed resource map.
General reference (tourist) map of SMMA.

For inclusion in GCF Report.

To support the SMMA project consultant.

27-Apr-20 28-Apr-20 27-Apr-20 28-Apr-20 Location map to identify fuel leak at Dee's Service Station.

Aerial Imagery and roads.

To support NEBMU's site investigation.

30-Apr-20 30-Apr-20 Shekerley Mountain Management Area Dee's Service Station Shekerley Mountain Management Area SIRMZP Land Use General reference (tourist) map of SMMA (2).
SIRMZP Land Use categories that fit the criteria for Solar PV installations Building Distribution Building footprints in Antigua categorized by roof slope angle.

Geology of Antigua Broad geology classifications of Antigua with underlying terrain.

Soils of Antigua Broad soil classifications of Antigua with underlying terrain.

218 To support the SMMA project consultant.


Visualisation to accompany IRENA Data 1-May-20 1-May-20 1-May-20 6-May-20 Visualisation to accompany IRENA Data 1-May-20 6-May-20 Visualization to support Public Works work programme Visualization to support Public Works work programme 12-May-20 12-May-20 12-May- 20 12-May- 20 S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 Map Title Description Purpose Land Use Zoning Plan Land use zoning map and underlying terrain.
Adapted from SIRMZP (2012).

Visualization to support Public Works work programme Date Request Received 12-May-20 Schools in Antigua Schools in Antigua General reference map showing schools, primary roads, parishes and topography.

Highlighting schools participating in the GISS project.
General reference map for the grid-interactive solar PV systems for schools and clinics project: Antigua divided by parishes with schools numbered Visualization to support the GISS project 13-May-20 Visualization to support the GISS project 13-May-20 Schools in Antigua and Barbuda General reference map for the GISS project.

Visualization to support the GISS project 14-May-20 Flood Prne Areas in Antigua General reference map showing terrain and flood prone areas.
Flood prone areas and risk are based on observations during hurricane Lenny.

Adapted from PGDM.

Visualization to support Public Works work programme 18-May-20 Mather Water Sampling Sites General reference map showing location of Fall/Winter 1971 Mather water sampling sites.
Visualization of MGRS coordinates 15-May-20 Water Sampling Points at Darkwood Base map showing water sampling points taken at Darkwood Pond Topography in the vicinity of Darkwood Pond Local Area Map - Cashew Hill General reference map showing topography proximal to the Darkwood mangrove pond.

Aerial imagery with contours created from 0.5m DSM.

Elevation as metres AMSL.

General reference map showing topography and environmental features in the vicinity of the Cashew Hill Community boundary.
Visualization to support environmental report on fish kill at Darkwood Pond Visualization to support NEBMU 26-May-20 26-May-20 Visualization for EDA - Cashew Hill 28-May-20 Date Request Fulfilled 12-May- 20 13-May- 20 13-May- 20 14-May- 20 18-May- 20 18-May- 20 27-May- 20 26-May- 20 28-May- 20 S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 219 Map Title Description Purpose General reference map showing topography and environmental features in the vicinity of the Cashew Hill Community boundary.
Visualization for EDA - Cashew Hill Local Area Map - Cashew Hill Local Area Map - Cashew Hill Marine Water Quality Sampling Sites in Antigua Antigua's Water Resources General reference map showing topography and environmental features in the vicinity of the Cashew Hill Community boundary.
General Reference Map Showing Location of Water Sampling Sites Terrain map showing locations of coastal mangrove populations and inland ponds and reservoirs Date Request Received 28-May-20 28-May-20 Date Request Fulfilled 28-May- 20 28-May- 20 3-Jun-20 3-June-20 2-Jun-20 3-June-20 Visualization for EDA - Cashew Hill Visualization for Water Quality Report For DAS and CBH to plan biological methods to combat mosquitos/vector spread Location map of selected site for Project LIFEPLAN team.
Project LIFEPLAN Site, Antigua W.I.

General reference map for the Project LIFEPLAN site in the Wallings Nature Reserve Marble Hill Topography General reference map to show the absence of drainage around a pond in Marble Hill Visualization for NEBMU.

4-Jun-20 4-June-20 IRENA ADFD Phase 2 Terrain map identifying government owned lands potentially suitable for wind turbine placement in Freetown.
Visualization to support Phase 2 of IRENA ADFD 4-Jun-20 5-June-20 IRENA ADFD Phase 2 Terrain map identifying government owned lands potentially suitable for wind turbine placement in Freetown.

Visualization to support Phase 2 of IRENA ADFD 4-Jun-20 5-June-20 Cashew Hill Community Boundary Variation General reference map with contours and environmental features.
IWEco Reforestation in McKinnon's General Reference map showing the project's target area with tree planting points along McKinnon's Sub-Watershed Visualization to show the variations in Cashew Hill boundary definitions.
IWeco 9-Jun-20 9-June-20 17-June-20 18-June- 20 220 S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 Map Title Description Purpose Water Utilities Infrastructure General reference map showing the locations of APUA wells, pump stations, and water tanks To support intern data collection Date Request Received 9-Jun-20 Date Request Fulfilled 9-June-20 Cashew Hill Community Boundary Variation General reference map showing alternative cashew hill boundary in context of body ponds watershed.
Visualization to support EDA decision making.

10-Jun-20 10-June- 20 Antiguan Terrain Terrain map showing elevation along Antigua’s western coast.
Woodland Vegetation in Antigua General reference map showing forest populations in Antigua Inform EDA decision making Visualization for USAID biodiversity consultant EDA Project Impact Area - Cashew Hill Boundary Extension General reference map showing casher hill boundary extension and proximal environmental features EDA Mather*** 10-Jun-20 10-Jun-20 11-Jun-20 11-Jun-20 10-Jun-20 11-Jun-20 Environmental features near application #277-20 Location map showing mangroves, protected areas, drainage and elevation Visualization for NEBMU.
17-Jun-20 17-Jun-20 Parish Map of Antigua with Major Population Centres General reference map showing parishes, population centres, and road network Visualization for TNA 15-Jun-20 17-Jun-20 Map of Barbuda with Population Centre General reference map showing Codrington settlement and road network Visualization for TNA 15-Jun-20 17-Jun-20 Cashew Hill Community Boundary Variation General reference map showing Cashew Hill boundary extension and proximal environmental features.
Visualization for EDA project 18-Jun-20 18-Jun-20 S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 Cashew Hill Community Boundary Variation General reference map showing alternative cashew hill boundary in context of body ponds watershed.
Visualization for EDA project 18-Jun-20 18-Jun-20 221 Map Title Description Purpose EDA Project Impact Area - Cashew Hill Boundary Extension General reference map showing Cashew Hill boundary extension and proximal environmental features.

Visualization for EDA project Willoughby Bay Willoughby Bay General Reference Map of the Willoughby Bay area showing terrain and bathymetry, soil types, road network, proximal communities, and environmental features.

Visualization for PM meeting.


General reference map of the Willoughby Bay area and Atlantic Ocean.

Visualization for PM Meeting.

25-Jun-20 25-Jun-20 Date Request Received 19-Jun-20 Date Request Fulfilled 19-Jun-20 24-Jun-20 25-Jun-20 Barbuda Protected Areas Network General reference map showing locations of marine reserves, national parks, and sanctuary sites in Barbuda.

Palmetto Point boundary included for reference.


Visualization for consultant on Path to 2020 22-Jun-20 25-Jun-20 NODS Disaster Damage Assessment Submission Summary General reference map depicting the total number of NODS Disaster Damage Assessment Forms submit for the 1998, 1999, and 2008 Hurricane Seasons.

Disaggregated by constituency.

15-Jun-20 25-Jun-20 Visual representation of the NODS Damage Assessment for Housing Stock forms collected as NAP Baseline Data.
Beaches and Bays of Antigua Educational Institutions in the GISS Project 2017-2020 General reference map showing locations of 17 schools and 1 daycare participating in the GISS project.

Visualization for M&E report 29-Jun-20 222 S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 Map Title Description Purpose EDA Project Impact Area - Cashew Hill Boundary Extension General reference map showing Cashew Hill boundary extension and proximal environmental features.
Visualization for EDA project Date Request Received 26-Jun-20 Date Request Fulfilled 30-Jun-20 EDA Project Impact Area - Cashew Hill Boundary Extension General reference map showing Cashew Hill boundary extension and proximal environmental features.

Visualization for EDA project 26-Jun-20 30-Jun-20 EDA Project Impact Area - Cashew Hill Boundary Extension General reference map showing Cashew Hill boundary extension and proximal environmental features.
Visualization for EDA project 26-Jun-20 30-Jun-20 Potential Urban Site for Lifeplan Project in Botanical Gardens General reference map showing location of urban site for LIFEPLAN project.

Visualization for Project LIFEPLAN ?

?

01-Jul-20 Land Use and Physical Features General Reference map showing area of interest associated with the parcel boundary To support planning development 3-Jul 20 3-Jul 20 EDA Project Impact Area - Cashew Hill Boundary Ext.
Terrain map showing Cashew Hill boundary extension and proximal environmental features.

Visualization for EDA project 27-Jun-30 2-Jul-20 EDA Project Impact Area - Cashew Hill Boundary Ext.

General reference map showing Cashew Hill boundary extension and proximal environmental features.

Visualization for EDA project 29-Jun-20 3-Jul-20 S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 223 Map Title Description Purpose EDA Project Impact Area - Cashew Hill Boundary Ext.
General reference map showing Cashew Hill boundary extension and proximal environmental features.

Visualization for EDA project Date Request Received 29-Jun-20 Date Request Fulfilled 3-Jul-20 EDA Project Impact Area - Cashew Hill Micro Boundary General reference map showing Cashew Hill Micro Boundary and proximal environmental features.
Visualization for EDA project 5-Jul-20 6-Jul-20 Sea Level Rise Risk at McKinnons Pond General reference map showing 2100 SLR risk in McKinnons based on global 2 degree celcius temperature increase.

SLR modelled by JECo Caribbean for OECS ICZM 2016.

9-Jul-20 9-Jul-20 Land Ownership in the SMMA General reference map showing land ownership by parcel in the proposed SMMA.
Visualization for SMMA Consultant 21-July-20 21-July-20 Established and Proposed Protected Areas in Antigua General reference map showing marine and terrestrial, established and proposed protected areas in Antigua Visualization for SMMA Consultant 4-Aug-20 7-Aug-20 DCA Application #G08-2019 - Hotel Development Location map of DCA Application #G08-3019 and proximal environmental and physical features.
Visualization for NEBMU 10-Aug-20 10-Aug-20 Schools in Antigua and Barbuda General Reference Map displaying the various schools of interest in relation to Antigua & Barbuda's 50m interval contour elevation Visualization for GISS Project 13-Aug-20 14-Aug-20 S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 Schools in Antigua and Barbuda General Reference Map displaying the various schools of interest in relation to Antigua & Barbuda's drainage and stream system.
Visualization for GISS Project 13-Aug-20 14-Aug-20 224 Map Title Description Purpose Schools in Antigua and Barbuda General Reference Map displaying the various schools of interest in relation to Antigua & Barbuda's geological makeup.
Visualization for GISS Project EDA Cashew Hill Market Research Survey EDA Cashew Hill Market Research Survey (Version 2) Gas Stations in Antigua General reference map showing locations of household and business marked research survey responses in the cashew hill community for the EDA Project General reference map showing locations of household and business marked research survey responses in the cashew hill community for the EDA Project General reference map showing locations of Gas Stations, Fuel Docs, and EV Charging EDA EDA Date Request Received 13-Aug-20 Date Request Fulfilled 14-Aug-20 19-Aug-20 19-Aug-20 Just transition 19-Aug-20 21-Aug-20 Railways of Colonial Antigua General reference map showing the extent of railway infrastructure in Colonial Antigua.
Just Transition 19-Aug-20 24-Aug-20 Environmental Features in Fitches Creek Environmental Features at Hanson's Bay GCF Approved Building Sites: Saint Mary N/A GCF Approved Building Sites: Saint Mary GCF Approved Building Sites: Saint John GCF Approved Building Sites: Saint John N/A N/A N/A 225 24-Aug-20 25-Aug-20 24-Aug-20 24-Aug-20 25-Aug-20 25-Aug-20 24-Aug-20 25-Aug-20 24-Aug-20 25-Aug-20 24-Aug-20 25-Aug-20 Presenting GCF4 to Cabinet Presenting GCF4 to Cabinet Presenting GCF4 to Cabinet Presenting GCF4 to Cabinet S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 Map Title Description Purpose GCF Approved Building Sites: Saint George GCF Approved Building Sites: Saint George GCF Approved Building Sites: Saint Peter & Saint Philip GCF Approved Building Sites: Saint Peter & Saint Philip GCF Approved Building Sites: Saint Peter GCF Approved Building Sites: Saint Peter N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A Presenting GCF4 to Cabinet Presenting GCF4 to Cabinet Presenting GCF4 to Cabinet Presenting GCF4 to Cabinet Presenting GCF4 to Cabinet Presenting GCF4 to Cabinet Green Barbuda: Solar PV, Diesel and Battery Hybrid General Reference Map showing the area for development in the Green Barbuda Project Visualization for the Green Barbuda Project Green Barbuda: Solar PV, Diesel and Battery Hybrid General Reference Map showing the area for development in the Green Barbuda Project represented by a Digital Elevation Model Visualization for the Green Barbuda Project Date Request Received 24-Aug-20
 Date Request Fulfilled 25-Aug-20 24-Aug-20 25-Aug-20 24-Aug-20 25-Aug-20 24-Aug-20 25-Aug-20 24-Aug-20 25-Aug-20 24-Aug-20 25-Aug-20 S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 226 Map Title Description Purpose Green Barbuda: Solar PV, Diesel and Battery Hybrid Orthomosiac of the Green Barbuda Project Area.
Visualization for the Green Barbuda Project Environmental Features ar Cooks Landfill Application #G11-2020 Physical Feature and Land Use Dredge Bay Sampling Area General reference map showing location of Cooks Landfill and proximal land use.

General Reference Map showing the project area associated with the physical features and land use.

General Reference Map displaying the sampling points examined during the four week period.
Childcare and Early Childhood Education in Antigua General reference map showing distribution of childcare and ECE facilities in Antigua Request by Mrs. Ruth Spencer Visualization for site investigation report.

Visualization for site investigation report.
Visualization for Early Childhood Development Unit Date Request Received Date Request Fulfilled 31-Aug-20 31-Aug-20 3-Sep-20 11-Sep-20 McKinnons Waterway Expansion General location map showing the parcels affected by the Mckinnons waterway expansion AF/SCCF 10-Sep-20 14-Sep-20 Acidic Soils in Antigua General Reference Map Showing Distribution of Acidic Soils in Antigua Visualization for Agriculture/Plant Protection Unit 11-Sep-20 14-Sep-20 McKinnons Waterway Expansion Version 2 General reference map showing the parcels affected by the AF McKinnons Waterway Expansion Project AF/SCCF 17-Sep-20 17 Sep-20 Selected Intervention Sites or GCF Build General reference map showing the locations of selected structures for the GCF Build Project GCF Build 24-Sep-20 24-Sep-20 S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 227 Map Title Description Purpose Christian Valley Hikes General Reference Map Showing Hikes near Christian Valley Agricultural Station SPPARE Date Request Received 23-Sep-20 Date Request Fulfilled 28-Sep-20 Desalination and Fresh Water Treatment Facilities in Antigua General reference map showing locations of APUA reverse osmosis plants and freshwater treatment plants.
IRENA 29 Sep-20 30-Sep-20 Water Treatment and Storage Infrastructure in Antigua General reference map showing locations of APUA desalination and fresh water treatment plants, well fields, and water storage.

IRENA 29-Sep-20 30-Sep-20 Active Weather Stations Farmland Areas in Antigua N/A General Reference Map categorizing areas of farmland within Antigua.
IRENA 6 Oct 20 G13-2020 General Reference Map showing land use and physical features of specific area of interest Site-Visit 13-Oct-20 14-Oct-20 Falmouth Marina Proposed Dock Extension General Reference Map showing the northern dock and its 350ft extension, while illustrating surrounding land use and elevation Site-Visit 13-Oct-20 14-Oct-20 S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 228 Map Title Description Purpose Parcels Registered to Amelia Winter General Reference Map Showing Location of Parcels in the Proposed SMMA Registered to Amelia Winter.
Information Provided by Antigua & Barbuda Land Registry.

Path to 2020, Stakeholder Consultations Date Request Received Date Request Fulfilled 21-Oct-20 Coastal Ecosystems, West Antigua Small scale environmental features map showing coastal and marine habitats proximal to the cooks landfill and Jennings community.
Consultant G12-2020 General Reference Map showing land use and physical features of Jolly Beach/Jolly Harbour area Site Inspection 31-Oct-20 1-Nov-20 Saint Mary's Enumeration Districts The 37 enumeration districts found in the parish of Saint Mary and its boundaries.

Preliminary visualization for the Saint Mary's LAP 12-Nov-20 16-Nov-20 Saint Mary's Features Identification and location of features in the parish of Saint Mary.
Confirmed COVID-19 Cases in Antigua and Barbuda N/A 229 Preliminary visualization for the Saint Mary's LAP 12-Nov-20 17-Nov-20 Ministry of Health 14-Nov-20 16-Nov-20 S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 Map Title Description Purpose Loan Density Map of Approved SIRFF Applications, 2017-2020 General reference map showing quantity of approved SIRFF applications by location.
Visualization of SIRFF Applications Date Request Received 16-Nov-20 18-Nov-20 Date Request Fulfilled Hiking Trails in the Wallings Nature Reserve General reference map showing popular hiking trails in the vicinity of the Wallings Nature Reserve and the Proposed Shekerley Mountain Management Area Visualization for NODS 18-Nov-20 19-Nov-20 Adaptation Fund Study Area Adaptation Fund Study Area Development Application #D114- 2020 General Reference Map showing the culverts designed by Aplha Engineering and their proximity to the larvae sampling sites identified.
General Reference Map showing the culverts designed by Aplha Engineering and their proximity to sites larvae samples were taken in 2019.
General Reference Map Showing Environmental Features Proximal to Parcel 51-1986A-333 Adaptation Fund 19-Nov-20 20-Nov-20 Adaptation Fund 21st-Nov- 20 BPAMU 24-Nov-20 24-Nov-20 Development Application #D114- 2020 General Reference Map Showing Environmental Features and Designated Land Use Proximal to Parcel 51-1986A-333 BPAMU 24-Nov-20 24-Nov-20 GCF Energy Project: Preparing the National Grid Population Density Map Highlighting the Low-Income, High-Density Pointe and Gray's Farm Communities.
Project Proposal 24-Nov-20 27-Nov-20 S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 230 Map Title Description Purpose Water Infrastructure and Sea Level Rise Susceptibility Map.
Project Proposal Date Request Received 24-Nov-20 27-Nov-20 Date Request Fulfilled Transport Infrastructure Project Proposal 24-Nov-20 27-Nov-20 GCF Energy Project: Preparing the National Grid GCF Energy Project: Preparing the National Grid GCF Energy Project: Preparing the National Grid Land Use in St. John's City and Surrounding Communities, as Designated by the SIRMZP (2012).
Project Proposal 24-Nov-20 27-Nov-20 GCF Energy Project: Preparing the National Grid Geological Map Showing Severity of Soil Erosion in Antigua.

Adapted from UWI 1966 Soil Survey.

Project Proposal 24-Nov-20 27-Nov-20 GCF Energy Project: Preparing the National Grid Geological Map Showing Soil Types in Antigua.

Adapted from UWI 1966 Soil Survey.


Project Proposal 24-Nov-20 30-Nov-20 Adaptation Fund Culvert Plan General Reference Map indicating the proposed sites for culvert construction layered with the contour levels.
Adaptation Fund 30-Nov-20 30-Nov-20 GCF Energy Project: Preparing the National Grid Transmission Grid Map Showing Locations of High and Low Voltage Power Lines Project Proposal 24-Nov-20 30-Nov-20 Confirmed COVID-19 Cases in Antigua and Barbuda Imported COVID-19 Cases in Antigua and Barbuda Non-Imported COVID-19 Cases in Antigua and Barbuda N/A N/A N/A 231 Ministry of Health 25-Nov-20 30-Nov-20 Ministry of Health 25-Nov-20 30-Nov-20 Ministry of Health 25-Nov-20 30-Nov-20 S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 Map Title Description Application G14-2020 associated with environmental and physical features.
General Reference map displaying the proposed area of interest layered with environmental and physical features.

Purpose Site Inspection Date Request Received 02-Dec-20 Date Request Fulfilled 02-Dec-20 NEMMA Protected Areas Proximal to the Palmetto Point PLH Development NEMMA Environmental Case Study 02-Dec-20 03-Dec-20 02-Dec-20 03-Dec-20 Application B135-20 General Reference map displaying the proposed area of interest layered with environmental and physical features.
Site Inspection 07-Dec-20 08-Dec-20 Sites Selected for Solar PV Installation Installation Site for RE Technology at Urlings Primary School Parcel Ownership in the Vicinity of Wallings Nature Reserve N/A N/A 14-Dec-20 14-Dec-20 Project Proposal 14-Dec-20 17-Dec-20 Path to 2020 17-Dec-20 17-Dec-20 Application No.

D127-20 General reference map showing the parcel of interest layered with physical and environmental features.
Site Inspection 21-Dec-20 21-Dec-20 Adaptation Fund Larvae Sampling Study Area General Reference map highlighting the areas of interest to conduct larvae assessment Project Activity 5-Jan-21 5-Jan-21 S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 Table 9-9: List of Map Requests made and fulfilled for the Period January 2021 to April 2021 232 Map Title Description Purpose N/A Communities and features within the McKinnons Registration Section Enumeration districts in the McKinnons Registration Section Enumeration districts along the McKinnons waterway Marine Water Quality Sampling Sites NA NA Watershed Water Quality Sampling Sites This map shows locations of flooding and inundation reported to the DOE after an extreme rainfall event in November 2020.
This is not an exhaustive map of all flooding and inundation having occurred after the rainfall event.
N/A N/A General Reference Map Showing Environmental Features Proximal to Parcels N/A N/A N/A Documented Flooding November 9-11 2020 Path to 2020: Proposed Protected Areas in Southwest Antigua Path to 2020: Proposed Protected Areas in Southwest Antigua Development Application A20-2021 Path to 2020: Proposed boundary for Dunnings Protected Area Path to 2020: Proposed Shekerley Mountain Management Area with Buffer Zone Path to 2020: Proposed Boundary for Dunnings 233 Date Request Received 05-Jan- 2021 Date Request Fulfuilled 05-Jan- 2021 Establish McKinnons community boundary for the LAP Establish McKinnons community boundary for the LAP 06-Jan- 2021 06-Jan- 2021 Establish McKinnons community boundary for the LAP Water Quality data for inclusion in the SOE Report Water Quality data for inclusion in the SOE Report Map for Flood Report 06-Jan- 2021 18-Jan- 2021 18-Jan- 2021 18-Jan- 2021 06-Jan- 2021 18-Jan- 2021 18-Jan- 2021 22-Jan- 2021 Visualization to present proposed PAs to Chief Surveyor 22-Jan- 2021 26-Jan- 2021 Visualization to present proposed PAs to Chief Surveyor 22-Jan- 2021 26-Jan- 2021 Land use and physical features map Visualization to present proposed PAs to Chief Surveyor 27-Jan- 2021 27-Jan- 2021 27-Jan- 2021 27-Jan- 2021 Visualization to present proposed PAs to Chief Surveyor 27-Jan- 2021 27-Jan- 2021 Visualization to present proposed PAs to Chief Surveyor 27-Jan- 2021 27-Jan- 2021 S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 Map Title Description Purpose
 Date Request Received Date Request Fulfuilled Protected Area (with Parcels) Path to 2020: Proposed Boundary for Wallings Conservation Area Path to 2020: Proposed Boundary for Christian Valley Conservation Area Path to 2020: Proposed Conservation and Protected Areas Documented Flooding at McKinnons November 9-11 2020 N/A N/A N/A Visualization to present proposed PAs to Chief Surveyor 27-Jan- 2021 27-Jan- 2021 Visualization to present proposed PAs to Chief Surveyor 27-Jan- 2021 27-Jan- 2021 Visualization to present proposed PAs to Chief Surveyor 27-Jan- 2021 27-Jan- 2021 This map shows locations of flooding and inundation reported to the DOE after an extreme rainfall event in November 2020.
This is not an exhaustive map of all flooding and inundation having occurred after the rainfall event.
Map for Flood Report DCA Application #A26-2021 General reference map showing environmental features and land use Visualization for EIA Location of Renewable Energy Sites in Antigua Parcel 613-1890B-582 Soil Overlay NEMMA and Its Offshore Islands A Closer Look at the NEMMA Nearshore Antigua Reef Structures Map of Enumeration Districts in Antigua Map of Enumeration Districts in Antigua Map of Enumeration Districts in Antigua proximal to the proposed development area (Parcel ID 11-1992-56) This map shows the location of current and proposed renewable energy, solar PV sites within Antigua.
This map shows soil types in and around the parcel of interest This map shows the boundary of the North-East Marine Management Area and the offshore islands that fall within it.

This map gives a closer look at the North East Marine Management Area and the offshore islands it contains.

General reference map of reef structures proximal to Antigua.
Data extracted from 2016 dataset by The Nature Conservancy This map highlights the EDs in and around the locations selected for the Reconstruction and Rehabilitation Loan (RRL) Project.

This map highlights the EDs in and around the locations selected for the Reconstruction and Rehabilitation Loan (RRL) Project.

This map highlights the EDs in and around the location Darkwood Bridge, selected for the Reconstruction and Rehabilitation Loan (RRL) Project.
Visualization for 4NC mitigation chapter Visualization for the Ministry of Agriculture Visualization for EAG Visualization for EAG Visualization for Fisheries Visualization for the RRL Project Visualization for the RRL Project Visualization for the RRL Project 234 08-Feb- 2021 10-Feb- 2021 15-Feb- 2021 18-Feb- 2021 22-Feb- 2021 22-Feb- 2021 22-Feb- 2021 26-Feb- 2021 26-Feb- 2021 26-Feb- 2021 10-Feb- 2021 09-Feb- 2021 17-Feb- 2021 19-Feb- 2021 19-Feb- 2021 19-Feb- 2021 24-Feb- 2021 24-Feb- 2021 24-Feb- 2021 S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 Map Title Description Purpose This map highlights the EDs in and around the locations selected for the Reconstruction and Rehabilitation Loan (RRL) Project.
Visualization for the RRL Project This map highlights the EDs in and around the locations selected for the Reconstruction and Rehabilitation Loan (RRL) Project.

Visualization for the RRL Project This map highlights the EDs in and around the location Herberts Main Road, selected for the Reconstruction and Rehabilitation Loan (RRL) Project.
This map shows soil types in and around the parcel of interest Visualization for the RRL Project Visualization for the Ministry of Agriculture This map highlights the EDs in and around the locations, selected for the Reconstruction and Rehabilitation Loan (RRL) Project.

This map highlights the EDs in and around the location of Darkwood Bridge selected for the Reconstruction and Rehabilitation Loan (RRL) Project.
2-Mar- 2021 This map highlights the EDs in and around the locations, selected for the Reconstruction and Rehabilitation Loan (RRL) Project.

2-Mar- 2021 This map highlights the EDs in and around the locations, selected for the Reconstruction and Rehabilitation Loan (RRL) Project.
2-Mar- 2021 A map highlighting streets and the locations of some notable buildings in and around the Cashew Hill EDA project area Map highlighting the current Bus routes and Bus station in Antigua and Barbuda General Reference Map highlighting Select intervention sites for GCF Build Projects Street and Features map for EDA RE team creation of document towards Improvements of public transportation GCF Build Projects General Reference Map highlighting Select intervention sites for GCF Build Projects GCF Build Projects 2-Mar- 2021 2- Mar- 2021 12-Mar- 2021 15-Mar- 2021 12-Mar- 2021 15-Mar- 2021 Date Request Received 24-Feb- 2021 Date Request Fulfuilled 26-Feb- 2021 24-Feb- 2021 26-Feb- 2021 24-Feb- 2021 26-Feb- 2021 26-Feb- 2021 2-Mar- 2021 1-Mar- 2021 2-Mar- 2021 2-Mar- 2021 2-Mar- 2021 2-Mar- 2021 3-Mar- 2021 5- Mar- 2021 S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 Map of Proposed Enumeration Districts in Barbuda Map of Proposed Enumeration Districts in Barbuda Map of Enumeration Districts in Antigua Parcel 14-2190B-3 Soil Overlay Updated Map of Enumeration Districts in Antigua Updated Map of Enumeration Districts in Antigua Updated Map of Enumeration Districts in Antigua Updated Map of Enumeration Districts in Antigua Enhanced Direct Access (EDA) Project Site Bus System in Antigua and Barbuda GCF-Build Designs for Stormwater Drainage Systems GCF-Build Designs for Stormwater Drainage Systems 235 Map Title Description Purpose General Reference Map highlighting
 Codrington area where select GCF site Barbuda Fire Station is located.
GCF Build Projects N/A EIA General reference map showing environmental features proximal to parcels 55-1184A-305, 55-1184A-520, 55-1184A-533 General reference map showing features on the south side of Pelican Island Highlighting the area of interest for proposed development.

Visualization for EIA Visualization for EIA General reference map for proposed commercial development off Friar's Hill Road Highlighting proposed area for development showing land use and environmental features.
Map highlighting proposed development with surrounding physical and environmental features.

Seabed classified based on statistical inferred data based on drop camera and bathymetry investigations This map shows the Body Pond rehabilitation site, hydrological and historical features that fall within the Body Pond Watershed Map highlighting the area of interest for the development of a greenhouse.
EIA Visualization for the Forestry Division Map showing wetland and ecosystems in and around the proposed wetland restoration site General Reference Map showing the proposed area of interest for the development of a bed and breakfast facility.

General Reference Map Showing Cancer Deaths in Antigua for the Year 1995.

Site Visit Site Assessment General Reference Map Showing Cancer Deaths in Antigua for the Year 1996.

General Reference Map Showing Cancer Deaths in Antigua for the Year 1997.
GCF-Build Designs for Stormwater Drainage Systems New and Proposed Development Proximal to St. John's Harbour and Dredge Bay Valley Church Development G15-2020 Development Application B35-2021 Path to 2020: Proposed Botanical Garden Boundary Development Application G06-2021A Application A171-21 Escape to Barbuda Development Body Pond Rehabilitation Site APPLICATION A199-2021 BENDALS GREENHOUSE Development Application A199-2021 Palmetto Point Application Number A446- 2019 Cancer Deaths in Antigua and Barbuda Cancer Deaths in Antigua and Barbuda Cancer Deaths in Antigua and Barbuda 236 S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 Date Request Received 12-Mar- 2021 Date Request Fulfuilled 15-Mar- 2021 11-Mar- 2021 16-Mar- 2021 17-Mar- 2021 15-Mar- 2021 26-Mar- 2021 30-Mar- 2021 06-Apr- 2021 09-April- 2021 09-Apr- 2021 15-Apr- 2021 15-Apr- 2021 19-Apr- 2021 13-Apr- 2021 13-Apr- 2021 13-Apr- 2021 17-Mar- 2021 16-Mar- 2021 30-Mar- 2021 31-Mar- 2021 06-Apr- 2021 10-April- 2021 13-Apr- 2021 15-Apr- 2021 19-Apr- 2021 20-Apr- 2021 20-Apr- 2021 20-Apr- 2021 20-Apr- 2021 Map Title Description Purpose Cancer Deaths in Antigua and Barbuda Cancer Deaths in Antigua and Barbuda Cancer Deaths in Antigua and Barbuda Cancer Deaths in Antigua and Barbuda Cancer Deaths in Antigua and Barbuda Cancer Deaths in Antigua and Barbuda Cancer Deaths in Antigua and Barbuda Cancer Deaths in Antigua and Barbuda Cancer Deaths in Antigua and Barbuda Cancer Deaths in Antigua and Barbuda Cancer Deaths in
 Antigua and Barbuda General Reference Map Showing Cancer Deaths in Antigua for the Year 1998.
General Reference Map Showing Cancer Deaths in Antigua for the Year 1999.

General Reference Map Showing Cancer Deaths in Antigua for the Year 2000.

General Reference Map Showing Cancer Deaths in Antigua for the Year 2001.

General Reference Map Showing Cancer Deaths in Antigua for the Year 2002.

General Reference Map Showing Cancer Deaths in Antigua for the Year 2003.

General Reference Map Showing Cancer Deaths in Antigua for the Year 2004.
General Reference Map Showing Cancer Deaths in Antigua for the Year 2005 General Reference Map Showing Cancer Deaths in Antigua for the Year 2006 General Reference Map Showing Cancer Deaths in Antigua for the Year 2007.

General Reference Map Showing Cancer Deaths in Antigua for the Year 2008.

General Reference Map Showing Cancer Deaths in Antigua for the Year 2009.

General Reference Map Showing Cancer Deaths in Antigua for the Year 2010.
General Reference Map Showing Cancer Deaths in Antigua for the Year 2011.

General Reference Map Showing Cancer Deaths in Antigua for the Year 2012.

General Reference Map Showing Cancer Deaths in Antigua for the Year 2013.

General Reference Map Showing Cancer Deaths in Antigua for the Year 2014.
237 S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 Date Request Received 13-Apr- 2021 13-Apr- 2021 13-Apr- 2021 13-Apr- 2021 13-Apr- 2021 13-Apr- 2021 13-Apr- 2021 13-Apr- 2021 13-Apr- 2021 13-Apr- 2021 13-Apr- 2021 13-Apr- 2021 13-Apr- 2021 13-Apr- 2021 13-Apr- 2021 13-Apr- 2021 13-Apr- 2021 Date Request Fulfuilled 20-Apr- 2021 20-Apr- 2021 20-Apr- 2021 20-Apr- 2021 20-Apr- 2021 20-Apr- 2021 20-Apr- 2021 20-Apr- 2021 20-Apr- 2021 20-Apr- 2021 20-Apr- 2021 20-Apr- 2021 20-Apr- 2021 20-Apr- 2021 20-Apr- 2021 20-Apr- 2021 20-Apr- 2021 Map Title Description Purpose Path to 2020: Proposed Botanical Garden Boundary Cancer Deaths in Antigua and Barbuda Cancer Deaths in Antigua and Barbuda Cancer Deaths in Antigua and Barbuda Cancer Deaths in Antigua and Barbuda Cancer Deaths in Antigua and Barbuda Plan Application Number A215-2019 Application Number G10- 2021 Paradise Found Proposed Wind Panel development at Parham.
Application G11-2021 Highlighting the area of interest for proposed development.
General Reference Map Showing Cancer Deaths in Saint John From Period 1995-2015 General Reference Map Showing Cancer Deaths in Saint Peter From Period 1995-2015 General Reference Map Showing Cancer Deaths in Saint Phillip From Period 1995-2015 General Reference Map Showing Cancer Deaths in Saint Mary From Period 1995-2015 General Reference Map Showing Cancer Deaths in Saint Paul From Period 1995-2015 Map highlighting the area for development associated with the environmental and physical features.
Map highlighting the area of interest associated with the environmental and physical features.

5-May-2021 Proposed area for Sunset Beach Club Development associated with environmental features.
Date Request Received 16-Apr- 2021 16-Apr- 2021 16-Apr- 2021 16-Apr- 2021 16-Apr- 2021 16-Apr- 2021 25-Apr- 2021 25-Apr- 2021 Date Request Fulfuilled 20-Apr- 2021 20-Apr- 2021 20-Apr- 2021 20-Apr- 2021 20-Apr- 2021 20-Apr- 2021 26-Apr- 2021 26-Apr- 2021 5-May-2021 6-May- 2021 6-May- 2021 S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 238 10 APPENDICES 10.1 APPENDIX 1- LIST OF TREATIES RATIFIED BY ANTIGUA AND BARBUDA AS OF JANUARY 3, 2020 Chapter Number Full Title of the treaty Action type Convention on the Privileges and Immunities of the United Nations Succession Date and place of conclusion New York 13/02/1946 Date of deposit 10/25/1988 Registration Number I-4 Convention on the Privileges and Immunities of the Specialized Agencies Annex I - International Labour Organisation (ILO) - to the Convention on the Privileges and Immunities of the Specialized Agencies Annex XI - World Meteorological Organization (WMO) - to the Convention on the Privileges and Immunities of the Specialized Agencies Second revised text of Annex II - Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) - to the Convention on the Privileges and Immunities of the Specialized Agencies Annex III - International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) - to the Convention on the Privileges and Immunities of the Specialized Agencies Annex IV - United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) - to the Convention on the Privileges and Immunities of the Specialized Agencies
 Third revised text of Annex VII - World Health Organization (WHO) - to the Convention on the Privileges and Immunities of the Specialized Agencies Annex VIII - Universal Postal Union (UPU) - to the Convention on the Privileges and Immunities of the Specialized Agencies Annex IX - International Telecommunication Union (ITU) - to the Convention on the Privileges and Immunities of the Specialized Agencies Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations Succession New York 21/11/1947 12/14/1988 I-521 Application San
 Francisco 10/07/1948 12/14/1988 A-521 Application Paris 17/04/1951 12/14/1988 A-521 Application Rome 08/12/1965 12/14/1988 A-521 Application Geneva 21/06/1948 12/14/1988 A-521 Application Paris 07/02/1949 12/14/1988 A-521 Application Minneapolis 17/07/1958 12/14/1988 A-521 Application Geneva 25/05/1949 12/14/1988 A-521 Application Geneva 06/10/1950 12/14/1988 A-521 Accession Vienna 18/04/1961 2/17/2017 I-7310 III-1 III-2 III-2-1 III-2-11 III-2-2b III-2-3 III-2-4 III-2-7c III-2-8 III-2-9 III-3 239 S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 Chapter Number Full Title of the treaty Action type Date and place of conclusion Vienna Convention on Consular Relations Succession Vienna 24/04/1963 Date of deposit 10/25/1988 Registration Number I-8638 III-6 IV-1 IV-2 IV-3 IV-4 IV-7 IV-8 IV-8-b IV-9 IV-10 IV-10 IV-11 IV-11 IV-11-c IV-11-c IV-15 IV-15 IV-15-a V-2 V-3 V-5 Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights International Convention on the Suppression and Punishment of the Crime of Apartheid Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women Convention against Torture and Other Cruel,
 Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment International Convention against Apartheid in Sports Succession Paris 09/12/1948 10/25/1988 I-1021 Succession New York 07/03/1966 10/25/1988 I-9464 Accession Accession Accession New York 16/12/1966 7/3/2019 New York 16/12/1966 7/3/2019 I-14531 I-14668 New York 30/11/1973 10/7/1982 I-14861 Accession New York 18/12/1979 8/1/1989 I-20378 Accession New York 06/10/1999 6/5/2006 A-20378 Accession New York 10/12/1984 7/19/1993 I-24841 Ratification New York 10/12/1985
 9/9/1987 I-25822 International Convention against Apartheid in Sports Signature New York 10/12/1985 5/28/1986 I-25822 Convention on the Rights of the Child Convention on the Rights of the Child Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child on the sale of children, child prostitution and child pornography Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child on the sale of children, child prostitution and child pornography Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities Convention relating to the Status of Refugees Ratification New York 20/11/1989 10/5/1993 I-27531 Signature Signature New York 20/11/1989 3/12/1991 I-27531 New York 25/05/2000 12/18/2001 A-27531 Ratification New York 25/05/2000 4/30/2002 A-27531 Ratification New York 13/12/2006 1/7/2016 I-44910 Signature Signature New York 13/12/2006 3/30/2007 I-44910 New York 13/12/2006 3/30/2007 A-44910 Accession Geneva 28/07/1951 9/7/1995 I-2545 Convention relating to the Status of Stateless Persons Succession New York 28/09/1954 10/25/1988 I-5158 S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 Accession Accession New York 31/01/1967 9/7/1995 New York 30/03/1961 4/5/1993 I-8791 I-7515 Protocol relating to the Status of Refugees VI-15 Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs, 1961 240 Full Title of the treaty Action type Date
 and place of conclusion Convention on psychotropic substances Accession Vienna 21/02/1971 Date of deposit 4/5/1993 Protocol amending the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs, 1961 Accession Geneva 25/03/1972 4/5/1993 New York 08/08/1975 4/5/1993 Registration Number I-14956 I-14151 I-14152 Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs, 1961, as amended by the Protocol amending the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs, 1961 United Nations Convention against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances
 Constitution of the World Health Organization Participation in the Convention by virtue of ratification, accession or succession to the Protocol of 25 March 1972 or to the 1961 Convention after the entry into force of the Protocol Accession Vienna 20/12/1988 4/5/1993 I-27627 Acceptance New York 22/07/1946 3/12/1984 I-221 WHO Framework Convention on Tobacco Control Ratification Geneva 21/05/2003 6/5/2006 I-41032 WHO Framework Convention on Tobacco Control Agreement establishing the Caribbean Development Bank Signature Signature Geneva 21/05/2003 6/28/2004 I-41032 Kingston 18/10/1969 10/18/1969 I-10232 Agreement establishing the Caribbean Development Bank Ratification Kingston 18/10/1969 1/30/1970 I-10232 Agreement establishing the International Fund for Agricultural Development Constitution of the United Nations Industrial Development Organization Constitution of the United Nations Industrial Development Organization Customs Convention on Containers Accession Rome 13/06/1976 1/21/1986 I-16041 Ratification Vienna 08/04/1979 4/1/2019 I-23432 Signature Vienna 08/04/1979 9/8/1982 I-23432 Succession Geneva 18/05/1956 10/25/1988 I-4834 Convention on the International Maritime Organization Acceptance Geneva 06/03/1948 1/13/1986 I-4214 S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 Chapter Number VI-16 VI-17 VI-18 VI-19 IX-1 IX-4 IX-4 X-6 X-6 X-8 X-9 X-9 XI-A-9 XII-1 241 Chapter Number Full Title of the treaty Action type Date and
 place of conclusion Acceptance London 15/11/1979 Date of deposit 1/13/1986 Registration Number A-4214 Amendments to articles 17, 18, 20 and 51 of the Convention on the International Maritime Organization Amendments to the Convention on the International Maritime Organization (institutionalization of the Facilitation Committee) Amendments to the Convention on the International Maritime Organization Convention on the Political Rights of Women Acceptance London 07/11/1991 2/28/2002 A-4214 Acceptance London
 04/11/1993 10/10/2000 A-4214 Succession New York 31/03/1953 10/25/1988 I-2613 Convention on the Nationality of Married Women Succession New York 20/02/1957 10/25/1988 I-4468 Convention on Consent to Marriage, Minimum Age for Marriage and Registration of Marriages Protocol amending the Slavery Convention signed at Geneva on 25 September 1926 Slavery Convention, signed at Geneva on 25 September 1926 and amended by the Protocol Slavery Convention Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery, the Slave Trade, and Institutions and Practices Similar to Slavery International Convention Against the Taking of Hostages Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of Crimes against Internationally Protected Persons, including Diplomatic Agents International Convention for the Suppression of Terrorist Bombings Succession New York 10/12/1962 10/25/1988 I-7525 Succession New York 07/12/1953 10/25/1988 I-2422 Participation New York 07/12/1953 10/25/1988 I-2861 Succession Geneva 25/09/1926 10/25/1988 LoN-1414 Succession Geneva 07/09/1956 10/25/1988 I-3822 Accession Accession New York 17/12/1979 8/6/1986 I-21931 New York 14/12/1973 7/19/1993 I-15410 Accession New York 15/12/1997 9/24/2009 I-37517 Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court Ratification Rome 17/07/1998 6/18/2001 I-38544 Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court International Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime
 Signature Accession Rome 17/07/1998 10/23/1998 I-38544 New York 09/12/1999 3/11/2002 I-38349 Ratification New York 15/11/2000 7/24/2002 I-39574 United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime Signature New York 15/11/2000 9/26/2001 I-39574 Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and Children, supplementing the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime Ratification New York 15/11/2000 2/17/2010 A-39574 XII-1-f XII-1-g XII-1-h
 XVI-1 XVI-2 XVI-3 XVIII-1 XVIII-2 XVIII-3 XVIII-4 XVIII-5 XVIII-7 XVIII-9 XVIII-10 XVIII-10 XVIII-11 XVIII-12 XVIII-12 XVIII-12-a 242 S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 Chapter Number XVIII-12-b XVIII-12-c XVIII-14 XVIII-15 XIX-6 XIX-6 XXI-6 XXI-6 XXI-6-a XXI-9 XXII-1 XXIV-1 XXVI-1 XXVI-2 XXVI-2-a Full Title of the treaty Protocol against the Smuggling of Migrants by Land, Sea and Air, supplementing the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime Protocol against the Illicit Manufacturing of and Trafficking in Firearms, Their Parts and Components and Ammunition, supplementing the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime United Nations Convention against Corruption International Convention for the Suppression of Acts of Nuclear Terrorism International Sugar Agreement, 1968* International Sugar Agreement, 1968* United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea Agreement relating to the implementation of Part XI of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea of 10 December 1982 Protocol on the Privileges and Immunities of the International Seabed Authority Convention on the Recognition and Enforcement of Foreign Arbitral Awards Convention on registration of objects launched into outer space Convention on the prohibition of military or any other hostile use of environmental modification techniques Convention on Prohibitions or
 Restrictions on the Use of Certain Conventional Weapons which may be deemed to be Excessively Injurious or to have Indiscriminate Effects (with Protocols I, II and III) Additional Protocol to the Convention on Prohibitions or Restrictions on the Use of Certain Conventional Weapons which may be deemed to be Excessively Injurious or to have Action type Accession Date and place of conclusion New York 15/11/2000 Date of deposit 2/17/2010 Registration Number A-39574 Accession New York 31/05/2001 4/27/2010
 A-39574 Accession Accession Admission to membership Admission to membership Ratification Signature Accession New York 31/10/2003 6/21/2006 I-42146 New York 13/04/2005 12/1/2009 I-44004 New York 03/12/1968 3/7/1969 I-9369 New York 24/12/1968 3/7/1969 I-9369 Montego Bay 10/12/1982 Montego Bay 10/12/1982 New York 28/07/1994 2/2/1989 I-31363 2/7/1983 I-31363 5/3/2016 I-31364 Accession Kingston 27/03/1998 5/3/2016 I-39357 Accession New York 10/06/1958 2/2/1989 I-4739 Succession New York 12/11/1974 12/13/1988 I-15020 Succession New York 10/12/1976 10/25/1988 I-17119 Accession Geneva 10/10/1980 8/23/2010 I-22495 Consent to be bound Vienna 13/10/1995 8/23/2010 A-22495 S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 243 Chapter Number Full Title of the treaty Action type Date and place of conclusion Date of deposit Registration Number Indiscriminate Effects (Protocol IV, entitled Protocol on Blinding Laser Weapons) Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production, Stockpiling and Use of Chemical Weapons and on their Destruction Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty Accession Geneva 03/09/1992 8/29/2005 I-33757 Ratification New York 10/09/1996 1/11/2006 NIF-0 NIF-0 Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty Signature New York 10/09/1996 4/16/1997 Convention on the Prohibition of the Use, Stockpiling, Production and Transfer of Anti-Personnel Mines and on their Destruction Convention on the Prohibition of the Use, Stockpiling,
 Production and Transfer of Anti-Personnel Mines and on their Destruction Convention on Cluster Munitions Ratification Oslo 18/09/1997 5/3/1999 I-35597 Signature Oslo 18/09/1997 12/3/1997 I-35597 Signature Dublin 30/05/2008 7/16/2010 I-47713 Convention on Cluster Munitions Ratification Dublin 30/05/2008 8/23/2010 I-47713 Arms Trade Treaty Arms Trade Treaty Arms Trade Treaty Signature New York 02/04/2013 6/3/2013 I-52373 Provisional application under article 23 Ratification New York 02/04/2013 8/12/2013
 I-52373 New York 02/04/2013 8/12/2013 I-52373 Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons Ratification New York 07/07/2017 11/25/2019 Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer Amendment to the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer Amendment to the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer Amendment to the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer Amendment to the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer Signature Accession Accession Accession New York 07/07/2017 9/26/2018 Vienna 22/03/1985 12/3/1992 I-26164 Montreal 16/09/1987 12/3/1992 I-26369 London 29/06/1990 2/23/1993 A-26369 N/A N/A Accession London 29/06/1990 2/23/1993 A-26369 Accession London 29/06/1990 2/23/1993 A-26369 Accession Copenhagen 25/11/1992 7/19/1993 A-26369 S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 XXVI-3 XXVI-4 XXVI-4 XXVI-5 XXVI-5 XXVI-6 XXVI-6 XXVI-8 XXVI-8 XXVI-8 XXVI-9 XXVI-9 XXVII-2 XXVII-2-a XXVII-2-b XXVII-2-b XXVII-2-b XXVII-2-c 244 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change Signature New York 09/05/1992 6/4/1992 Chapter Number XXVII-2-d XXVII-2-e XXVII-3 XXVII-3-a XXVII-7 XXVII-7 XXVII-7-a XXVII-7-a XXVII-7-c XXVII-7-d XXVII-7-d XXVII-8 Full Title of the treaty Amendment to the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone
 Layer Amendment to the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal Amendment to the Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change Doha
 Amendment to the Kyoto Protocol Paris Agreement Paris Agreement Convention on Biological Diversity XXVII-8 Convention on Biological Diversity XXVII-8-a XXVII-8-a XXVII-8-b XXVII-8-b XXVII-8-c Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety to the Convention on Biological Diversity Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety to the Convention on Biological Diversity Nagoya Protocol on Access to Genetic Resources and the Fair and Equitable Sharing of Benefits Arising from their Utilization to the Convention on Biological Diversity Nagoya Protocol on Access to Genetic Resources and the Fair and Equitable Sharing of Benefits Arising from their Utilization to the Convention on Biological Diversity Nagoya - Kuala Lumpur Supplementary Protocol on Liability and Redress to the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety 245 Action type Ratification Date and place of conclusion Montreal 17/09/1997 Date of deposit 2/10/2000 Registration Number A-26369 Accession Beijing 03/12/1999 6/29/2010 A-26369 Accession Basel 22/03/1989 4/5/1993 I-28911 Ratification Geneva 22/09/1995 9/23/2016 NIF-0 Ratification New York 09/05/1992 2/2/1993 I-30822 I-30822 Ratification Kyoto 11/12/1997 11/3/1998 A-30822 Signature Kyoto 11/12/1997 3/16/1998 A-30822 Acceptance Doha 08/12/2012 9/23/2016 N/A Ratification Paris 12/12/2015 9/21/2016 I-54113 Signature Signature Ratification Ratification Paris 12/12/2015 4/22/2016 I-54113 Rio de Janeiro 05/06/1992 Rio de Janeiro 05/06/1992 Montreal 29/01/2000 6/5/1992 I-30619 3/9/1993 I-30619 9/10/2003
 A-30619 Signature Montreal 29/01/2000 5/24/2000 A-30619 Ratification Nagoya 29/10/2010 12/12/2016 A-30619 Signature Nagoya 29/10/2010 7/28/2011 A-30619 Signature Nagoya 15/10/2010 8/9/2011 A-30619 S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 Chapter Number XXVII-10 XXVII-10 XXVII-14 XXVII-15 XXVII-15 XXVII-17 XXVII-18 PARTII-6 PARTII-7 PARTII-16 PARTII-17 PARTII-18 PARTII-19 PARTII-20 Full Title of the treaty United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification in
 those Countries Experiencing Serious Drought and/or Desertification, Particularly in Africa United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification in those Countries Experiencing Serious Drought and/or Desertification, Particularly in Africa Rotterdam Convention on the Prior Informed Consent Procedure for Certain Hazardous Chemicals and Pesticides in International Trade Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants Minamata Convention on Mercury Regional Agreement on Access to Information, Public Participation and Justice in Environmental Matters in Latin America and the Caribbean Protocol on Arbitration Clauses Action type Signature Date and place of conclusion Paris 14/10/1994 Date of deposit 4/4/1995 Registration Number I-33480 Ratification Paris 14/10/1994 6/6/1997 I-33480 Accession Rotterdam 10/09/1998 8/23/2010 I-39973 Ratification Stockholm 22/05/2001 9/10/2003 I-40214 Signature Accession Signature Stockholm 22/05/2001 5/23/2001 I-40214 Kumamoto 10/10/2013 9/23/2016 I-54669 Escazú 04/03/2018 9/27/2018 N/A Succession Geneva 24/09/1923 10/25/1988 LoN-678 Convention on the Execution of Foreign Arbitral Awards Succession Geneva 26/09/1927 10/25/1988 LoN-2096 Convention and Statute on Freedom of Transit Succession Barcelona 20/04/1921 10/25/1988 LoN-171 Convention and Statute on the Regime of Navigable Waterways of International Concern Additional Protocol to the Convention on the Regime of Navigable
 Waterways of International Concern Declaration recognising the Right to a Flag of States having no Sea- coast Convention and Statute on the International Régime of Maritime Ports Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora.
Succession Barcelona 20/04/1921 10/25/1988 LoN-172 Succession Barcelona 20/04/1921 10/25/1988 LoN-173 Succession Barcelona 20/04/1921 10/25/1988 LoN-174 Succession Geneva 09/12/1923 2/27/1989 LoN-1379 Accession Washington D.C 7/1/1975 10/6/1997 S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 246 S T A T E O F T H E E N V R O N M E N T : I I A N T G U A A N D B A R B U D A | 2 0 2 1 11 REFERENCES 1 Inter-governmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC).

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